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THEORY

AC THROUGH PURE OHMIC RESISTANCE ALONE

Figure 1

The circuit is shown in Figure 1. Let the applied voltage be given by the
equation

v = Vm sin wt

Let R = ohmic resistance; i = instantaneous current

The applied voltage has to supply ohmic voltage drop only.

Hence, for equilibrium

v = iR

Vm
Vm sin wt = iR; i= sin wt
R
i = Im sin wt

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The alternating voltage and current are in phase with each other as shown
in Figure 2.

Figure 2

AC THROUGH PURE INDUCTANCE ALONE

Figure 3

Whenever an alternating voltage is applied to a purely inductive coil, a

back e.m.f. is produced due to the self-inductance of the coil. The back
e.m.f. at every step opposes the rise or fall of current through the coil. As
there is no ohmic voltage drop, the applied voltage has to overcome this
self-induced e.m.f. only.
So at every step

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di
v = L dt
v = Vm sin wt

di Vm
Vm sin wt = L dt \ di = sin wt dt
L

Integrating both sides, we get

Vm
L 
i sin wt dt

V
 m   cos wt 
wL
V
  m cos wt
wL
V  
  m sin wt  
wL  2
V  
  m sin wt  
XL  2


Hence i = Im sin (wt - 2
)

The current lags behind the applied voltage by a quarter cycle (Figure 4)

or the phase difference between the two is 2
with voltage leading.
Vm Vm
It is seen that Im = wL  X
L

Here ‘wL’ plays the part of ‘resistance’. It is called the (inductive)

reactance XL of the coil and is given in ohms if L is in henry and w is in
radian/second.
Now, XL = wL = 2fL ohm. It is seen that XL depends directly on
frequency of the voltage. Higher the value of f, greater the reactance
offered and vice versa.

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Figure 4

AC THROUGH PURE CAPACITANCE ALONE

Figure 5

When an alternating voltage is applied to the plates of a capacitor, the

capacitor is charged first in one direction and then discharged in the
opposite direction. With reference to Figure 5, let

v = potential difference developed between plates at any instant

q = charge on plates at that instant
q = Cv
= CVm sin wt
Current i is given by the rate of flow of charge.

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dq d
i   CVm sin wt   wCVm cos wt
dt dt
Vm Vm  
i cos wt  sin wt  
1 / wC 1 / wC  2
Vm V
Im   m
1 / wC X C
 
\ i  I m sin wt  
 2

1
The denominator XC = is known as capacitive reactance and is in
wC
ohm if C is in farad and w in radian/second.
The current in a pure capacitor leads its voltage by a quarter cycle as
shown in Figure 6 or phase difference between its voltage and current is

2
with the current leading.

Figure 6

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COMBINING IMPEDANCES IN SERIES AND

PARALLEL

Figure 7

Impedances in series can be combined into a single impedance by simply

adding the individual impedances. The circuit shown in Figure 7 defines
the problem in general terms. The impedances Z1, Z2,....., Zn are connected
in series between terminals ab. When impedances are in series they carry
the same phasor current I. The voltage drop across each impedance is Z1I,
Z2I,....., ZnI, and from Kirchhoff’s voltage law,

Vab = Z1I + Z2I +.....+ ZnI

= (Z1 + Z2 +.....+ Zn)I

The equivalent impedance between terminals ab is

Vab
Zab = = Z1 + Z2 +.....+ Zn
I

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Impedances connected in parallel may be reduced to a single equivalent

impedance by the reciprocal relationship

1 1 1 1
  .....
Z ab Z1 Z 2 Zn

Figure 8

Figure 8 depicts the parallel connection of impedances. Note that when

impedances are in parallel, they have the same voltage across their
terminals. From Figure 8,

I = I1 + I2 +.....+ In
V V V V
  .....
Z ab Z1 Z 2 Zn

Canceling the common voltage term out reveals

1 1 1 1
  .....
Z ab Z1 Z 2 Zn

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EXPERIMENT

OBJECTIVES
To understand and explain the operating principles of RCL series and
parallel connections in a.c. circuits.

EQUIPMENT

- Electronic Universal Trainer

- Sets of leads
- Sets of bridging plugs
- Multimeter(s)
- Oscilloscope

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RCL SERIES CIRCUIT

PROCEDURE

1. An a.c. voltage of 12 VPP, f = 1kHz is applied to the circuit.

2. The values required to complete Table 1 are determined using a

multimeter.

3. The experiment record and exercises are completed

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RESULTS

1.
Ue (V) U1 (V) U2 (V) U3 (V) I (mA)
1 R1 4.24 - - 4.24 28.3
2 C1, R1 4.24 - 3.08 2.88 19.2
3 L1, R1 4.24 3.02 - 2.08 13.9
4 Li, C1, R1 4.24 4.11 3.03 2.80 18.7

Table 1

2. XL = 2fL
= 2(1´103)(33´10-3)
= 207.3 W

1
XC = 2fC
1
= 2 (1 ´ 10 )(1 ´ 10 6 )
3

= 159.2 W

3. From row 3:

U1
XL =
I
3.02
=
13.9 ´ 10 3
= 217.3 W

From row 2:

U2
XC =
I
3.08
=
19.2 ´ 10 3
= 160.4 W

From row 4:

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U1
XL =
I
411
.
=
18.7 ´ 10 3
= 219.8 W

U2
XC =
I
3.03
=
18.7 ´ 10 3
= 162.0 W

217.3  219.8
XL (average) =
2
= 218.55 W

160.4  162.0
XC (average) =
2
= 161.2 W

4. Utotal1 = 4.24 V
Utotal2 = 3.08 + 2.88 = 5.96 V
Utotal3 = 3.02 + 2.08 = 5.10 V
Utotal4 = 4.11 + 3.03 + 2.80 = 9.94 V

5. The arithmetically summed values are not in agreement with the

total voltage applied except for row 1.
This is because phase difference exists between the input voltage
and the voltage across the components in row 2, 3 and 4. The phase
is not taken into account when the voltages are summed
arithmetically. This results in the difference between the summed
values and the total voltage applied.

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6. Geometrically summed voltages:

Utotal1 = 4.24 V

Utotal2 = 3.082  2.882

= 4.22 V

Utotal3 = 3.022  2.082

= 3.67 V

Utotal4 = 2.80   4.11  3.03

2 2

= 3.00 V

The geometrically summed voltages in row 2 agree with the applied

voltage but the geometrically summed voltages in rows 3 and 4 are
not in agreement with the applied voltage. It can be seen that
inductor L1 is in use in row 3 and 4 only. Therefore we can conclude
that the disagreement is caused by the inductor.

7. Theoretically,

Impedance Z = R 2  ( X L  X C ) 2
= 150  (207.3  159.2)
2 2

= 157.5 W

8. From measurement results,

Ue
Impedance Z =
I
4.24
=
18.7 ´ 10 3
= 226.7 W

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The calculated value of Z from measurement results is higher

compared with that from point 7. This difference is caused by the
non-ideal inductor with an internal resistance which is not
negligible. The extra internal resistance causes the total impedance
to increase.

9. The characteristic features of the RCL series circuit are shown

below.

Value of Impedance Phase Angle of Power Factor

Current
R 2  (X L  X C ) 2 between 0° and 90°, between 0 and unity,
lag or lead lag or lead

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RCL - PARALLEL CIRCUIT

PROCEDURE

1. Ue = 12 VPP, f = 1 kHz is applied to the circuit input.

2. The values required to complete Table 2 are determined with a

multimeter.

3. The experiment record and exercises are completed.

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RESULTS

1.
Circuit IR2 IL2 IC2 Itotal U4 (V) U5
Combinations (mA) (mA) (mA) (mA) (mV)
1 R2 0.36 - - 0.36 4.28 3.6
2 L2 - 19.42 - 19.60 4.22 196.0
3 C2 - - 27.2 27.00 4.28 270.0
4 R 2 , C2 0.36 - 27.0 27.00 4.28 270.0
5 R2, L2 0.36 19.40 - 19.70 4.20 1197
6 L2, C2 - 19.42 26.8 10.57 4.21 105.7
7 L2, C2, R2 0.36 19.40 26.8 10.78 4.20 107.8

Table 2

2. XL = 2fL
= 2(1´103)(33´10-3)
= 207.3 W

1
XC = 2fC
1
= 2 (1 ´ 10 3 )(1 ´ 10 6 )
= 159.2 W

U4
3. XL = I
L2
4.22
=
19.42 ´ 10 3
= 217.3 W

U4
XC = I
C2
4.28
=
27.2 ´ 10 3
= 157.4 W

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4. Itotal4 = 0.36 ´ 10-3 + 27.00 ´ 10-3 = 27.36 ´ 10-3 A

Itotal5 = 0.36 ´ 10-3 + 19.40 ´ 10-3 = 19.76 ´ 10-3 A
Itotal6 = 19.42 ´ 10-3 + 26.80 ´ 10-3 = 46.22 ´ 10-3 A
Itotal7 = 0.36 ´ 10-3 + 19.40 ´ 10-3 + 26.80 ´ 10-3 = 46.56 ´ 10 -3 A

5. The arithmetically summed values are not in agreement with the

measured total current.
This is because phase difference exists between the total current and
the current through the components. The phase is not taken into
account when the currents are summed arithmetically. This results in
the difference between the summed values and the measured total
current.

6. Geometrically summed currents:

Itotal4 = (0.36 ´ 103 ) 2  (27.00 ´ 103 ) 2  27.00 ´ 103 A

Itotal5 = (0.36 ´ 103 ) 2  ( 19.40 ´ 103 ) 2  19.40 ´ 103 A

Itotal6 = ( 26.80 ´ 103  19.42 ´ 103 ) 2  7.40 ´ 10 3 A

Itotal7 = (0.36 ´ 103 ) 2  (26.80 ´ 103  19.40 ´ 103 ) 2  7.4 ´ 103 A

The geometrically summed currents are in agreement with the

measured total currents.

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7. Combination 4:

U 4.28
Impedance Z = I  27.00 ´ 10 3  158.5W
4

total

Combination 5:

U 4.20
Impedance Z = I  19.70 ´ 10 3  213.2W
4

total

Combination 6:

U 4.21
Impedance Z = I  10.57 ´ 10 3  398.3W
4

total

Combination 7:

U 4.20
Impedance Z = I  10.78 ´ 10 3  389.6W
4

total

8. The impedance Z can be calculated using the formula below:

Itotal2 = IR22 + (IC - IL)2

2
V2 V2  V V 
 2   
Z 2
R  1 / 2 fC 2 fL 
2
1 1  1 
= 2 +  2 fC - 
Z 2
R  2 fL 
1
Z
2
1  1 
+  2 fC - 
R2  2 fL 

9. For RCL parallel circuit, voltages across capasitor, resistor and

inductor are in phase. But the currents across the devices are not in
phase. For pure devices, the current through pure capasitor leads
current through resistor IR by 90° while the current through inductor
IC lags behind IR by 90°. Thus, the current through the capasitor and
inductor can be greater than the supply current. It is possible to
have such situation because both the capacitance and inductance in
alternating current circuit are in phase opposition.

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REFERENCES

1. James W. Nilsson, Susan A. Riedel,“Electric Circuits”, Fifth

Edition, Addison Wesley.

2. B. L. Theraja, A. K. Theraja,“A Text Book of Electrical

Technology”, Nirja Construction and Development Co. (P) Ltd.

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