B.

Petry Lecture Notes 1998/99

N. Lukovac

Engineering of Dams
Engineering of Dams
Table of Contents:

1 GENERALITIES

1.1 ABOUT THESE LECTURE NOTES

1.2 INTRODUCTION
1.3 GENERAL CONCEPTS AND CLASSIFICATIONS
1.3.1 CONCEPT OF DAM
1.3.2 COMPONENTS OR MEMBERS OF THE FAMILY
1.3.3 DAMS FOR CONTAINMENT OF WATER (BASICALLY)
1.3.4 DIVERSITY
1.3.5 IMPORTANCE
1.3.6 REASONS FOR CONSTRUCTION OF DAMS
1.3.7 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF DAM CONSTRUCTION
1.3.8 CLASSIFICATIONS
1.3.9 DAM STATISTIC, RECENT EXAMPLES ILLUSTRATIONS
1.3.10 TRENDS

2 GENERAL OBJECTIVES AND REQUIREMENTS.

2.1 SATISFY PRE-ESTABLISHED PURPOSES AND FUNCTIONS

2.2 SAFETY
2.3 ECONOMY
2.4 FAVORABLE CONDITIONS FOR CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION
2.5 OTHER REQUIREMENTS

3 IMPORTANT FACTORS

3.1 PHYSICAL FACTORS – IN RIVER BASINS AND AT SITE

3.2 BIOLOGICAL FACTORS – IN RIVER BASIN, AT SITE
3.3 SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS – IN RIVER BASIN, AT SITE
3.4 TECHNICAL AND TECHNOLOGICAL FACTORS
3.5 LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK
3.6 POLITICAL FACTORS
4 ENGINEERING ACTIVITIES FOR THE PLANNING, DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION
AND OPERATION OF DAMS (PHASES, SCOPES, METHODOLOGY)

4.1 PARTIES DIRECTLY INVOLVED IN ENGINEERING ACTIVITIES

4.2 PHASES OF ENGINEERING ACTIVITIES. MAJOR COMPONENTS . RESULTS
4.2.1 PRIOR TO CONSTRUCTION
4.2.2 DURING CONSTRUCTION
4.2.3 AFTER CONSTRUCTION
4.3 IMPORTANT STEPS IN DAM ENGINEERING
4.3.1 SELECTION OF SITE AND TYPE OF DAM
4.3.2 SELECTION OF LAYOUT OF DAM AND ASSOCIATED STRUCTURES…

5 COLLECTION AND EVALUATION OF BASIC DATA

5.1 TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYS

5.2 GEOLOGY
5.2.1 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY
5.2.2 HYDROGEOLOGY
5.2.3 SEISMOLOGY
5.3 METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
5.4 HYDROLOGICAL ASPECTS AND RELATED HYDRAULIC ASPECTS
5.4.1 RIVER DISCHARGE SERIES (FLOW SERIES)
5.4.2 ROUTING OF HYDROGRAPHS.
5.4.3 FLOODS
5.4.4 FREEBOARD ALLOWANCE

6 RIVER DIVERSION DURING CONSTRUCTION

6.1 CONCEPT – HANDLING OF A RIVER DURING CONSTRUCTION OF A DAM

6.2 COMPONENTS OF A DIVERSION SCHEME
6.3 IMPORTANCE OF DIVERSION SCHEMES
6.4 BASIC PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS
6.5 SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF RIVER DIVERSION
6.5.1 COFFERDAM CONSTRUCTION IN FLOWING WATER
6.5.2 RIVER CLOSURE
6.5.4 OPTIMIZATION OF RIVER DIVERSION COMPONENTS
6.6 GENERAL METHODOLOGY FOR THE PLANNING OF DIVERSION SCHEMES AND DESIGN
OF THEIR COMPONENT WORKS

7 SPILLWAYS
7.1 CONCEPT – HYDRAULIC STRUCTURE DESIGNED TO RELEASE WATER IN EXCESS FROM A
RESERVOIR TO A RIVER STRETCH DOWNSTREAM OF A DAM
7.3 SPILLWAY TYPES
7.4 DATA FOR SPILLWAY DESIGN
7.5 DETAILED HYDROLOGIC DATA
7.6 DETAILED HYDRAULIC DATA – SUPPORT OF HYDRAULIC DESIGN
7.7 SELECTION CRITERIA AND PROCEDURE
7.8 DESIGN METHODOLOGY
7.9 HYDRAULIC PROBLEMS (SEE HYDRAULIC DESIGN CRITERIA)
7.10 CONTROL GATES

8 OUTLET WORKS

8.1 CONCEPT – HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES USED TO CONVEY WATER FROM A RESERVOIR TO A

POINT DOWNSTREAM OF A DAM.
8.2 CLASSIFICATION: COMPONENTS
8.3 INLET AND OUTLET CHANNELS
8.4 INTAKES
8.5 CONTROL STRUCTURE
8.6 CONVEYANCE STRUCTURE
8.7 TERMINAL STRUCTURES
8.8 HYDRAULIC PROBLEMS AND THEIR PREVENTION

9 LAYOUTS

9.1 CONCEPT – LAYOUT OF A DAM IS UNDERSTOOD TO BE:

9.2 IMPORTANCE
9.3 METHODOLOGY OF STUDIES
9.4 IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF LAYOUT STUDIES

10 CONCRETE DAMS

10.1 CONCEPT
10.2 MATERIALS USED
10.3 LOADS
10.4 LOAD CASES
10.5 STRUCTURAL SAFETY REQUIREMENTS
10.6 STABILITY AND STRESS ANALYSIS
10.7 CONCRETE PROPERTIES
10.8 FOUNDATION TREATMENT
10.9 CONSTRUCTION METHODS – CONSTRUCTIVE DETAILS

11. EMBANKMENT DAMS

11.1 CONCEPT . MATERIALS . CLASSIFICATION.

11.2 MAIN FAILURE MECHANISMS . SAFETY REQUIREMENTS
11.3 LOADS AND LOAD CASES (STABILITY)
11.4 STABILITY AND STRESS ANALYSIS
11.5 FOUNDATION TREATMENT
11.6 CONSTRUCTIVE DETAILS
11.7 CONSTRUCTION METHODS
11.8 MAIN PROBLEMS
1 Generalities

1.1 About These Lecture Notes

These lecture notes are written as brief guide to make it easier to follow the course on Engineering of
Dams. They should also serve as remainder for future reference concerning the lectures as well as
references listed for each subject covered. Appendixes provided in form of hand-outs, mainly selected
extracts from useful references, should serve to as extension of lecture notes and guidance for further
more detailed studies.

1.2 Introduction
It is not necessary to give long introduction regarding importance of dams throughout the history and
today. Especially not to people involved, in one way or another, in engineering of dams, as most of
those who are going to read this are. However, it does not hurt to remind ourselves (and others) over
and over again, about general significant aspects of the subject.

Dams, in different forms, were built by humankind since the earliest days of known history, in order
to solve problems that could not be solved otherwise. Earliest purposes of dams were water supply
and irrigation. There could not be a developed civilization without water management, and if one
looks back, one can see that all major settled civilizations were using water supply systems and
irrigation. At first, small diversion dams were used, and gradually even larger storage dams were
introduced. There are remains of dams older than 2000 years in China, Egypt (there are reliable
records about dam built on the Nile River before 4000 B.C., which was to provide water for ancient city
of Memphis), Iran, Yemen, ancient Mesopotamia, Rome and other places where ancient civilizations
used to be. Soon afterwards even power generation, though in its immediate (straight forward) form,
by means of water-mills followed. Planning, construction methods and materials used have advanced
in time, mainly over the last century, but basic idea remained the same, introducing certain new goals
such as power generation and its transformation to other kind (electricity) easier to distribute and use.
As it would be explained in further text, other purposes of dams are common nowadays; such as
transportation by water (ships and boats), recreation, fish growth, etc. For a while during mid
twentieth century (especially in Europe) many large dams were built exclusively for power
generation. However, in most cases in modern practice most of them are built to form multipurpose
reservoirs.

Along with benefits generally brought through dam construction certain negative effects are usually
unavoidable. Considerable environmental impacts, affecting flow regime, sediment transportation,
humidity, eco-cycle, seismicity, even migration of people and displacement of monuments as well as
other impacts, generally are considered as undesirable. Things may go worse in case of accidents
(which are fortunately comparatively rare and possible to avoid or minimize by means of proper
management, investigation, studies, design and construction), such as inadequate reservoir operation
(flood control), or even worse in case of landslides, and partial or total dam failures. Fear of possible

1
problems should not lead towards giving up, but should rather invoke desire to prepare oneself as
adequately as possible to cope with problems and contribute to minimize the negative effects while
maximizing the positive ones  in other words to try optimize the solution. Building of dams is no
longer mare construction of the structures and forming the reservoir of desired volume. It involves
sophisticated detailed analyses in various fields, even those that at first sight may look unrelated,
many of which used to be ignored for decades, until recently their importance was realized and
widely accepted so that their studies became part of standard procedure in engineering of dams.

Need for dams and reservoirs in order to solve water management problems is still present, and it will
not be exhausted in foreseeable future  if ever. Mistakes from the past, leading to environmental
disturbances and even disasters, should be avoided in the future. There are obvious examples of how
the engineering of the dams should be carried out, and those of how it should not be done. Whoever
has chosen to be involved in this field, should keep in mind both. Once the general decisions upon
location, magnitude and type of dam is determined, with respect to aim and said environmental
impacts, still detailed and extensive studies are required in order to determine proper lay-out, shapes
of dam as well as auxiliary structures, consider their stability and safety, construction method(s) and
schedule and even aesthetic appearance. When “everything is solved” still endless row of detailed
construction drawings is to follow, not to mention construction itself and its supervision. From very
beginning to the end engineering of dams is multidisciplinary set of activities to be carried out by
various numerous teams of expert groups under careful coordination. Anything less than that would
necessarily lead to failure with unforeseeable consequences.

These lecture notes will provide some references that may help in proper planning, investigation,
design and construction, in other words engineering of dams. It is not intended to provide a “recipe
cook book” but rather basic considerations of major aspects, giving the clue where and how to search
for answers to questions that may arise in practice – the key to open numerous doors of the rooms in
which some of the answers are stored. Even then all the answers will not be found. To try to find
some of them, at least in special non-standard cases, further research may be required.

1.3 General Concepts and Classifications

Dams are built in vast variety of circumstances, for different purposes and by different materials and
construction methods. Their differences in size, type, purpose, material, shape and appearance
generally can be subject to different classifications. Some of them, as well as main concepts and
reasons, are listed further in this chapter.

1.3.1 CONCEPT OF DAM

 Retaining structure or construction (water, debris, lava flows, sediments,...)

 Various materials, dimensions, functions

2
1.3.2 COMPONENTS OR MEMBERS OF THE FAMILY

 Dams, Dikes, Check dams, etc.

1.3.3 DAMS FOR CONTAINMENT OF WATER (BASICALLY)

 Storage dams (SD) – provide storage of water – Reservoir

 Diversion dams (DD) – basically no storage, diversion of water

 Similarities and differences: common principles

 Concentration on storage dams.

1.3.4 DIVERSITY

 Specific purposes may be quite different

 Materials used; construction techniques

 Local conditions

 Boundary conditions

 Conceptual design -- tailor made

 Principles are common, pre-established solutions are not adequate.

1.3.5 IMPORTANCE

 SD in the context of River Basins

 Hydrology and time variation of river discharges; seasonal variations.

 Need for storage of water – Reservoirs as core of WRD.

1.3.6 REASONS FOR CONSTRUCTION OF DAMS

 SD – provision of water storage – regulation


provision of flood control – regulation

provision of usable head control of physical processes (sediment transport for instance)

 DD – provision of diversion capability

3
 
control of sediment transport

1.3.7 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF DAM CONSTRUCTION

 Antiquity – several examples, for example, MARIB (Yemen), Romans, Egyptians, Mesopotamia, etc.

 Middle age – ex. Ottoman empire – water supply of Istanbul (XVI century), Almanza Dam in Spain
from the same period is still in use.

 Modern times – enormous multiplication, increase in size and importance, more uses of water, also
due to hydroelectric generation.

 Development of knowledge and Engineering experience, new technologies, new materials

 On going research development in:


materials

construction techniques

innovative solutions

coping with local conditions

environmental issues of reservoirs

1.3.8 CLASSIFICATIONS

 According to their purpose (mainly the reservoirs):


single purpose – hydropower, irrigation, flood control, etc.

multipurpose – more than one purpose

 According to height (and/or overall size) of dam:


small

large

Often distinction also takes into account volume of dam and volume of reservoir

 According to its life time:


permanent – final structure

4
 
temporary – e.g. cofferdam for construction purpose

 According to materials used and structural system:


concrete dams:

 gravity – conventional, roller compacted

 buttress

 arch gravity – conventional, roller compacted

 arch

 multiple arch dam


granular materials:

 earth compacted

 hydraulic fill

 earth – rockfill

 concrete or asphalt faced rockfill dams

{by method of water tightness filled dams can be:

 homogeneous  uniform (the whole dam body – earthfill)

 zoned (central or upstream core with appropriate transition/filter zones, vertical or

inclined)

 upstream faced (vinyl – plastic folium/lamella/membrane, asphalt, asphalt-concrete,

reinforced concrete)}


other materials:

 masonry, wood (small scale, historical)

 metal sheet, rubber (special purposes, usually in combination with concrete)

1.3.9 DAM STATISTIC, RECENT EXAMPLES ILLUSTRATIONS

 Statistics of "Water Power & Dam Construction"

 Slides (see appendices)

5
1.3.10 TRENDS

 Needs for use and storage of water – generalized

 Possibilities and opportunities – in many developing countries

 Difficult tasks

 Limitation of size of reservoirs



SOME IMPORTANT REFERENCES ON STORAGE DAMS

1. The Engineering of Large Dams – Thomas

2. Design of Small Dams – United States Bureau of Reclamation

3. Water Power Manual – U.S. Corps of Engineers

4. Advanced Dam Engineering – Jansen

5. Hydraulic Design Criteria – U.S. Corps of Engineers

6. Proceedings of International Conferences – ICOLD

7. International Water Power and Dam Construction

8. Engineering News Records

9. Hydropower and Dams (International Journal on…)

In addition to that there is:

 A large variety of technical periodicals in a variety of languages with papers on storage dams
(English, German, Russian, Spanish, Portuguese, Japanese, etc.)

 A large variety of other texts (books, periodicals) on subjects related to dams.

NOTE: Lists of good references can also be found in the appendices of several publications cited
above.

6
2 General Objectives and Requirements.
Planning, design, construction and operation of dams should meet major objectives and requirements
such as fulfillment of pre-defined purpose(s), having near-optimal functionality, while maintaining
acceptable safety requirements and being economically justifiable. All that should be met with respect
to environmental, legal, social and other relevant requirements that may vary in different cases.

2.1 Satisfy pre-established purposes and functions

 The dam as a component part of a general plan for the use of water resources in a River Basin 
MASTERPLAN defining purposes, functions, general requirements


purposes: Dam/Reservoir for irrigation, hydropower, water supply, flood control, etc.

functions: provide adequate (pre-established) storage volumes, head, regulation capability.

2.2 Safety
 Relative concept associated with acceptable risks

 Concept of FAILURE (reversible, irreversible)


total and partial destruction of dams

attaining a state of excessive risk

loss of operation capability, loss of function

 Safety as a measure of security with respect to a state of failure

 There is no absolute safety

 Safety during construction and during operation


Construction: during construction of the dam and associated works, before final filling
(impoundment) of reservoir.

Operation: during economic or physical life-time of dam.

The concept of safety includes:


Safety of the dam itself (dam body)

Safety of the dam foundations (riverbed, flood plains, abutments, etc.)

Safety of associated structures such as spillways, intakes, outlets, etc.

7
 
Safety of reservoir area (landslides, sedimentation, etc.)

Safety of the downstream valley as associated with the dam

 Failure mechanisms (potential risks) in reservoir area


Landslides, instability of lateral slopes which may (or not) endanger the dam itself

Excessive sedimentation with loss of live (useful) storage, obstruction of intakes, etc.

Excessive leakage from reservoir which may endanger (or not) the dam itself

Seismicity (earthquakes) in reservoir area – natural or induced.

 Failure mechanisms (potential risks) in areas downstream of dams


Flooding due to dam operation or accidents

 Failure mechanisms (potential risks) in a structures associated with dams


Cavitation, erosion, abrasion of water passages

Vibration and malfunction of gates

 Failure mechanisms (potential risks) in dam body and foundations.


Hydrological, hydraulic – such as overtopping of dam by water, piping (regressive erosion),
excessive uplift, etc.

Geomechanical – sliding of dam slopes, settlements, sliding of abutments, liquefaction of
foundations, cracking of dam body, loss of filter zones (colmatation), etc.

Structural, technological – cracking of concrete structures, expansions, concentration of
stresses, corrosion of reinforcements bars (re-bars), creeping, etc.

 In actual events – often the combination of several failure mechanisms. Statistics of failures.

 Safety regulations and criteria – in most countries dam safety is object of specific regulations and
guidelines at least for the most significant potential failure mechanisms. Based on previous
experience, evaluation of potential damages, evaluation of acceptable risks, etc.

It is understood that such regulations and criteria (in most cases also associated with legal aspects –
liabilities) have to be complemented by additional specific criteria well adapted to each case considered.

 Examples for safety criteria.

8
 
Overtopping of temporary dams (cofferdams) which may be destroyed by overtopping. Required
safety is to provide discharge capacity of diversion works for a flood with period of return of 10,
20, 50, 100 years or even higher depending on importance and duration of construction period,
etc.

Overtopping of permanent dams that may be destroyed by overtopping. Provision of discharge
capacities of spillway (or other outlets) for periods of return of 100, 1000, or up to PMF
(probable max. flood) depending on importance, assessment of potential damages, etc.

Earthquake effects and seismic risks. Adoption of a design earthquake (sometimes also an
ultimate check earthquake) for design and verification of dam structures. Natural seisms or
reservoir induced seisms values depend on regional seismicity (classification of areas according
to seismic risks exists in many countries)

Stability of slopes of embankments (earthfill, rockfill), stability of concrete structures (silting,
sliding, over-turning, floating).

Numerical criteria resulting from experience

2.3 Economy
 Design and construction to achieve an economic solution, having efficient use of required resources
such as construction materials, construction equipment, labor, supporting infrastructure.

 Methodology is through comparison of possible alternatives.

 Concept – large potential of economic results

 Details – small potential of economic results

 Importance of good, reliable cost estimates and economic evaluations at planning and design level.

2.4 Favorable Conditions For Construction And Operation

 Design and construction should achieve favorable conditions for the safe and efficient operation and
control of the dam and associated structures.

 Design should permit implementation (construction) in a practicable and reliable manner. Advantages
of simplicity of construction whenever possible. Importance of efficient construction schedules.

2.5 Other Requirements

 Design and construction to satisfy requirements related to environmental impacts.

 Other aspects such as legal, social, institutional.

9
3 Important Factors
In order to achieve general objectives and requirements design and construction of dams have to take into
account a large variety of important factors. They are:

3.1 Physical factors – in river basins and at site

 Climatic conditions: temperatures, precipitation, winds, insolation (solar radiation), evaporation
potential, air moisture, etc.

 Hydrological conditions: distribution of rainfall, run-off, streamflows and their variation, floods,
sediments

 Topography, geomorphology, landscape: riverbed, valley, abutments

 Geology, Hydro-geology, Geotechnics: geological formations, geological features, natural

construction materials and their properties, foundation capabilities, water tightness – permeability,
etc.

 Hydraulic conditions: river stages, regimes, sediment transport, river morphology.

3.2 Biological factors – in river basin, at site

 Flora; vegetation – aquatic and terrestrial

 Fauna; aquatic, terrestrial

 Ecosystems

 Water quality

3.3 Socio-economic factors – in river basin, at site

 Populations, demographic distribution, resettlements

 Economic activities, natural resources and potentials, infrastructure, relocation, costs

3.4 Technical and technological factors

 Availability of experience, construction materials, machinery, specific infrastructure, labor.

3.5 Legal and institutional framework

 Legal requirements, liabilities, legal practices

10
 Land ownership, institutional framework, other regional plans and projects

3.6 Political factors

 Political goals, mechanisms, representations, interest of society involved

11
4 Engineering Activities For The Planning, Design, Construction
And Operation of Dams (Phases, Scopes, Methodology)
In execution of each dam project various parties are involved, such as owner, consultant, contractor(s) of
different investigation and construction activities, equipment manufacturers, laboratories… Dam
engineering is multidisciplinary activity and in large dam projects – on consultant side alone – at least
dozen different specialized groups of expert teams are involved, under coordination of competent project
manager. With regard to great importance of such kind of projects, usually both the government and local
authorities are interested and even involved in various stages of planning and control. There are even more
“passive” parties – whose voice must be heard, respected and be taken into account – that are affected by,
or in other way interested in, the outcome of the project. Those include different organizations (like those
taking care of environmental impacts, ecological considerations, flora & fauna, historical monuments
etc…), public and private companies (that are exploiting water and other resources in the area to various
extents), and inhabitants (people that would be affected in one way or another). Some of those might benefit
from the project, the others may suffer damages that must be carefully analyzed and – if they are not
disqualifying for the project – taken into account in economic analysis and evaluation.

Prior to construction, each dam project has to pass multiple planning and consulting/design phases (or
stages). Further phases have to be carried out during construction and also after that  during operation.
Each of those phases may require many steps in order to be fulfilled.

Major parties involved, phases and steps in dam engineering are listed below.

4.1 Parties Directly Involved In Engineering Activities

 Owner (O) – Public or private organization(s), responsible for:


Provision of financial resources, other resources

Establishment of general objectives

General supervision of activities, administration

In most cases, operation of the dam

 Consulting engineer (E) – Public or private organization(s), responsible for:


Planning and design

Construction supervision

Inspection of manufactures

Other technical advisory tasks

12
 Contractor for civil works (C) – Public or private organization(s), responsible for:


Construction of required infrastructure

Construction of civil works

In most cases assembly of equipment, transportation

 Manufacturer (M) – Public or private organization(s) responsible for:


Manufacture of equipment

Supervision of assembly

 Laboratory's investigations (L) – Public or private organization(s), responsible for:


Carrying out laboratory tests (Hydraulics, Water quality, Structures, Concrete technology, etc.)

Surveys, geological investigations, soils, etc.

4.2 Phases Of Engineering Activities. Major Components. Results

Note: Previous studies, of basin-wide nature, have resulted in the establishment of a MASTERPLAN for the
use of water resources in the basin (see WRD in river basins).

In the sequence activities are focused on a particular dam that is part of the proposed development.

4.2.1 Prior To Construction

 Preliminary studies (Inventory studies)


Collection and evaluation of existing data

Field trips – reconnaissance of dam site and reservoir area; downstream area

Campaign for obtaining complimentary data using fast procedures (quick surveys, geological surface
mapping, preliminary classification of rock and soil formations, fast measurements of river stages and
discharges in the area of interest, etc.)

Preliminary dam design including selection of type, main dimensions, approximate site, costs, etc.

 Conceptual design on base of a comparison of alternatives

 Results of preliminary studies are incorporated in the MASTERPLAN

 Feasibility studies


Detailed investigations of site conditions

13
 
Final selection of site

Detailed surveys

Final selection of dam type, main dimensions, layout

Cost and benefit evaluations

Demonstration of feasibility – FEASIBILITY REPORT

 Basic design


Completion of detailed site investigations

Essential Laboratory testing (Hydraulics, soils, concrete, etc.)

Detail of design, cost estimates, construction schedule.

Development of:

 Basic report

 Tender documents for construction of civil works (drawings, specifications, general and special
contract conditions)

 Tender documents for equipment manufacture, transportation, assembly

4.2.2 During Construction

 Detailed (construction or execution) design


Step-wise detail of dam design ahead of construction

Site investigations oriented towards construction

Optimization of components

 Construction activities


Preliminary installation of contractor at site

Construction of required infrastructure (road, camp, plant, water and energy supply, etc.)

River diversion

Construction of dam and associated structures

 Equipment manufacture, transportation, assembly

14
 Construction and assembly supervision

 As built design


Register of as-constructed details

Preparation of consisted register

 Commissioning and operation manuals


Preparation of manuals for testing, monitoring and operation of equipment. Maintenance

Preparation of manuals for monitoring and safety of civil works. Maintenance.

4.2.3 After Construction

 Monitoring, surveillance, operation


Reading of instruments, evaluation of results

Planning of operation

Execution of operation activities

4.3 Important Steps In Dam Engineering

Major steps with strong influence on dam safety and costs:

4.3.1 Selection Of Site And Type Of Dam

Careful choice, based on comparison of alternatives. Takes into account the following main factors;

Topography – geometry of riverbed and abutments for an adequate emplacement of the dam and
associated structures, including required river diversion works – resulting costs.

In general terms for V shaped valleys – concrete dams; for wide U shaped valleys with mild lateral
slopes – earth or rockfill dams (or RCC – Roller Compacted Concrete).

Geological features at site – Type of rock, overburden, fractures, bedding have a strong influence on
the need for foundation treatment and costs. As a rule, concrete dams require a foundation on relatively
sound rock. Earth and rockfill dams may be founded on decomposed rock and sediments or soils (with
limitations).

Availability of construction materials at or near the site. Another cost intensive feature is the distance
for transporting sand, earth, rock or other construction materials.

15
 
Infrastructure for construction. Availability of access roads to the site, nearby urban areas, energy
supply, etc.

Environmental considerations – site dependent impacts due to dam and reservoir. This includes also the
need for resettlements and relocation of population and infrastructure as well as other physical and
biological impacts.

Other factors such as geopolitical, social.

4.3.2 Selection Of Layout Of Dam And Associated Structures…

…has also a great influence on safety, costs and facility of construction.

The relative disposition of structures has also to take into account the local conditions such as topography,
geology, construction materials, available infrastructure as well as the different phases and sequences of
construction.

16
5 Collection and Evaluation of Basic Data
In order to carry out reliable dam engineering activities there are major aspects that could be regarded as
basic “INPUT” data that must be carefully studied. Topography and geomorphology, geology and
hydrogeology, meteorology and climate, hydrology and hydraulics are among those. “Raw” data must be
collected, analyzed or investigated, tested and processed in other ways to obtain suitable and reliable data
for further activities. Extent of data collection and processing usually depends upon current stage of the
project.

5.1 Topographic Surveys

No engineering work can be done without topographic maps. Most of the countries in the world have
ready-made maps for all or most of the area up to certain scale (usually  1:25000 and, for areas of higher
interest, even better maps). Those, if existent, can be used for preliminary studies. However, more
detailed maps are required for each particular project, and those are to be done on purpose, covering the
areas determined by a project team. They are required to present the landscape as accurately as needed
(and possible), so that future structures could be projected in “real world” terrain configuration.

 Aims to determine and present:


Configuration of the dam site

Configuration of reservoir area

Accessibility to dam site

Accessibility to construction material sources and deposits

 Reasons


Importance in dam type selection

Importance in the selection of appurtenant structures

 Methods


Aerial surveying (used both for preparation of maps and for different analysis of the area such as:
geological, geo-morphological, topographical, etc.)

Ground surveying (scale maps, ground profiles – sections…)

 Results as major input data in dam engineering

Different scale maps are used in the course of different phases in dam engineering. They depend upon the
phase (of planning, design or construction), and sometimes upon the importance of the structure. In some

17
cases there may be limitations in time or in site accessibility (related to technological availability of
sophisticated – laser beam based – surveying instruments in “inaccessible” gorges). Generally, the
following are the minimum requirements for scale maps:

 Masterplan 1:100000, 1:50000, 1:25000, 1:20000, 1:10000 (for presentation purposes even
1:250000 or more can be used)

 Pre-feasibility 1:10000, 1:5000, 1:2500, 1:2000, 1:1000

 Feasibility 1:2500, 1:2000, 1:1000, 1:500

 Final (detailed design)1:500, 1:250, 1:200, 1:100, 1:50

5.2 Geology
Apart from terrain shape, its geological and geomechanical characteristics should be known and described
in order to determine appropriate foundations and to study available natural construction materials. In
addition, relation of water and geological formations must be studied as well as possible seismo-tectonic
activities.

 General – regional geological conditions (both plan view – maps, and elevation – profiles to be presented)


Geological formations, surface and bedrock

Geological age

Stratigraphy

Tectonic formations and interactions

Regional faults

5.2.1 Engineering Geology

 Local conditions


Same as above but more into detail +

Foundation considerations

 Rock foundations

 Types of rock: Igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks, metamorphic rocks

 Rock classification, unit names and identification, characteristics (strengths,

massive or layered, bedding, dipping, water-tightness, weathering…)

18
  Mineral Identification: Hardness: from 1 – talc or mica, to 10 – diamond, cleavage
(smoothness of the broken plains), fracture, luster – light reflection, colour, streak –
mineral powder color

 Common rock-forming minerals: Quartz, Feldspars, Micas, Amphiboles,

Pyrozenes, Olivine, Calcite and dolomite, Clay minerals, Limonite and hematite

 Soil foundations

 Soil classification (size, gradation, angularity, shape…); Moisture; Properties

(shear strength, permeability…)

 Gravel or sand foundations

 Silt or fine sand foundations

 Clay foundations

 Non-uniform foundations (combination of those above, gypsum, organic materials…)


Construction materials

 Availability

 Sources of information (Topographic maps, geologic maps, agricultural soil

maps, remote sensing, terrain reconnaissance)

 Soil classification (size, gradation, angularity, shape…); Moisture; Properties

(sheer strength, permeability…)

 Quantities

 Quality (types – gradation and mineral content, properties and characteristics – shear
strength, permeability, workability, compressibility, penetration resistance). Suitability
for:

 Embankment

 Riprap and rockfill

 Concrete aggregate


Exploration and Investigation methods (both for foundation and construction materials)

 Surface explorations

 Fluvial-lacustrine soils (outwash, flood plain and lacustrine deposits)

 Glacial deposits (glacial till and outwash)
 Aeolian deposits
 Residual soils

19
 Geophysical (surface) explorations

 Seismic refraction
 Seismic reflection
 Shear-wave surveys
 Surface waves
 Vibration surveys
 Electrical resistivity profiling
 Electrical resistivity soundings
 Electrical resistivity dipole-dipole surveying
 Electromagnetic-conductivity profiling surveys
 Electromagnetic-conductivity sounding surveys
 Ground probing radar
 Self-potential surveying

 Subsurface explorations

 Accessible methods: Test pits, Large diameter borings, Trenches, Tunnels,

Galleries, Adits
 Inaccessible methods: Cone-penetrometer methods, Standard penetration, Auger
drilling, Percussion soundings, Rotary drilling, Core drilling
 Sampling methods

 Disturbed samples: Accessible test pits, trenches and large-diameter borings;

Stockpiles and windrows; Hand auger borings; Aggregate sources; Riprap sources;
Power auger drills; Reverse circulation drills
 Undisturbed samples: Hand-cut samples; Mechanical sampling (soft to hard soils
and shales); Rock coring methods
 Logging Explorations

 Identification of bore-holes

 Log forms: Drilling; Type and size; Core recovery; RQD; Percolation; Lithologic
information; Samples for testing; Classification and physical condition; Description
of rock forms

 Field and Laboratory Tests

 Field permeability tests (open end and packer tests)

 Probe grouting

 In-place unit weight test

 Vane shear test

 Cross-hole seismic method

20
  Flat-jack and plate tests

 Dilatometer

 Laboratory tests on soils (gradation, moisture, spec. gravity, compaction,

density), aggregate (Spec. gravity, absorption, abrasion, soundness) and rock
(mono-axial, tri-axial compression tests, shear resistance, etc.)

5.2.2 Hydrogeology
Special branch of geology that deals with interaction of water and rock/soil.

Determines:

 Ground water levels (piezometric stages for different seasons)

 Ground water - surface water relationships (different seasons)

 Permeability (porosity, fissures, cracks, joints, faults, caves) and groutability

 Ground water seepage paths and connections

 Mechanical and chemical actions of water on geological formation

 Springs, sink-holes, underground reservoirs

 Inter-relation of different hydrogeological formations (barriers, conductors, anticlines, synclines…)

Explorations:

 Water permeability tests WPT (Lugeon, and others)

 Piezometric measurements

 Marking and tracing ground water seepage paths (coloring – chemical Na-fluorescein, geo-seismic
methods…)

 Exploratory borings to determine 3-D arrangement of hydrogeological formations

5.2.3 Seismology
In areas with higher seismological risk, special design and construction techniques must be applied in
order to meet required safety. First of all, possible earthquake effect on dam stability should be determined
(predicted). For preliminary studies regional data, if any, can be used. However, for feasibility study and
onwards much more detailed seismic studies must be carried out to provide reliable data for design.

 Seismic risk maps (determination of seismic-risk zone)

21
 Impact of earthquakes on dam safety

 Earthquake sources

 Types of seismic waves

 Studies


Structural geological map of tectonic movements

Compilation of active faults

Electrical resistivity perpendicular to the faults, with regard to water table influence

Landslides, settlements…

Ground water barriers’ effect on soil response to earthquake shaking

Earthquake history (locations, magnitudes, recurrence curves…), and review of former damages

Determination of max. earthquake intensities (modified Mercalli scale)

Definition of the design earthquake (Richter magnitude, specific faults and displacements,
raptures…)

Soil properties (sand layers – liquefaction)

Soil density, water content, shear strength, cyclic loading behavior…

Attenuation values and wave speeds in overburden layers

 Duration of shaking

 Amplitude

 Time-history

 Ground accelerations, structure response, damping factors (0-20% – 5%)

 Variability of parameters

 Reservoir induced seismicity

 Estimation of time histories and spectra for engineering studies

 Seiches  random oscillations of the water of a lake, caused by (wind or) earthquake

 Seismological instrumentation for dams

22
5.3 Meteorology and Climatology
 General type of climate in the area

 Temperatures

 Precipitation


Rainfall

Snow

 Humidity

 Solar radiation

 Wind distribution and magnitude

Meteorology and climate have to be studied for two main reasons:

 One is backing up of the hydrological data analysis. Studying precipitation distributions, snow pack and
melting, temperature distributions, humidity and moisture content (of air and soil) can help a great
deal in determining flow regimes, supporting necessary considerations to obtain reliable hydrological
data. In some cases it may be useful to “fill in the blanks”, i.e., restoring missing data in conjunction
with run-off characteristics of the catchment area. In other cases it is essential for determination of
PMF through determination and application of PMP.

 Other is to help in making decisions upon construction schedules and methods by analysis of temperature
distributions, air-humidity, precipitations, winds, solar radiation, etc. With those data carefully studied
scheduling of special phases can be determined, e.g., storing aggregates for pre-cooling purpose for
concrete placement, placing materials during periods without (or not intensive) precipitations or
during appropriate (acceptable) air temperatures.

 Methods of measurements and analysis


Meteorological gauging stations

Triangular interpolation

Statistical correlation

Other methods of prediction in remote sites

23
5.4 Hydrological Aspects And Related Hydraulic Aspects
Water is “raw material” in dam engineering and hydrology is a science that deals with its quantities (and
qualities in some cases), distribution and other aspects usually referred to as regime. In this chapter, major
hydrological and related hydraulic aspects are listed.

5.4.1 River Discharge Series (Flow Series)

 Concept – Variation of discharges in time at a given section (or location) on a river

 Importance – Determination of availability of water


Study of discharge regulation by use of reservoir

Determination of production capabilities for different purposes (hydropower, irrigation, supply, etc.)

 Time period – Good evaluations require good records (consistent, continuous, accurate, preferably 50
years or more)

 Relevant values – Yearly averages


Monthly averages

Seasonal averages

Averages during shorter periods

Long term averages

Flood hydrographs

Hydrographs during dry periods

Deviations, statistical distributions

 Basic data – Streamflow records at various locations along the river (preferably at section of interest).
Area correlations


Record of precipitations (snowmelt) at different locations of basin.

 Completing discharge series


Rainfall-runoff models; transformation of precipitation in run-off + routing (SSAR, HEC)

Snowmelt – runoff models; transformation of (Snow + ice) in run-off + routing (DAD, etc.)

Basin transposition techniques; correlations between adjacent basins.

24
 
Regression models; statistical correlation

Stochastic models, stochastic hydrology

5.4.2 Routing Of Hydrographs.

 Basic equations

Cross section Profile


Energy equation

y   v 2  1 v
S f = S0 - -  -
x x  2g  g t


Continuity equation

v y y
A + vB +B =q
x x t

 Methods


Full hydraulic method – complete equations

Diffusion method

y
S f = S0 -
x

Kinematic Wave

Sf = So

Storage routing

25
 S(t)

I(t)

O(t)

I - inflow O - outflow S - storage

O = f1(S) or S = f2(O)

Muskingum

O (t1) = O1I (t1) = I1

O (t2) = O2I (t2) = I2

O2 = O1 + C1 ( I 1 - O1 )+ C 2 ( I 2 - I 1 )

2( t 2 - t 1 )
C1 =
2K( 1 - X)+ ( t 2 - t 1 )

2( t 2 - t 1 )  2 KX
C2 =
2K( 1 - X) + ( t 2 - t 1 )

K - travel time parameter

X - storage in reach parameter


Averaging and lagging – empirical

5.4.3 Floods

 Determination of spillway capacity and river diversion capacity

 Risks

Let: TR - period of return of flood considered (years)

N - lifetime of structure (years)

dam – N = 50, 100, or larger

26
 diversion – N = 1, 2, 3, years

R - risk = probability of exceeding a flood having a return period T R

R = 1 - (1 - 1/ TR)N

TR 10 20 50 100 1000 10000

N
1 10.0 5.0 2.0
2 19.0 9.7 4.0 Not usual
5 >> 22.7 9.6
10 >> >> 18.3 9.6 1.0 0.1
50 >> 4.9 0.5
100 Not usual >> 9.5 1.0
200 >> 18.1 2.0
(R in % )

 Safety standards for dams

1 - Design dams and spillways large enough to ensure that the dam will not be overtopped by floods up to
probable maximum categories

2 - Design the dam and associated structures so that they can be overtopped without destruction or if possible
without serious damage.

3 - Design the dam and associated structures so to ensure a slow breaching to protect downstream reaches;
design in such a way that repairs may be carried out most economically.

4 - Keep the dam low enough and impoundment small enough to avoid serious hazards downstream

 Determination of design floods


Envelope curves for river basins – Myers, Creager, Crippen Qmax = CAn

Observation of floods – flood hydrographs

Statistical distribution – Gummbel, Log. Pearson, other distributions

Empirical methods based on runoff, precipitations, basin characteristics.

Unit hydrographs techniques

Storm patterns, PMP/PMF techniques.

 Important factors to be taken into account


Antecedent conditions – moisture of ground, previous precipitations, base flow

Sources of runoff; rainfall, snowmelt

27
 
Intensity, duration, geographic distribution of rainfall

Storm patterns, hydro-meteorological condition

Routing through channel system.

 Usual design procedure – application of several methods. More and more widespread use of PMP/PMF
approach; checked against statistical methods.

 PMP/PMF methodology


Divide drainage basin in meteorologically homogeneous sub-basins.

Study applicable maximum moisture content of atmosphere

Evaluate worst antecedent condition (soil, moisture, base flow, etc..)

Define most possible storm pattern

Route storm in each sub-basin with probable max. precipitation

Route through main channel system

Analyze response sensitivity to different data and parameters

Compare with statistical methods

5.4.4 Freeboard Allowance

 Concept: Vertical distance between maximum water level (still water) and dam crest. Provision of a
freeboard is required to avoid overtopping (damages, destruction) of a dam due to wind set-up and wind
generated waves. The freeboard may have several components:


Rise in reservoir level due to flood routing (flood surcharge)

Seiche effects

Wind set-up of the water surface

Wave action

Run-up of waves on the dam

 Seiche effects, although in big reservoirs can reach up to 0.5m (Thomas 1976), are usually neglected.

 Current criteria:

freeboard = wind set-up (wind tide) + run-up of significant wave

28
Obs. Approx. 13% of waves of a spectrum splash over crest of dam

 Wind data – obtained by direct anemometric measurements – Usually max. short duration values (< 2 min
duration). Sometimes also time averages.


Corrections for land to water measurements

Corrections for short duration wind speed to averages for any duration.

Intensive winds may be associated with high floods.

 Wind-stress factor U (adjusted wind-speed)


Empirical relation based on observation of wave growth

U = 0.589 U1.23

U - adjusted wind speed (miles/hour)

U - wind speed over water (miles/hour)

 Fetch – continuous area of water over which the wind blows in a constant direction


Determination of fetch length in a reservoir

29
F = fetch =  Fi / q

 Wind set-up (wind tide)

U 2 .F U 2 . F
S= or in SI metric units: S =
1400D 63200D

Zuider Zee formula

S - wind set-up (feet or meters)

U - wind stress factor (miles/hr or km/h)

F - fetch (miles or km)

D - average water depth along fetch line (feet or meters)

 Wave characteristics


Hs - significant wave height (m)

Hs = 0.034 U F0.47 or in SI units: Hs = 0.005 U F0.47

(after Pierson & James 1955)

or Stevenson equation (metric):

30
 Hs  0.032 U  F  0.76  0.24 4 F

(after Davis & Sorensen 1969), for F  20 km, last two terms can be neglected.

T - spectral period (peak) (s)

Dmin. - minimum wind duration (hour) are determined knowing U and F from Fig. 3.21 – Advanced
Dam Engineering

 Run up

Determined by an expression of the type:

Rs 1
=
Hs Hs
0.4+ cot 
Lo

where:

Rs - run-up, (feet)

Hs - significant wave height (feet)

 - angle of inclination of slope with horizontal

LO = 5.12 T2 - wave length (feet) or LO = 1.56 T2 (m)

where the wave period T is given by

T = 0.46 UF0.28 or in SI units: T = 0.32 UF0.28

Also use of Fig. 3.19 – Advanced Dam Engineering

31
6 River Diversion During Construction
In order to build a dam, one major temporary – or semi-temporary (but essential and hardly avoidable)
activity is required. That is river diversion during construction. It may largely vary in type, scale and cost,
but it is always there as one of the major steps in dam engineering. As it may contribute in overall cost a
considerable part (ca. 10%), it should be carefully studied and optimized.

6.1 Concept – Handling of a river during construction of a dam

6.2 Components Of A Diversion Scheme

 Cofferdams – temporary (may also be part of permanent structures) dams


embankments: earth, earth-rockfill, sand

concrete: conventional, roller-compacted

metallic: sheet piles, cells

 Conveyance system – conduction of flow


channels (free surface); natural, artificial, lined, unlined, controlled, uncontrolled flow

conduits (free surface flow, pressure flow)

metallic pipes

concrete conduits

tunnels – lined, unlined, controlled,

uncontrolled flow

 Dewatering and drainage of construction site, pumping

6.3 Importance Of Diversion Schemes

 River diversion scheme as means of construction

 High costs – often represent 5 - 10% of total cost when large discharges have to be handled

6.4 Basic Planning Considerations

 Phases of river diversion

32
 In many cases the construction of a dam will require more than 1 phase of handling the river flows. The
complete sequence of phases is important.

Planning of river diversion – integrated to planning of permanent structures.

 Relationship river diversion scheme – layout of permanent structures

Considerations of:

Available space

Hydraulic conditions, geological conditions

Possibility to incorporate temporary structures in permanent structures – economy.

Feasibility of construction of diversion structures.

 Relationship river diversion – hydrological cycle of the river

Components of river diversion schemes often have to be constructed in the river bed, with flowing water. To
obtain more favorable (or feasible) conditions – dry period (low discharges)

Example:

Cofferdams built in flowing water

River closure

 Capacity of diversion works – hydrological safety

The selection of discharge capacity of the diversion structures is fundamental for:


Definition of cofferdam height (stage – discharge relationship)

Definition of size of conveyance system such as diversion tunnel diameter, channel width and depth

Concept of submersible cofferdams

Discharge capacity is to be decided on base of a risk analysis.

Example: Let

Tr - return period of a flood for which no damage or destruction should occur

C - total cost of diversion scheme having required capacity (corresponding to Tr)

D - estimation of damages resulting from a failure of the diversion scheme (for instance overtopping and
destruction of a cofferdam). Includes damages downstream and at site.

R - risk of occurrence of a flood larger than diversion capacity during diversion period (N years)

33
R = 1 - (1 - 1/Tr)N

E - mathematical expectation of damage

60000 E, C (106 U$)

50000

40000

30000 C
E
20000 C+E

10000

0 Tr (years)
Excessive Risk Range of Excessively
1 2 3 4 5 safety 6
costly
Decision

6.5 Special Problems Of River Diversion

6.5.1 Cofferdam Construction In Flowing Water

Usual cofferdam solution – use of embankments (earthfill, rockfill). More economical than sheet piles and cells
when space is available.

Normal procedure: End dumping of rockfill forming 1 or 2 dikes: dredging of loose material from foundation
area; dumping of soil material upstream or in core zone. See sketch. Use of rockfill material that is stable. See
Hydraulic Design Criteria.

Foundation treatment sometimes difficult.

Alternative construction technique – bottom dumping from barges or bridge.

34
Obs. Hydraulic model testing is important.

6.5.2 River Closure

Final crossing of river channel with a cofferdam.

Closure of final breach.

Size of blocks depending on H – difference of water level upstream – downstream of breach. Roughly D
required = 30%H (See Hydraulic Design Criteria)

Use of artificial blocks. Division of H when closure is done simultaneously in upstream and downstream
cofferdam.

35
6.5.3 Floods Overtopping Cofferdams And Construction Site

May be a solution to be evaluated

Protection of cofferdams

 Anchor bars + wire mesh.

 Grib walls (gabions)

 Anchored concrete plates

6.5.4 Optimization Of River Diversion Components

Typical example.

Given the required discharge capacity (Qmax) of a diversion system consisting of a cofferdam and a
tunnel. Determine the cofferdam height and tunnel diameter corresponding to a least cost (see exercise)

36
6.6 General Methodology For The Planning Of Diversion Schemes And Design
Of Their Component Works
a. On the base of the specific requirements of the dam project identify the possible diversion schemes with their
respective phases and sequences.

b. Determine required discharge capacities (for each phase) by a cost risk analysis or other equivalent criterion.

c. Conceive type and main characteristics of component works of each alternative scheme. Preliminary design.
Cost evaluations. Optimize each alternative.

d. Compare alternatives and select the most interesting (cost, constructive feasibility, schedule, reliability).
Detail the selected alternative and its components

f. Carry out hydraulic model studies for specific purposes (flow conditions, construction conditions, etc.)

37
7 Spillways
One of the major aspects of dam safety during the operation of the dam is safe release (evacuation) of
excess water (mainly floods) from the reservoir behind the dam itself. The structures that are specially
designed and built to meet this goal are called spillways, and here they are referred to as complete set of
structures needed to convey the excess water from head water to tail water in safest possible way, having in
mind economical and other aspects such as optimized fitting in general lay-out of the dam with its other
auxiliary structures.

7.1 Concept – Hydraulic structure designed to release water in excess from a

reservoir to a river stretch downstream of a dam
7.2 Component Works And Classification
 Classification according to use


Service spillways – frequent use, no damages

Auxiliary spillways – infrequent use, some damages

Emergency spillways – reserve protection, damages

 Control structure – component of spillway providing partial or complete control of discharges – gated or
ungated control structures

 Conveyance structure – conduction of flow

 Terminal structures – structure at end of spillway providing adequate back flow of discharges to
downstream river channel

7.3 Spillway Types

Control (regulation) Control (inlet) Conveyance Terminal
A B C D
1 SLUICE GATE OVERFALL (ogee, notch, FREE FALL STILLING BASIN
sill…)
2 RADIAL GATE COLLECTING CHANNEL CASCADE SKI JUMP
3 FLAP GATE SHAFT SPILLWAY SPILLWAY CHUTE WATER CUSHION
4 FUSE PLUG SIPHON FREE SURFSCE
5 UNREGULATED CULVERT PRESSURE TUNNEL

38
39
Table (and sketch) above represents only major representatives of each group and it allows to make 375
combinations out of which 190 are possible and “only” ca. 65 MEANINGFUL. Considering, say, different
types of stilling basins as separate groups, then D1 could be split into more groups allowing for more
combinations.

Some examples follow:

 Control structures

Straight, curved – B1

Side channel, double side channel – B2

Morning glory (shaft spillway) – B3

Drop

Labyrinth crest, orifice – B1, B5

Siphon, Stepped spillway – B4

 Conveyance structure

Chute – C3

Conduit

Tunnel – C4, C5

Free fall – C1

 Terminal structures (Energy dissipators):


Hydraulic jump stilling basin – D1

Roller bucket, stilling basin – D1

Flip bucket, deflector bucket – D2

Plunge pool – D3

Combination flip bucket + jump – D2

Direct discharge

7.4 Data For Spillway Design

 Topography – influence on type, layout, downstream inundation

 Geological conditions – foundations, rock mass downstream

 Hydrological data – floods, discharge series

 Hydraulic data – flow conditions upstream, downstream

 Project requirements, special requirements

40
 Reservoir flood detention capacity

 Downstream developments

 Other data – structural, water quality, environment

7.5 Detailed Hydrologic Data

 Stream flow records – discharges, volumes, peaks.

 Flood studies

 Floodplain inundation maps

 Tail-water curves. Backwater effects. Morphological studies

7.6 Detailed Hydraulic Data – Support Of Hydraulic Design

 Reservoir inflow, storage, sedimentation, trash load, ice problems, operation, water quality

 Downstream requirements, releases, flow profiles

 Upstream backwater

7.7 Selection Criteria And Procedure

 Safety:


High operation reliability

Structural safety

Control of releases – dam safety

Adequate evaluation of downstream hazard

Adequate design flood

 Function:


Adequate release capacity

Compatibility with type of dam

Satisfy project requirements

Compatibility with site topography and geology

41
 
Economic considerations

Frequency and magnitude of releases

Selection procedure

a. Determine outflow and surcharge (elevation of storage level) to accommodate design flood

b. Select alternatives

c. Combine components

d. Compare alternatives – technical, costs

e. Select best alternative

7.8 Design Methodology

a. Allocate reservoir volume for sediment deposits, live storage, surcharge and freeboard

b. Define spillway crest elevation (trial and error)

c. Select design flood

d. Flood routing through reservoir, for different spillway alternative dimensions and types

e. Layouts – costs – cost comparison

7.9 Hydraulic Problems (see hydraulic design criteria)

 Discharge capacity

 Geometry of crest

 Geometry of gates

 Energy dissipation

 Hydraulic pressures

 Cavitation (see sketch on next page)

42
Cavitation index:

hv 2
pa /  - pv /  + h cos +
gr
=
v 2 / 2g

where:

pa = atmospheric pressure

pv = vapor pressure

 = specific weight of water

g = acceleration of gravity

r = radius of curvature

Cavitation criterion:  > cr

cr = critical value for incipient cavitation

For fairly smooth surfaces cr = 0.25

 aeration

If   cr cavitation may occur. A good control of cavitation is aeration of flow

43
Buckingham theorem:

F (qa /q, Fr, Eu, Re, We, tg, tg, t/h) = 0

/geometry \

qa- specific air discharge (m3/s/m)

q = vh - specific water discharge

Fr = v/gh - Froude number – Inertia/Gravity

Eu = v/p/ - Ëuler number – Inertia/Pressure difference

We = v/L - Weber number – Inertia/Surface tension force

 = surface tension

Re = vh/ - Reynolds number – Inertia/Viscous forces

See numerical values pp. 630 - 632 Advanced Dam Engineering

44
7.10 Control Gates
Plane:

Slide - low pressure

Roller - medium pressure - high pressure

Caterpillar - very high pressure (outlets)

Radial:

Tainter

Sector

Flap gates

 Operation mechanisms


Cable

Chains

Pressurized hydraulic hoist (oil driven piston)

45
8 Outlet Works
As the spillways convey excess water from the reservoir in order to maintain safety of the dam, outlet
works convey required water to fulfill demand(s) downstream such as water supply, irrigation, hydropower,
etc… In other words, outlet works are “responsible for safe delivery of the project’s product” which is, in
case of dam engineering, water that should meet demand(s) in terms of both quantity and quality.

8.1 Concept – hydraulic structures used to convey water from a reservoir to a

point downstream of a dam.
(outlet works – embankment dams, sluices – concrete dams)

8.2 Classification: Components

 According to function


Irrigation

Municipal (potable), industrial water

Flood control

Power generation

River flows

Emergency drawdown

Combination of functions

Additional spillway capacity

Diversion during construction

 Type of flow


Pressure flow

Free surface (gravity) flow

Combination

46
 Components – all or some of the following:

2 3 4
1
Gate Cham ber
Intake or Conduit
or
Inlet Channel Intake W aterway
Downstream Gate
Structure Tunnel
Structure

5 6 7
Energy
Chute Outlet Channel
Dissipator


Conveyance - (1), (3), (5), (7)

Control - (2), (4)

Energy dissipation - (6)

8.3 Inlet And Outlet Channels

Consideration of following important points

 Clogging (sliding or deposition of rock masses or Plugging sediment)


Adequate location

Stabilization of slopes

Adequate operation

 Sediment transport (erosion, abrasion)


Channel lining

Channel stabilization

Traps

8.4 Intakes
Important points

 Location with respect to water levels

 Control or not (gates)

 Special functions (for instance, selective withdrawal – multiple level intakes for water supply)

47
 Provision of trashracks (in most cases)

 Shape of hydraulic passages

8.5 Control Structure

Important points:

 Location of structure (intake, mid-structure, downstream)

 Type of gates, valves


Plane gates:

 Slide

 Roller

 Variations

Radial gates:

 Tainter

 Top-seal radial

Valves:

 Needle valves, tube valves

 Hollow jet

 Butterfly

 Howell-Bunger (Cone)

 Gate valves

 Spherical valves

 Operational safety – redundancy operation gate, revision gate, operation, maintenance

 Planning all operations with gates – assembly, erection, disassembly, removal

 Structure:

 Intake structure

 Gate shaft or tower

48
  Gate chamber

8.6 Conveyance Structure

Important points:

 Cavitation (due to high velocities), aeration

 Shape of transitions, slots

 Lining

8.7 Terminal Structures

Important points:

 Energy dissipation


Stilling basin (special case impact structure)

Dispersion of jet

Plunge pool, flip bucket

No energy dissipation

 Shapes of hydraulic passages

8.8 Hydraulic Problems And Their Prevention

 Cavitation:


Improvement of shape of water passages

Increase of pressure in affected areas

Aeration

 Abrasion:


Special lining (concrete, steel)

Particular problem in stilling basins

 Scouring:


Lining

49
 
Rockfill protection

 Structural vibration:


Influence on supports of elements

Elastic properties

Masses (Ex. trashracks)

 Vortices:


Design modifications of intakes

Anti-vortex devices

 Other problems


Back current

Hydrodynamic loads

Uplift

50
9 Layouts
As layout is 3-D arrangement of “main” dam and all other associated structures that are often closely
interactive, its optimization requires optimization of each of its components with regards to others. That
means that sometimes certain “sacrifices” have to be done with regard to one or more of the components in
order to meet overall optimization requirements. The whole process in almost always iterative in a sense
that after optimization of each structure the entire system must be tested that may lead to necessary
alternations of that structure (and/or other structures) in order to fit better into whole.

9.1 Concept – Layout of a dam is understood to be:

 General relative disposition of dam body itself and its associated structures (plan view, elevations)

 The engineering concept for the dam and associated structures (type of dam, type of spillway, type of
outlets, etc.); main characteristics and dimensions of these structures

It is the result of studies taking into account:


Basic data – topography, geology, hydrology, construction materials, etc.

Project requirements – purpose, operation requirements, design criteria

Conditions and possibilities of construction, schedules, construction feasibility, construction
requirements and means

Additional information – costs, technological information, logistics, etc.

9.2 Importance
After selection of the dam site, the definition of layout may be considered the most important step in the design
of a dam. It has a strong bearing on the total cost and successful implementation of the project.

9.3 Methodology Of Studies

Multidisciplinary team, strongly integrated. Sequence of activities:

A. Organization and consistence of all required data and information required

B. Definition of specific design criteria

C. Conception of alternative solutions for the dam and associated structures. Alternatives are:

With respect to type of structures

With respect to relative disposition of structures in plan view and elevation

51
D. Preliminary design of all components of each alternative – costs, construction schedule, etc.

E. Evaluation of each alternative from the point of view of costs, safety, construction feasibility, operation
conditions.

F. Comparison of alternatives and selection of the most favorable.

Such studies are conducted at an early stage of planning.

Typically during the phases of preliminary studies (pre-feasibility) and feasibility studies. Have to be verified
and reconfirmed during later stages of the project

9.4 Important Aspects Of Layout Studies

 Conception of alternative solutions has to be broad allowing for preferably a wide range of possibilities.

Although past experience and specific conditions at site often indicate preferential choices, it is not wise to
abandon alternatives without testing them out on the specific case.

 Dependence layout – river diversion

A proper consideration of river diversion phases and requirements is very important for the definition of a
layout.

This includes:

Phases, sequence, possibilities of diversion

Phases, sequence, schedule of construction of permanent works.

Possibilities of integrating diversion works and permanent structures

 Dependence layout – Infrastructure and logistics

An adequate layout should take best advantage of local conditions of infrastructure and logistics such as access
to site, river transposition, etc.

 Balance of natural construction materials.

Much of the potential economies may be achieved by means of an optimal use of natural construction materials
such as rock, sand, gravel, soil resulting from required or desirable excavations.

This balance includes:


Origin of construction materials

Destination of construction materials

Timely use and appropriate scheduling

52
10 Concrete Dams

10.1 Concept
Concrete dams may be classified according to their way of providing resistance to external loads, i.e., their
structural system providing stability.

A commonly adopted classification is:

a. Gravity dams (G): Resistance essentially by weight of the structure itself

b. Buttress dams (B): Resistance by weight of the structure and weight of water over the upstream face

c. Arch dams (A): Resistance by arch action; to some extent associated to cantilever action as well

There is a large variety of possible types often obtained by combining weight, buttress, arch and cantilever
actions. Typical representatives are:

a. Buttresses

 flat slab type

 gravity head type

 multiple arch type

b. Arch family

 thin arches

 single or double curvature

 arch gravity

10.2 Materials Used

 Gravity dams:

 Conventional concrete, mass concrete

 Roller compacted concrete

 Stone masonry – older dams, small structures

 Buttress dams

 Reinforced concrete

 Stone masonry – older dams, very uncommon

 Arch dams

53
  Conventional concrete, reinforcements are local exception

 Roller compacted concrete

10.3 Loads
Loads commonly considered in the design and analysis of dams are:

a. Dead load: weight of the concrete mass and other appurtenances such as gates, bridges, etc.

b. Water pressures; include

 hydrostatic external pressure upstream and downstream

 internal seepage pressure, uplift

 hydrodynamic external pressure due to waves and earthquake effects

c. Other external pressures

 earth and silt

 ice

 wind

d. Other actions

 external temperatures

 internal temperatures

10.4 Load Cases

It is common practice to consider the following combinations of loads for the design and analysis of
concrete dams:

a. Construction period

 Case I – Dam completed; no water in reservoir; no tailwater; wind load on downstream face

 Case II – Dam completed; earthquake acceleration in the downstream direction; no reservoir,

tailwater or wind loads

 Other Cases – May be necessary at different stages of construction in particular for the study of
thermal stresses.

b. Normal operation

 Case III – Reservoir full at normal max. water level; minimum tailwater; dead load, uplift, earth
and silt loads; ice; temperature loads

54
  Other cases – According to needs

c. Exceptional operation

 Case IV – Flood condition; max. reservoir and tailwater levels; dead load, uplift, earth, silt,
temperature; gate malfunction

 Case V – Normal operation conditions; earthquake acceleration in upstream direction

 Other cases

10.5 Structural Safety Requirements

Dam safety is usually based on a comparison of applied loads (forces, moments) or the resulting states of
stress (or strain) and the strength characteristics of the structure (compressive strength, shear strength,
tensile strength). The factor of safety is defined as:

Fs = Strength / Action

Main safety requirements are:

a. Safety against overturning at any horizontal plane within the dam. At the base or at any plane below
the base

b. Safety against sliding along any possible surface within the dam, at the base or in the foundation

c. Safety against excessive stresses (or strains) within the dam or in the foundation

Adopted safety factors depend on:

 Expected frequency and duration of loading considered

 Reliability of basic information on strength properties (concrete, foundations)

 Economic reasons

Typical values of safety factors (not a rule!) are:

 Overturning: Fs = 1.5 under normal loading

Fs > 1.0 under exceptional loading

 Sliding: Fs = 2 to 3 under normal loading, using the limit equilibrium method

Fs > 1.0 under exceptional loading

55
 Over-stressing: Fs = 1.5 to 2 under normal loading, some tolerance for over-stressing in the
case of exceptional dynamic loading of localized consequences

Non-reinforced concrete and rock are considered to be brittle materials having little tensile strength; usually
a tensile strength of 5% - 10% of the compressive strength can be adopted.

10.6 Stability and Stress Analysis

Different methods are available for the structural analysis of dams. The analysis has, in every case, to take
into account: the dam body, the foundations of the dam, the abutments of the dam.

Methods of analysis:

a. For gravity dams and buttresses

 Rigid block motion

 balance of moments, for overturning stability

 shear - friction method, for sliding stability

 limit equilibrium method, for sliding stability

 Gravity method, for determination of stresses (plane strain)

 Finite elements, for the determination of 2-D or 3-D states of stress and strain

 Pseudo-static and dynamic analysis of earthquake motion

b. For arch dams

 Methods based on arch theory and theory of shells

 Trial-load method

 Finite elements for static and dynamic loading

 Block mechanics for the analysis of abutment and foundation stability

10.7 Concrete Properties

A large variety of different classes of concrete are used in dam construction. They range from highly
reinforced concrete, pre-stressed and post-tensioned elements used in spillway overflow sections and piers,
to conventional mass concrete and roller compacted concrete. The relevant bulk of a majority of concrete
dams is mass concrete. Some typical information on mass concrete used in dam construction is given
below.

 Cementitious materials:

 Portland type cement

 Pozzolan, fly-ash – up to 50%

56
 Aggregates

 Coarse: gravel, crushed stone (max. size about 150 mm)

 Fine sand

 Water: free of adverse constituents

 Accelerators, air-entraining agents

Typical properties achieved in concrete mixes are:

 Modulus of Elasticity: 20-40 GPa at 28 days

30-50 GPa at 1 year

 Poisson ratio 0.17 average at 28 days

0.22 average at 1 year

 Thermal expansion 5-8 x 10-6/oC

 Compressive strength: strongly dependent on the water/cement ratio; structural requirements

cover a wide range (10 - 40 MPa), or very exceptionally up to 70 MPa. Compressive strength increases
with time; a final value is usually reached at 1 year age.

 Tensile strength: about 10% of compressive strength

 Shear strength: about 20% of compressive strength

 Permeability: 10-6 - 10-8 cm/s

Roller compacted concrete can be designed to satisfy most structural requirements and results in a material
with the same properties as conventional concrete. The main difference is a 100x higher horizontal
permeability due to the construction and compaction procedure used.

Advantage of RCC: no formwork, lower cement content, continuous operation…

10.8 Foundation Treatment

As a general rule, concrete dams should be founded on sound rock. The requirements on foundation quality
strongly increase with the height of the dam and its type; by increasing severity gravity dams / buttress
dams / arch dams.

Treatment of foundation (and abutment zones) include commonly:

 Excavation of overburden and altered surface rock until sound rock is encountered

 Careful clearing of contact zones

57
 Provision of grout curtains by injection of grout material through rotary drill-holes. As a rule-of-thumb
grout curtains extend to depths about equal to the local dam height. Grouting is normally done from
gallery located at a low-level in the structure.

 Provision of contact grouting – to seal the contact between the concrete structure and its foundation.

 Provision of tubular drains extending into the rock mass. Usually vertical drains in the foundation zone,
inclined in the abutment zones.

 Provision of horizontal contact drains in the zone of contact between the concrete structure and its
foundation.

10.9 Construction Methods – Constructive Details

As a general rule, concrete dams are constructed by horizontal lifts.

In conventional concrete, typical lift height is about 2.0-2.5 m. The constructive sequence includes:

 Placement of forms, reinforcements.

 Pouring of fresh concrete.

 Compaction by immersion vibrators.

 Curing.

 Removal of formwork.

 Treatment of concrete surface.

For reasons of technological behavior (heat generation, shrinkage and cracks) as well as concrete
production requirements, conventional concrete dams are constructed by independent blocks separated by
joints from the neighboring blocks (joints are transversal to the dam axis). Such joints may be grouted at
the end of construction. This is necessarily the case of arch dams where a monolithic behavior is required.
Typical block sizes range from 15 to 25 m.

For roller compacted concrete, in principle a continuous construction procedure is possible. No formwork
is needed since the concrete has low water content (zero slump). Fresh concrete transported by conveyor
belt or trucks is spread over the construction area and compacted by roller in layers of about 30 cm
thickness. Joints separating blocks are simply cut in the fresh concrete mass. Treatment of concrete surface
when construction is interrupted.

Constructive details of concrete dams include:

 Provision of water stops in joints of the structure

 Treatment of external concrete surfaces

 Provision of interval drainage systems of the concrete mass

58
11. Embankment Dams

11.1 Concept. Materials. Classification.

The generic term “embankment” is used to designate a large variety of granular materials (natural,
processed) which can be used for construction of dams. Such materials include: clayey and sandy soils,
sand, gravel and rock. In principle any granular material may be used in dam construction if provides
adequate characteristics of durability (chemical, mechanical) and mechanical resistance.

The oldest dams in the World were embankments (Sadd-el-Katara, Egypt 2800 BC; Ceylon 500 BC;
Madduk  Masur 1500 AD, etc.). Many of the largest and highest dams in the World are embankments.
There is a continuous strain towards new developments in the knowledge of material properties,
construction techniques and innovative uses. Recent examples  reinforced earth, hydraulic fills, soil-
cement…

A commonly adopted classification is based on materials used:

A) Earthfill dams  using a variety of clayey to sandy soils

 Homogeneous  basically only one material used

 Zoned  different materials used in different zones of the dam

 Reinforced earth  a special class is represented by earth dams with reinforcement (by steel bars or
geo-synthetics).

B) Rockfill dams  using mainly rock material such as quarry rock of different grain size or coarse gravel
found in river-beds.

 Rockfill is comparatively pervious and therefore a sealing element has to be provided. A common
classification of rockfill dams is based on this sealing element:

 Upstream face sealing

 Concrete face rockfill dam

 Asphaltic face rockfill dam
 Special types of sealing elements (e.g., metallic)
 “Core” sealing

 Concrete, asphaltic-concrete, bentonite diaphragms

 Clay core
C) Hydraulic fill dams  using sand; small fractions of silt or clay.

Constructed by dredging and pumping operation.

In practice mixed type solutions using earth and rockfill material are not uncommon. They receive the name
of earth-rockfill dams.

59
60
61
Advantages of Embankments:

 Compatibility with soft foundations (alluvium, weathered rock)

 Deformability

 Use of natural construction materials  often inexpensive.

Main Problems

 Stability

 Permeability, seepage

 Deformations, settlements

11.2 Main Failure Mechanisms. Safety Requirements

Main observed damages (or even destruction) of embankment dams are due to one or more of the following
mechanisms:

 Overtopping of dams by flowing water and consequent destruction.

 Excess seepage and piping in dam body or foundations

 Sliding of slope zones (upstream or downstream slopes)

 Foundation failure due to liquefaction

 Excessive settlements or deformations; in particular different settlements inducing cracks.

 Erosion of dam surface (usually downstream slope)

Applicable safety requirements postulate embankment dams and their foundations should:

a) be stable under all reasonably possible loading including flood and earthquake.

b) control seepage quantities and pressures.

c) be protected from surface erosion.

11.3 Loads and Load Cases (Stability)

Loads (or actions) commonly considered in the design and analysis of embankment dams are:

A) dead load: weight of dam body

B) water pressures  include:

 hydrostatic external pressures.

 internal seepage pressures; uplifts.

62
  hydrodynamic pressures due to waves and earthquake.

C) other external pressures: earth and silt; ice; wind.

D) internal forces: due to earthquakes.

For stability analysis limit equilibrium methods are traditionally used. Main stability problem in
embankments of earthfill type are related to sliding. Slide surfaces: arc of choice, polygonals, logarithmic
spiral. Principle:

FS = Shear resistance along surface

Shear force along surface

It is common practice to consider a combination of such loads representing possible conditions at the end of
construction, normal operation condition, exceptional operation condition. The following table summarizes
commonly analyzed conditions and minimal requirements on safety as far as slope stability is concerned:

Condition Min. factor of

Safety
a. End of Construction (upstream and downstream slopes) 1.25

with earthquake loading (pseudo-static) > 1.00

b. Steady seepage, full reservoir (upstream slope) 1.50

with earthquake loading (pseudo-static) 1.25

c. Steady seepage, full reservoir (downstream slope) 1.50

with earthquake loading (pseudo-static) 1.25

d. Rapid draw-down (upstream slope) 1.25

with earthquake loading (pseudo-static) > 1.00

e. Other cases as necessary representing stages of construction, partial pool level,
etc.

11.4 Stability and Stress Analysis

Different methods are available for the analysis of embankment. The analysis has, in every case, to take
into account the dam body and its foundations and abutments.

Methods of analysis:

a. For slope stability

 limit equilibrium method  slices, wedges

63
  finite element method  usually 2D

b. For seepage

 flow-net analogues

 finite differences

 finite elements

c. For stress and strain  static and dynamic loading

 finite elements

 boundary elements

11.5 Foundation Treatment

It is important to remember the general rule that “a dam is as good as its foundation”. Embankment dams
may be designed to comply with deformable and comparatively weak foundations.

Minimum foundation requirements are essentially:

 Hydraulic fill, compatible with alluvial foundations

 Earthfill, soil foundations, somewhat better than in previous case

 Rockfill, requires a moderately sound to sound rock foundation depending on its height.

In many cases foundations require improvements to provide seepage control and drainage infiltration. Usual
devices to provide such control are:

 Trenches: cut-off, slurry trench, sheet pile, diaphragms.

 Grouting.

 Upstream blanket.

 Drainage systems: toe-drain, relief wells, drains.

64
11.6 Constructive Details
A number of constructive features of embankment dam bodies deserve special attention. They are:

 Crest arrangement  width, pavement, wave breaker.

Crest width (use of crest, codes, regulations)

Ex: Japanese Code

Height (m) Crest Width (m)

30 8
50 10
70 11
100 13
200 18
 Freeboard: Max. still-water level + wind set-up + wave run-up, often paving of crest.

 Upstream slope protection: rip-rap, concrete face, soil-cement blocks at upstream face.

 Downstream slope protection: rip-rap, grass, rock-fill at downstream slope, drainage, berms.

 Internal devices  core, filters, drainage system, access galleries.

 Rip-Rap Size:

Max wave height Average rock size Layer thickness

(m) (m) (m)

0  0.30 0.20 0.30

0.30 0.60 0.25 0.38

0.60  1.20 0.31 0.46

1.20  1.80 0.38 0.61

1.80  2.40 0.46 0.76

2.40  3.00 0.61 0.91

 Max. wave height  1.85 x Significant wave height.

 Soil-cement protection:

65
 Insert drawing of that protection (p.6)!!!

11.7 Construction Methods

Conventionally embankment dams are constructed by compaction of granular material in horizontal layers.
A typical sequence consists of:

 Excavation from borrow area or quarry

 Processing

 Hauling and spreading

 Humidity control

 Compaction

An exception is provided by the hydraulic fill construction in which material is dredged from the bottom of
a river and conveyed to the dam body by hydraulic means. Excess water is eliminated by overflow and
seepage. Mechanical compaction is not always a requirement.

11.8 Main Problems

 Seepage

 Settlement

 Stability (see Chapter 11.3)

Seepage

 Movement of water through dam body, foundations, abutments

 Potential problems:

 excessive loss of water

 migration of particles  erosion

 excessive uplift pressures and pore pressures

 General principles regarding seepage

The impervious system of a dam should be:

66
  Sufficiently impervious to prevent excessive water loss which could affect
economy or safety

 Should avoid preferential seepage paths

 Should not consolidate, soften or liquefy upon filling of reservoir and

saturation.

 Analysis of seepage (flow through porous media)

 Laminar

 Turbulent

General principle  flow-nets

dh
v  k i  k isotropy, anisotropy
ds

Two dimensional analysis:

h  h 
vx  k x  v z   k z   1
x  z 

67
 
vx  k x (h  z )
x


vz  k z (h  z )   hz
z


v x  k x
x


vz  k z
x

Continuity

 v z   v x 
v x dz  v z dx   v z dz dx   v x dx dz
 z   x 

v x v z
 0
x z

 2  2
 kx  kz 0
x 2 z 2

Control of Seepage

Foundations: Injections

Drainage

Cut-off

Slurry trench

Sheet piles

Dam body: Drainage

Filters Rule of the thumb

k varying by 10

Terzaghi's Filter Principle

68
 D15 ( filter )
Prevention of piping 45
D85 ( soil )

D15 ( filter )
Permeability 45
D85 ( soil )

Piping in foundations:

Control by limitation of hydraulic gradient.

In usual practice:

H
i < 1 to 2 traditional
L

< 3 to 4 recently

< 5 exceptionally

Settlement

 Foundations

 Consolidation tests to determine deformation moduli

 Consolidation theory applied to different materials

 Dam body

 Soil material  consolidation theory excess pore pressure dissipation

 Adequate compaction

 Optimum moisture content

69
  Proctor tests; oedometer tests

 Empirical S=0.035 (H-13) during construction

 S - crest settlement in m

 H - height of dam in m

 Rockfill  adequate compaction

 breaking of angles

 filling voids


S H2
 Empirical E during construction

S  crest settlement (m)

H  height ; E  Mod. Of deformation;   Specific weight

about 1% for H=100 m

Cumber for end of construction about 0.2% of height.

70