INTRODUCTION

The transistor consist of two back-to-back P-N junctions manufactured

in a single piece of a semiconductor crystal. These two junctions give rise to
three regions called the emitter, collector and base. Figure 1a shows a layer
of N type material sandwiched between two layers of P type material and it is
described as a PNP transistor. Figure 1b shows an NPN transistor consisting
of layer of p type material sandwiched betwee two layer Figure 1a as well as
Figure1b.

Figure 1a Figure 1b

Notice that the arrow is always at the emitter and not at the collector in
both cases. Its direction indicates the conventional direction of current flow.
The arrow points from the emitter to base means that the emitter is positive
with respect to the base (and also with respect to the collector) for the PNP
transistor. However for the NPN transistor, the arrow points from the base to
the emitter meaning that the base (and collector) is positive with respect to
the emitter.

Basically the emitter is a heavily doped, medium-sized layer designed

to emit or inject electrons. The base is a medium doped, small layer designed
to pass electrons. The collector is a lightly doped, large layer designed to
collect electrons.

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 Under normal operations, the emitter-base junction is always forward-
biased and the collector-base junction is always reverse-biased. In Figure 2,
two batteries respectively provide the dc emitter supply voltage VEE and
collector supply voltage VCC for properly biasing the two junctions of the
transistor. In Figure 2a, positive terminal of V EE is connected to P type
emitter in order to repel or push holes into the base.

The negative terminal of VCC is connected to the collector so that it

may attract or pull holes through the base. Similarly the same conditions
apply to the NPN transistor of Figure 2b. It must be remembered that a
transistor will never conduct current if its emitter-base junction is not
forward-biased.

Figure 2a Figure 2b

The three primary currents which flow in a properly-biased transistor

are IE (emitter current), IB (base current) and IC (collector current). The
relation between these three current is IE = IB + IC. Only a small part of
emitter current (about 1% - 2%) goes to supply the base current and the
remaining major part (98% - 99%) goes to supply collector current.

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THEORY

Basically, there are three types of circuit connections of configurations for

operating a transistor.

A. Common-base (CB)
B. Common-emitter (CE)
C. Common-collector (CC)

A. Common-base Connection (CB)

Figure 3

In this connection, the emitter current IE is the input current and

collector current IC is the output current. The input signal is applied between
the emitter and base where as output is taken out from the collector and base
as shown in Figure 3.

The ration of IC to IE is a where a = IC/IE

therefore IB = IE - IC
= IE - aIE
= (1 - a) IE

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B. Common-emitter Connection (CE)

Figure 4

In common-emitter connection, the input signal is applied between the

base and emitter and output signal is taken out from the collector and emitter
circuit. As seen in Figure 4, IB is the input current and IC is the output current.

The ratio of IC to IB is b where b = IC/IB

therefore IE = IB + IC
= IB + bIB
= (1+ b) IB

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 C. Common-collector Connection (CC)

Figure 5

In this case, input signal is applied between base and collector and
output signal is taken out from emitter-collector circuit as shown in Figure 5.
Conventionally speaking, IB is the input current and IE is the output current as
shown in Figure 5.

therefore IE = IB + IC
= IB + bIB
= (1 + b) IB

Hence, output current = (1 + b) input current

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Circuit Operation of the Common Emitter (CE) Amplifier

Figure 6

When positive half - cycle of the signal is applied as shown in Figure 6,

1. VBE is increased because it is already positive with respect to the ground.

2. it courses the increase in forward-biased of base-emitter junction
3. IB is increased.
4. IC is increased by b times the increament of IB.
5. the drop in ICRC is increased and VCE is decreased.

Hence, negative half-cycle of the output is obtained. This means that a

positive-going input signal becomes a negative-going output signal.

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Circuit Operation of the Common-collector (CC) Amplifier

Figure 7

When positive half-cycle of the signal is applied,

1. forward bias is increased since VBE is positive with respect to collector that
is ground.
2. base current is increased.
3. emitter current is increased.
4. the voltage drop across RE is increased.
5. output voltage (drop across RE) is increased.

Consequently, we will get positive half-cycle of the output. This means that a
positive-going input signal results in a positive going output signal and
consequently, the input and output signals are in phase with each other as
shown in Figure 7.

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 EXPERIMENT

TRANSISTOR - BASIC CIRCUITS

OBJECTIVES

In this experiment,
1. we investigate two important circuit configurations of a
transistor, namely
(a) the common-emitter connection
(b) the common-collector connection
in order to understand the operation of a transistor.
2. we also examine a form of negative feedback with the common-
emitter connection.

EQUIPMENT

1. Electronic universal trainer

2. Set of cables
3. Set of bridging plugs
4. Multimeter
5. Oscilloscope

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A. COMMON EMITTER CONNECTION WITHOUT NEGATIVE
FEEDBACK

Procedure

1. The common-emitter connection is assembled on the module

SO 4201-7E and operated without negative feedback by inserting the
bridging plugs as shown in the circuit below.

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2. R4 is used to set the working point of the transistor V1 to UCE = 0.5UB. A
voltage Ue = 10 mVpp, f = 1 kHz is applied to the circuit input MP2. Ue
and Ua are displayed on the oscilloscope and the curves are drawn in
graticule 1. The input voltage is raised to the point where the output
signal is just about to become distorted. The amplitudes of the input and
output voltages are recorded in the experiment record.
3. The transistor working point is set to UCE = 1.8 V. Point 2 is repeated
and the observations are recorded in the experiment record, graticule 2.
4. The working point is again set to UCE = 0.5UB. A voltage Ue = 10 mVpp, f
= 1 kHz is applied to the circuit input MP2. The transistor is warmed up
by breathing on it or by using a hairdryer. The voltage UCE is observed
during this warming. Ue and Ua are displayed on the oscilloscope and the
curves are drawn in graticule 3. The input voltage is raised to the point
where the output signal is just about to become distorted. The
amplitudes of the input and output voltages are recorded in the
experiment record.
5. The experiment record and the exercises provided are completed.

RESULTS

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1. Graticule 1: AP at UCE = 7.5 V; Ue = 10 mVpp, 1 kHz; Ua

aX : 0.2 ms/Div
aYA : 5 mv/Div
aYB : 1 V/Div
Ue : 10 mVPP
Ua : 2.6 VPP
j : 180°
Coupling : AC

Determine the voltage gain vu.

Answer :

voltage gain, vu = output voltage / input voltage

= 2.6 Vpp / 10 mVpp
= 260

The voltage values at the output signal distortion threshold are :

Ue = 44 mVpp
Ua = 12 Vpp

2. Graticule 2: AP at UCE = 1.8 V; Ue = 10 mVpp, 1 kHz; Ua

aX : 0.2 ms/Div
aYA : 5 mv/Div

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 aYB : 1 V/Div
Ue : 10 mVPP
Ua : 4 VPP
j : 180°
Coupling : AC

Determine the voltage gain vu.

Answer :

voltage gain, vu = output voltage / input voltage

= 4.0 Vpp / 10 mVpp
= 400

The voltage values at the output signal distortion threshold are :

Ue = 7 mVpp
Ua = 0.32 Vpp

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3. Graticule 3: AP at UCE = 7.2 V; transistor warmed !
Ue = 10 mVpp, 1 kHz; Ua

aX : 0.2 ms/Div
aYA : 5 mv/Div
aYB : 1 V/Div
Ue : 10 mVPP
Ua : 3.4 VPP
j : 180°
Coupling : AC

Determine the voltage gain vu.

Answer :

voltage gain, vu = output voltage / input voltage

= 3.4 Vpp / 10 mVpp
= 340

The voltage values at the output signal distortion threshold are :

Ue = 13 mVpp
Ua = 4.4 Vpp

4. The following changes arise when the transistor is warmed:

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 Answer :

The voltage reading shown by the multimeter decreases from 7.5 V to

7.2 V.

7.3 Compare the results from the three measurements.

Answer :

The three measurements give different results. For the first measurement,
the output voltage has the same shape as the input voltage but the peak
value is 260 times larger. The input voltage at the output signal distortion
threshold is large and is greater than the original input voltage 10 mV pp.
The output voltage at the output signal distortion threshold is also large
and is larger than the original output voltage 2.6 Vpp. For the second
measurement, the waveform of the output voltage resembles the waveform
of the input voltage only partially; a portion of its negative cycle have been
clipped off. The positive peak value is 400 times larger than that of the
input voltage. The input voltage at the output signal distortion threshold is
small and is less than the original input voltage 10 mVpp. The output
voltage at the output signal distortion threshold is also small and is less
than the original output voltage 4.0 Vpp. For the third measurement, the
output voltage has the same shape as the input voltage but the peak value
is 340 times larger. The input voltage at the output signal distortion
threshold is large. It is greater than the original input voltage 10 mVpp but
is less than that in the first measurement. The output voltage at the output
signal distortion threshold is also large and is larger than the original
output voltage 3.4 Vpp.

6. Describe the operation of the common-emitter connection you have

just investigated.

Answer :

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 The common-emitter connection has a combination of dc and ac
operations. It is biased with voltage-divider bias. The capacitors C1 and
C3 are coupling capacitors on the input and output respectively. They are
used to transmit ac component but block dc component. The ac source
driving the base of the transistor produces sinusoidal variations in the base
current IB. This, in turn, provides variations in the collector current, IC.
When the ac signal voltage driving the base goes positive, the forward bias
for the transistor increases. This causes the base current, IB, and therefore
the collector current, IC, to increase. Likewise, when the ac signal voltage
driving the base goes negative, the forward bias for the transistor
decreases causing IB and IC to decrease. A very small input ac voltage of
10mVpp across the base-emitter junction produces a very large change in
the collector current, IC. This in turn produces very large changes in the ac
voltage at the collector. When Ue goes positive, IC increases, causing the
collector-emitter voltage to decrease. Likewise, when Ue goes negative, IC
decreases, causing the collector-emitter voltage to increase. Therefore,
there is a phase difference of 180° between the input voltage, Ue and
output voltage, Ua.

B. COMMON EMITTER CONNECTION WITH NEGATIVE

FEEDBACK

Procedure

1. The common-emitter connection is assembled on the module

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 SO 4201-7E and operated with negative feedback by inserting the
bridging plugs as shown in the circuit below.

Common-emitter connection circuit with negative feedback.

2. R4 is used to set the working point of the transistor V1 to UCE = 0.5UB. A

voltage Ue = 10 mVpp, f = 1 kHz is applied to the circuit input MP2. Ue
and Ua are displayed on the oscilloscope and the curves are drawn in
graticule 1. The input voltage is raised to the point where the output
signal is just about to become distorted. The amplitudes of the input and
output voltages are recorded in the experiment record.
3. Point 2 is repeated, however the transistor is heated (by breathing on it
or with a hairdryer.) The observations are recorded in the experiment
record point 2

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4. The bridging plugs B17 and B18 are additionally inserted and points 2
and 3 are repeated. The voltage curves are drawn in graticule 2 and the
observations are recorded in point 5 of the experiment record.
5. The experiment record and the exercises provided are completed.

RESULTS

1. Graticule 1: AP at UCE = 7.5 V; Ue = 10 mVpp, 1 kHz; Ua

aX : 0.2 ms/Div
aYA : 5 mv/Div
aYB : 5 mV/Div
Ue : 10 mVPP
Ua : 10 mVPP

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 j : 180°
Coupling : AC

Determine the voltage gain vu.

Answer :

voltage gain, vu = output voltage / input voltage

= 10 mVpp / 10 mVpp
=1

The voltage values at the output signal distortion threshold are :

Ue = 1.35 Vpp
Ua = 1.35 Vpp

2. The following changes arise when the transistor is warmed:

Answer :

The voltage reading shown by the multimeter decreases from 7.5 V to

7.47 V.

3. State which type of negative feedback is used here, and list its
advantages and disadvantages.

Answer:

The type of negative feedback used here is negative current-series

feedback with the ac component not bypassed with an emitter bypass
capacitor.
The advantages of this type of negative feedback are
1. higher fidelity i.e. more linear operation
2. highly stabilized gain
3. increased bandwidth i.e. improved frequency response
4. less amplitude, harmonic, frequency and phase distortion

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 5. reduced noise
6. input and output impedances can be modified as desired
7. feedback for ac signal is included (since there is no emitter bypass
capacitor).
The disadvantages are reduced voltage, current and power gain.

4. Graticule 2 : AP at UCE = 7.5 V; Ue = 10 mVpp, 1 kHz; Ua

aX : 0.2 ms/Div
aYA : 5 mv/Div
aYB : 50 mV/Div
Ue : 10 mVPP
Ua : 0.2 VPP
j : 180°
Coupling : AC

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Determine the voltage gain vu.

Answer :

voltage gain, vu = output voltage / input voltage

= 0.2 Vpp / 10 mVpp
= 20

The voltage values at the output signal distortion threshold are :

Ue = 66 mVpp
Ua = 1.2 Vpp

5. The following changes arise when the transistor is warmed:

Answer :

The voltage reading shown by the multimeter decreases from 7.5 V to

7.45 V.

6. State which type of negative feedback is used here, and list its
advantages and disadvantages.

Answer:

The type of negative feedback used here is negative current-series

feedback with the ac component bypassed an with emitter bypass
capacitor.
The advantages of this type of negative feedback are
1. higher fidelity i.e. more linear operation
2. highly stabilized gain
3. increased bandwidth i.e. improved frequency response
4. less amplitude, harmonic, frequency and phase distortion
5. reduced noise
6. input and output impedances can be modified as desired
The disadvantages are reduced voltage, current and power gain,

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 and feedback for ac signal is not included due to the presence of an emitter
bypass capacitor.

7. Compare the two types of negative feedback with one another and
with the circuit without negative feedback.

Answer:

For first type of negative feedback (current-series feedback without an

emitter bypass capacitor), the feedback for ac signal is included whereas
for the second type of negative feedback (current-series feedback with an
emitter bypass capacitor), the feedback for ac signal is not included. Both
types of feedback, however include the feedback for dc signal. Compared
to the circuit without negative feedback, the circuit with negative feedback
have reduced voltage gains (260, 320 and 220 for the circuits without
negative feedback while 10.2 and 190 for circuits with negative feedback.)
However, the voltage gain for circuits with negative feedback is more
stable.

8. Explain the operation of the types of negative feedback which have

been investigated.

Answer :

Both types of negative feedback are current-series feedback. For both

types of feedback, the emitter resistor R6 provides the form of feedback.
As the collector current increases, the base current and therefore the
voltage across the emitter resistor R6 also increases. For a given input
voltage, Ue, this increase in voltage across R6 reduces the base-emitter
voltage and therefore also reduces the base current. This, in turn,
decreases the collector current to reduce effect of the original change.
Because this effect is fighting against the increase in collector current, the
situation is known as negative current feedback. The emitter resistor can
be bypassed with a capacitor. For the first type of negative feedback
where the emitter bypass capacitor is not present, both the feedback of dc
and ac signals are included. For the second type of negative feedback

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 where the emitter bypass capacitor is present, the feedback of ac signal is
eliminated and only the feedback dc signal is included.

9. State applications for the common-emitter connection.

Answer :

The common-emitter connection is used as a current, voltage and power

amplifier. It is used in the audio preamplifier in public address / paging
system. It is also used as small signal amplifier.

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C. INPUT AND OUTPUT RESISTANCE OF THE COMMON
EMITTER CONNECTION

Procedure

1. The common-emitter connection is assembled on the module

SO 4201-7E by inserting the bridging plugs as shown in the circuit below.

Common-emitter connection circuit.

2. Measurements are taken to determine the input resistance re and the

output resistance ra. The method used is described in the experiment
record. Any necessary currents are measured indirectly using the
oscilloscope.
RESULTS

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1. Input resistance re

Answer :

The input resistance is determined by measuring the voltage across the

resistor R1, VR1 and the input voltage Ue.
By measurements,
Ue = 0.0058 V
VR1 = 0.0042 V
We determine the input current Ie by using
Ie = VR1 / R1
= 0.0042 V / 10 kW
= 0.42 mA
We determine re by using
re = Ue / Ie
= 0.0058 V / 0.42 mA
= 13.8 kW

2. Output resistance ra

Answer :

The output resistance is determined by measuring the voltage across the

load R10, Va load and the output voltage Vao when there is no load.
By measurements,
Vao = 0.16 V
Va load = 0.08 V
We determine ra by using
ra = (Vao - Va load ) / (Va load /R10)
= (0.16 V - 0.08 V) / (0.08 V / 7087 W )
= 7087 W

D. COMMON COLLECTOR CONNECTION

Procedure

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1. The common-collector connection is assembled on the module
SO 4201-7E by inserting the bridging plugs as shown in the circuit below.

Common-collector connection circuit.

2. R4 is used to set the working point to UCE = 0.5UB (MP7 - MP8). A
voltage Ue = 4 Vpp, f = 1 kHz is applied to the circuit input MP2. The
input and output voltages are displayed on the oscilloscope and the
voltage curves are drawn in graticule 1.
3. Measurements are taken to determine the input resistance re and the
output resistance ra. For this the bribging plug B3 is inserted and Ue is

25
 applied to MP3. The method used is described. Any currents required are
measured indirectly using the oscilloscope.
4. The experiment record and the exercises provided are completed.

RESULTS

1. Graticule 1 : Ue;Ua

aX : 0.2 ms/Div

26
 aYA : 1 V/Div
aYB : 1 V/Div
Ue : 4 VPP
Ua : 4 VPP
j : 0°
Coupling : AC

Determine the voltage gain vu.

Answer :

voltage gain, vu = output voltage / input voltage

= 4 Vpp / 4 Vpp
=1

27
2. Input resistance re

Answer :

The input resistance is determined by measuring the voltage across the

resistor R1, VR1 and the input voltage Ue.
By measurements,
Ue = 4 V
VR1 = 4 V
We determine the input current Ie by using
Ie = VR1 / R1
= 4 V / 10 kW
= 400 mA
We determine re by using
re = Ue / Ie
= 4 V / 400 mA
= 10 kW

3. Output resistance ra

Answer :

The output resistance is determined by measuring the voltage across the

load R9, Va load and the output voltage Vao when there is no load.
By measurements,
Vao = 4.0 V
Va load = 3.9 V
We determine ra by using
ra = (Vao - Va load ) / (Va load /R9)
= (4.0 V - 3.9 V) / (3.9 V / 523 W )
= 13.4 W

4. Describe the operation of the common-collector connection

investigated.

28
 Answer :

The common-collector connection has a combination of dc and ac

operations. It is biased with voltage-divider bias. The capacitors C1 and
C3 are coupling capacitors on the input and output respectively. They are
used to transmit ac component but block dc component. The ac source
driving the base of the transistor produces sinusoidal variations in the base
current IB. This, in turn, provides variations in the collector current, IC.
When the ac signal voltage driving the base goes positive, the forward bias
for the transistor increases. This causes the base current, IB, and therefore
the collector current, IC, to increase. Likewise, when the ac signal voltage
driving the base goes negative, the forward bias for the transistor
decreases causing IB and IC to decrease. The input ac resistance is usually
very small and is given by
r’e = 25mV / emitter current.
The input voltage = emitter current x ( rL + r’e)
where rL = ac load which is usually very large compared to r’e.
The output voltage = emitter current x rL.
Therefore the voltage gain = output voltage / input voltage
= rL / ( rL + r’e) » 1
Hence there is no gain in voltage. When the input signal voltage at the
base increases, so does the output voltage at the emitter. Likewise, when
the input signal voltage decreases, the output voltage decreases. Thus, the
input signal and output signal are in phase with each other.

5. Compare the values of the input and output resistances of the

common-emitter connection with those of the common-collector
connection.

Answer :

29
 For the same working point and input voltage, the input resistance of the
common-collector connection is higher than that of the common-emitter
connection while the output resistance of the common-emitter is higher
than that of the common-collector connection.

6. State some applications of the common-collector connection.

Answer :

The common-collector connection is used as current and power amplifier.

It is used in Darlington amplifier and also the power amplifier in public
address / paging system. It is also used in impedance matching
applications.

DISCUSSIONS

In the experiment, we have investigated two basic circuits for

transistor, namely the common-emitter connection and the common-collector
connection.

30
 The outcome of the experiment agrees in many respect with our theory
of the operation of such circuits. For example, we expect a great voltage gain
for common-emitter connection and nearly no voltage gain for common-
collector connection; in the experiment we they do.

The display of the oscilloscope is the same as that predicted by our

theory.

By studying the operating point of the common-emitter connection on

the dc load line, we can deduce the relative magnitudes of the input voltages
at the output signal distortion threshold and their magnitudes relative to the
original input voltage 10 mVpp. It turns out that these input voltages at the
output signal distortion threshold are greater or less than the original input
signal as our theory dictates and their relative magnitudes with each other are
also consistent with our theory.

Finally, the way negative feedback affect our circuits can be well
explained by our study of the relationship between the base, emitter and
collector current.

CONCLUSIONS

In this experiment, we learn about two basic circuits for transistor, that
is the common-emitter configuration and common-collector configuration. We
discover that the former produces large voltage gain while the latter can de
considered as not producing any voltage gain. We also find that the operation
of transistor is affected by transistor and that proper dc biasing is important to

31
ensure the proper functioning of the transistor circuit so that the saturation
and cutoff regions are avoided.
We also learn something on current negative feedback. We see that
they are many advantages of negative feedback except that this entails the
reduction in voltage gain.

32
REFERENCES

1. B. L. Theraja, A. K. Theraja : A Text Book Of Electrical Technology,

21th ed., Nirja Construction & Development Co. (P) Ltd., 1994
2. Mitchel E. Schultz : Electronic Devices, 1st ed., Glencoe Macmillan /
McGraw-Hill, 1994
3. Malvino : Semiconductor Circuit Approximations, 4th ed.,
Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. Ltd., 1993
4. Savant, Roden, Carpenter : Electronic Design - Circuits And Systems,
2nd ed. Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Co., Inc., 1991
5. Floyd : Electronic Devices, 4th ed., Prentice Hall, 1996

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