OPERATING PRINCIPLES

ENERGY alternative for tor or fuel manifold, fuel-air mixture is

applications such as first measures liquid ignited by a spark.
TRANSFORMA electrical fuel and then
TION powerplants. converts it into fuel Power 2 The
An aircraft engine is vapor. Next, this burning gases
a form of heat Unlike external vapor is mixed with expand and force
engine that converts combustion engines, the correct amount the piston
the chemical energy internal combustion of air to produce a downward which, in
of fuel into heat engines require a combustible turn, rotates the
energy. Once specific type of fuel. mixture which is crankshaft to
converted, the heat For example, some compressed and produce work.
energy causes an automotive engines ignited within a
increase in gas only burn liquified cylinder. When the Exhaust 2 The
pressure within a petroleum gases mixture burns, it burned gases are
cylinder. The such as butane or releases energy and scavenged and
increased gas propane, while causes the forced out of a
pressure is then others use diesel noncombustible cylinder through the
converted into fuel, gasoline, or gases, such as exhaust port as the
mechanical energy alcohol. Since nitrogen, to expand. piston moves
when the expanding aircraft Since air is com- upward a second
gases force the reciprocating posed of time. Once the
piston downward. engines are internal approximately 78% piston reaches the
Since the fuel used combustion engines, nitrogen, the expan- top of the cylinder,
to produce heat is they too require the sion potential is the sequence is
burned inside the use of a specific type substantial. The repeated.
engine, an aircraft of fuel. For example, expanding gas
engine is referred to most aircraft rec- exerts pressure on an ENERGY
as an internal iprocating engines engine's pistons,
require leaded fuel
TRANSFO
combustion engine. driving them
When fuel is burned to provide upper downward to rotate RMATION
outside an engine to cylinder lubrication the crankshaft and CYCLES
produce mechanical and a specific octane create mechanical All engines
energy, the process is rating to alleviate energy. For continually repeat a
called external excessive operating simplicity, the cycle when they
combustion. temperatures. For a process just operate. One cycle
fuel to be used in a described can be represents one
A steam engine is an type certificated divided into a set complete series of
example of an aircraft, the Federal sequence of timed events that an
external combustion Aviation events. This internal combustion
engine. Fuel is Administration and sequence is engine goes through
burned in a boiler to engine manufacturer identical for all 4- to produce
heat water and must approve its use. stroke reciprocating mechanical energy.
produce steam. The engines. The In other words, one
steam is then chan- Regardless of the individual events and cycle includes the
neled into an engine type of internal the sequence in intake, compression,
to force pistons to combustion engine, which they occur are ignition, power, and
turn a crankshaft or the process of listed here. exhaust events.
spin a turbine. converting the
However, since chemical energy of Intake 2 Fuel and
external combustion fuel into mechanical air are drawn into a
engines do not energy is essentially cylinder when the
effectively convert the same. A fuel intake valve opens
the heat provided by metering device, and the piston
the fuel into work, such as a carbure- travels downward.
they are relatively
inefficient. This is Compression 2 The
offset somewhat by fuel-air mixture is
the low cost fuels compressed in the
required to operate cylinder by the
an external combus- upward motion of
tion engine. As a the piston.
result, external
combustion engines Ignition 2 Once
remain a viable compressed, the
7-34 Reciprocating
Engines
Figure 1-57. One stroke is equivalent to the distance a piston head travels between bottom dead center and top dead center. In all
reciprocating engines, one complete stroke occurs with each 180 degrees of crankshaft rotation.
The two operating cycles in general use today are the four-stroke, or Otto cycle developed by August Otto, and the
two-stroke cycle. The majority of piston engines operate on the more efficient four-stroke cycle; however, there are
several small, nonaviation powerplants that use the two-stroke cycle. A stroke is simply the total distance a piston
travels between the outward and inward limits within a cylinder. In a cylinder, the most outward limit is referred
to as top dead center (TDC) while the most inward limit is known as bottom dead center (BDC). [Figure 1-57]

FOUR-STROKE CYCLE
As the name implies, the four-stroke cycle consists of four strokes, intake, compression, power, and exhaust. One
complete four-stroke cycle requires two revolutions of the crankshaft. The four-stroke cycle is sometimes referred
to as a constant volume cycle because the burning fuel inside the cylinder increases the gas pressure with almost
no change in volume. [Figure 1-58]
Figure 1-58. The four strokes that take place in a four-stroke. Otto cycle include the intake, compression, power, and exhaust.

In the four-stroke cycle, the exact timing of when the valves open and close and when ignition occurs varies
considerably among engine types. However, timing is always determined by crankshaft position. In the following
discussion, the timing of each event is specified in terms of crankshaft travel, and is measured in degrees of rotation,
during the stroke that the event occurs. For example, the intake valve on a specific engine may open 15 degrees
before top dead center while on the exhaust stroke. Since a certain amount of travel is required to fully open a
valve, the specified timing represents the start of valve opening rather than the full-open valve position.

INTAKE STROKE
The intake stroke begins with the piston at top dead center and the intake valve open. During this stroke, crankshaft
rotation pulls the piston downward thereby reducing the pressure within the cylinder. Lower pressure inside the
cylinder allows air that is under atmospheric pressure to flow through the carburetor where it is mixed with the
correct amount of
Reciprocating Engines 1-35
fuel. The resulting fuel/air mixture then passes
through an intake manifold pipe, down through an
intake port, and past an intake valve into the cylin-
der. The quantity, or weight, of fuel and air that
enters the cylinder is determined by the throttle
position. For example, when the throttle is full
open, the greatest amount of fuel and air enters a
cylinder and the engine runs at its fastest speed.
COMPRESSION STROKE
Once a piston reaches bottom dead center on the
intake stroke, the piston reverses direction and
begins the compression stroke. Depending on the
specific engine, the intake valve typically closes
about 50 to 75 degrees past bottom dead center on
the compression stroke. Delaying the closing of the
intake valve until the piston is past bottom dead
center allows the momentum of the incoming
gases to charge the cylinder more completely.
After the intake valve closes, the piston's contin-
ued upward travel compresses the fuel/air mixture
to obtain the most favorable burning characteris-
tics. As the piston approaches top dead center, the
mixture is ignited by an electric spark provided by
two spark plugs installed in each cylinder head.
The exact time ignition occurs varies depending
on the requirements of the specific engine, but is
typically from 20 to 35 degrees before top dead
center. By igniting the mixture before the piston
reaches top dead center, complete combustion and
maximum pressure are ensured when the piston
begins the power stroke. Each manufacturer deter-
mines the optimum ignition point for each engine
model.
POWER STROKE
As a piston moves through top dead center on the
compression stroke, it reverses direction again to
begin the power stroke. During the power stroke, the
piston is pushed downward by the rapidly expand-
ing gases within the cylinder. The temperature of
these gases can exceed 3,000 degrees Fahrenheit
while pushing down on the piston with a force in
excess of 15 tons. However, as the burning gases
expand, they cool considerably, exiting the cylinder
at a reasonable temperature.
The linear motion produced by the back and forth
movement of a piston is converted to rotary motion
through the use of a connecting rod and crankshaft.
The rotary motion is then used to drive a propeller
or a gear case.
To aid in scavenging the exhaust gases out of a
cylinder, the exhaust valve opens well before bot-
tom dead center on the power stroke while there is
still pressure in the cylinder. This positive pressure
helps expel the exhaust gases out the exhaust port
after the desired expansion of hot gases has been
obtained. Proper exhaust gas scavenging is an
important consideration in engine design since any
exhaust products remaining in a cylinder will
dilute the incoming fuel/air charge during the sub-
sequent intake stroke. In addition, thorough
exhaust gas scavenging helps control cylinder oper-
ating temperatures.
The rapid burning of a fuel/air charge in an engine
produces a power impulse. If an engine is designed
with uneven or widely spaced power impulses,
excessive engine vibration may occur. For example,
one and two cylinder engines have relatively few
power impulses compared to four and six cylinder
engines and, therefore, vibrate more. Consequently,
more cylinders produce more power impulses and
less vibration.
EXHAUST STROKE
As a piston travels through bottom dead center on
the power stroke and starts upward on an exhaust
stroke, it begins to expel the burned exhaust gases
out the exhaust port. The speed at which exhaust
gases leave a cylinder tends to cause the pressure
within the cylinder to drop, leaving an area of low
pressure. This low pressure speeds the flow of fuel
and air into the cylinder as the intake valve begins to
open. In order to maximize usage of the reduced
cylinder pressure, the intake valve on a typical
engine is timed to open anywhere from 8 to 55
degrees before top dead center, on the exhaust stroke.
VALVE TIMING
Proper valve timing is crucial for efficient engine per-
formance. Valve timing is the term used to describe
the point at which the intake and exhaust valves begin
to open and close during the four-stroke cycle. For
example, as previously discussed, the intake valve
begins to open before the piston reaches top dead cen-
ter on the exhaust stroke. This allows the piston to
draw a greater quantity of fuel and air into the cylin-
der. The number of crankshaft degrees that the intake
valve opens before the piston reaches top dead center
is called valve lead. If the valve does not open at the
proper time, the volume of fuel and air taken into the
cylinder will be affected, causing the engine to run
rough or not at all.
7-36 Reciprocating Engines
You may also recall that the exhaust valve remains
open beyond top dead center and into the intake
stroke. The number of degrees the exhaust valve
remains open past top dead center is called valve
lag. The combination of valve lead and lag is called
valve overlap and represents the number of degrees
that both the intake and exhaust valves are
unseated. The primary purpose of valve overlap is
to allow the fuel/air charge to enter the cylinder as
early as possible to increase engine efficiency and
aid in cylinder cooling. In addition, valve overlap
takes advantage of the inertia in the outflowing
exhaust gases to provide more complete exhaust gas
scavenging.

As a piston passes bottom dead center on the intake

stroke, valve lag is used again to keep the intake
valve open into the compression stroke. This per-
mits the maximum amount of fuel and air to enter
the combustion chamber prior to compression.
Valve lead, on the other hand, is incorporated a sec-
ond time when the exhaust valve is opened prior to
bottom dead center on the power stroke. If you
recall, the exhaust valve is opened early to improve
exhaust gas scavenging and to help remove heat
from the cylinder. To help you better visualize valve
movement through a complete engine cycle, some
engine manufacturers provide a timing diagram in
their maintenance manuals. [Figure 1-59]
In this example, notice that the valve lead and lag is
greater near bottom center than it is near top center.
The exhaust valve leads bottom center by 60 degrees
and the intake valve lags by 60 degrees. On the other
hand, when the piston is near top center, the intake
valve leads top center by 15 degrees while the
exhaust valve lags by 10 degrees. The reason for this
is that the linear distance a piston travels for a given
degree of crankshaft rotation varies from top center
to bottom center. In other words, when the piston is
at or near top center, it moves more per degree of
crankshaft rotation than if the piston were at bottom
center. [Figure 1-60]
As you can see, a piston moves further in the first 90
degrees of rotation than in the second 90 degrees. In
addition, piston velocity is highest at the 90 degree
point and lowest at top and bottom center positions.
This reduction in speed at both top center and bot-
tom center provides a smoother transition for the
piston when it is changing its direction of travel.
Once you know the specific valve timing for an
engine, you can calculate the amount of crankshaft
rotation that each valve is open or closed. For exam-
ple, given an intake valve that opens 15 degrees
Figure 1-59. To read this diagram, begin at the inside of the
spiral. Notice that the intake valve opens 15 degrees before
top center on the exhaust stroke while the exhaust valve
remains open 10 degrees into the intake stroke. As you fol-
low the spiral into the compression stroke, notice that the
intake valve closes 60 degrees past bottom center on the
compression stroke. At this point, both valves are closed
and ignition takes place at 30 degrees before top center on
the compression stroke. As the cycle proceeds, the exhaust
valve opens 60 degrees before bottom center on the power
stroke and remains open throughout the exhaust stroke.
The intake valve, on the other hand, opens 15 degrees prior
to top center on the exhaust stroke.
before top dead center and closes 45 degrees after
bottom dead center, you can calculate the intake
valve's duration, which is the amount of time the
valve is open. In this example, once the intake valve
opens, the piston travels 15 degrees to reach top cen-
ter, 180 degrees to reach bottom center, and then 45
degrees past bottom center for a total of 240 degrees
of rotation. By the same token, if an exhaust valve
opens 70 degrees before bottom dead center and
closes 10 degrees after top dead center, the piston
travels 70 degrees to reach bottom center, 180
degrees to reach top center, and then an additional
10 degrees past top center for a total duration of 260
degrees. To determine how many degrees a crank-
shaft will rotate with both valves closed, or seated,
you must determine the number of degrees between
the point where the intake valve closes and the
point where the exhaust valve opens. Given that the
intake valve closes 45 degrees after bottom dead
center on the compression stroke and the exhaust
valve opens 70 degrees before bottom center on the
Reciprocating Engines 1-37
Figure 1-60. The circle divided into even segments repre-
sents the travel of a crankpin while the vertical line above
the circle represents the path of a piston. To represent the
connecting rod length, equal length lines are drawn from
each segment line to the piston path. From the figure, you
can see that a piston moves more per degree of travel when
the piston is near top center than when it is near bottom
center.
intake stroke, the degree of travel with both valves
seated is 245 degrees.
FIRING ORDER
An engine's firing order represents the sequence in
which the ignition event occurs in different cylin-
ders. Each engine is designed with a specific firing
order to maintain balance and reduce vibration. For
example, a four cylinder Continental model O-200-
A has a firing order of 1-3-2-4. By the same token, a
four cylinder Lycoming model O-320-E3D has the
same firing order, but the cylinders are numbered
differently. For this reason, caution should be exer-
cised and manufacturer's maintenance instructions
followed carefully. [Figure 1-61]
In radial engines, the firing order must follow a spe-
cific pattern that allows the power impulses to fol-
low the motion of the crank throw during rotation.
For example, on all single-row radial engines, the
odd numbered cylinders fire in succession first, fol-
lowed by the even cylinders. Therefore, the firing
Figure 1-61. Notice that the firing pattern and cylinder num-
bering method varies between engine manufacturers and
engine models.
order on a seven cylinder radial engine is 1-3-5-7-2-
4-6 while the firing order on a nine cylinder radial
engine is 1-3-5-7-9-2-4-6-8.
A double-row radial engine is essentially two sin-
gle-row radial engines that share a common crank-
shaft. Like the single-row radial, the power pulses
must occur between alternate cylinders in each row,
in sequence. In other words, two cylinders in the
same row can never fire in succession. In addition,
to balance the power pulses between the two rows,
when a cylinder fires in one row, its opposite cylin-
der must fire in the second row. For example, con-
sider a 14 cylinder double-row radial engine,
consisting of two rows of seven cylinders each. If
you recall from the discussion in the previous sec-
tion, on a double-row radial engine, all the odd
numbered cylinders are in the rear row while all the
even numbered cylinders are in the front row.
Therefore, if the number 1 cylinder fires in the back
row, the cylinder opposite the number 1 cylinder in
the front row must fire. In a 14 cylinder double-row
engine, the number 10 cylinder is opposite the num-
ber 1 cylinder. The power pulses then go back and
forth between rows in alternating cylinders to obtain
a firing order of 1-10-5-14-9-4-13-8-3-12-7-2-11-6.
1-38 Reciprocating
Engines
A method for computing the firing order of a 14
cylinder, double-row radial engine is to start with
any cylinder number, 1 through 14 and either add 9
or subtract 5, whichever results in a number
between 1 and 14. For example, if you start with the
number 1 cylinder, 5 cannot be subtracted to arrive
at a number between 1 and 14, so you add 9 to arrive
at 10. Then, since you cannot add 9 to 10 without
exceeding 14, you need to subtract 5 to arrive at 5.
Now, add 9 to 5 to get 14, and subtract 5 from 14 to
get 9. Continue this pattern until you have the com-
plete 14 cylinder firing order. Once complete, the
identical firing order of 1-10-5-14-9-4-13-8-3-12-7-2-
11-6 results.
To determine the firing order of an 18 cylinder, dou-
ble-row radial engine, the numbers 11 and 7 are used;
that is, begin with any cylinder number from 1 to 18
and either add 11 or subtract 7, whichever will result
in a number between 1 and 18. Once these numbers
are applied, you should arrive at a firing order of 1-
12-5-16-9-2-13-6-17-10-3-14-7-18-11-4-15-8.
TWO-STROKE CYCLE
The two-stroke cycle is similar to the four-stroke
cycle in that the same five events occur in each oper-
ating cycle. However, the five events occur in two
piston strokes rather than four strokes. This means
that one cycle is completed in one crankshaft revo-
lution. [Figure 1-62]
As a two-stroke cycle begins, the piston moves up
and two events occur simultaneously. The piston
compresses the fuel/air charge in the cylinder and
creates an area of low pressure within the crankcase.
This low pressure pulls fuel and air into the
crankcase through a check valve. Once the piston is
a few degrees before top dead center, ignition occurs
and the fuel/air mixture begins to burn. As the pis-
ton passes top dead center the pressure from the
expanding gases begin to force the piston downward
on the power stroke. This downward stroke also
compresses the fuel/air charge in the crankcase. As
the piston approaches the bottom of the power
stroke, the exhaust port is uncovered and spent
gases are purged from the cylinder. A split second
later, the piston uncovers the intake port and allows
the pressurized fuel/air charge in the crankcase to
enter the cylinder. The cycle then repeats itself as
the piston compresses the fuel/air charge in the
cylinder and draws a fresh fuel/air charge into the
crankcase.
To help prevent the incoming fuel/air mixture from
mixing with the exhaust gases, most two-stroke
engines utilize pistons with baffled heads that
deflect the fuel/air charge upward away from exit-
ing exhaust gases. Baffled heads do not, however,
completely eliminate the mixing problem. Since
both the exhaust and intake events take place
almost simultaneously, some of the fuel/air charge
becomes diluted by the exhaust gases and some is
Figure 1-62. In a two-stroke engine, the piston controls the flow of gases into and out of the cylinder through the intake and
exhaust ports. This eliminates the need for either an intake or exhaust valve and their associated operating mechanisms. This sim-
plifies a two-stroke engine's construction and minimizes weight.
Reciprocating 1-39
Engines
discharged out the exhaust port before being com-
pressed and ignited. This reduces the engine's over-
all efficiency.
Lubrication for a two-stroke engine is typically pro-
vided by the fuel/air mixture as it circulates in the
crankcase. However, the fuel alone does not provide
the lubrication. Instead, oil is typically added to the
fuel when the fuel tank is filled. This eliminates the
need for an oil sump which greatly reduces a two-
stroke engine's weight.
The extreme simplicity and light weight of a two-
stroke cycle engine make it useful for such applica-
tions as chain saws, lawn mowers, and ultralight
aircraft. However, the two-stroke engine's use is lim-
ited for aviation applications because it is less effi-
cient and more difficult to cool than the four-cycle
engine.
WORK-POWER CONSIDERATIONS
All aircraft engines are tested and rated according to
their ability to do work and produce power. An
engine's design and construction determines how
effective it is in converting a fuel's chemical energy
to work and power. The following discussion pro-
vides an explanation of work and power as well as a
means of calculating both. In addition, several of the
factors that affect an engine's power output are also
discussed.
In the English system, work is typically measured in
foot-pounds. One foot-pound is equal to one pound
of force applied to an object through the distance of
one foot. In the metric system, the unit of work is
the joule. One joule is the work done by a force of
one newton acting through a distance of one meter.
One pound is equal to 4.448 newtons.
The work produced by an engine is used to turn a
propeller which, in turn, produces thrust to move
an aircraft. In addition, an engine does work by turn-
ing electrical generators and hydraulic pumps.
When an engine drives an alternator to produce the
electricity that turns a motor or drives a hydraulic
pump to cycle landing gear, the engine has per-
formed work because the force supplied by the
engine resulted in movement.
POWER
When determining the amount of work done, the
time required to do the work is not considered.
Power, on the other hand, does take time into con-
sideration. For example, a low powered motor can
be geared to lift a large weight if time is not a factor.
However, if it is important to lift the weight quickly,
more power is required. Power is calculated with
the formula:
WORK
If a force is applied to an object and the object
moves, work is done. The amount of work done is
directly proportional to the force applied and the
distance the object moves. In mathematical terms,
work is defined as the product of force times dis-
tance.
Work (W) = Force (F) x Distance (D)
Example:
If an engine weighing 400 pounds is lifted 10 feet,
the work done is 4,000 foot-pounds.
Work = 400 pounds x 10 feet
= 4,000 foot-pounds
If a force is applied to an object and the object does
not move, no work is done. By the same token, no
work is done if an object moves with no force
applied to it.
Power is defined as the time-rate of doing work. In
the English system, power is expressed in foot-
pounds per second, whereas the unit of power in the
metric system is joules per second.
When rating engines, power is a primary considera-
tion because it represents how quickly an engine-
propeller combination can respond to power
demands. Power is a critical factor when determin-
ing whether or not an engine can deliver the force
needed to produce a specific amount of work in a
given time. For example, a large airplane needs
more power to take off in the same distance as a
small airplane because more force is needed to
accelerate a heavier object the same distance in the
same amount of time.
HORSEPOWER
Another unit of measure for power is the horse-
power. Horsepower was first used by James Watt to
compare the performance of his steam engine with a
typical English dray horse. One horsepower is the
7-40 Reciprocating Engines
amount of power required to do 33,000 foot-pounds
of work in one minute or 550 foot-pounds of work
in one second. Therefore, the formula used to calcu-
late horsepower is:
the engine is divided by 33,000 to find the indicated
horsepower.
To check your understanding of this formula, com-
pute the indicated horsepower for a six-cylinder
engine that has a bore of five inches, a stroke of five
inches, and is turning at 2,750 rpm with a measured
IMEP of 125 psi per cylinder.
INDICATED HORSEPOWER
Indicated horsepower (IHP) is the total power actu-
ally developed in an engine's cylinders without ref-
erence to friction losses within the engine. To
calculate indicated horsepower, the average effec-
tive pressure within the cylinders must be known.
One way to determine the effective pressure is to
attach a mechanical indicating device to the engine
cylinder that records the actual pressure existing in
the cylinder during a complete operating cycle.
From this data, an average pressure is computed.
This average pressure is referred to as indicated
mean effective pressure and is included in the indi-
cated horsepower calculation with other engine
specifications. The formula used to calculate an
engine's indicated horsepower rating is:

Where:
P = the Indicated pounds of work FRICTION
Mean Effective performed by
Pressure, or IMEP HORSEPOWER
inside the The indicated
cylinder during a horsepower
power stroke. L = calculation
the length of the discussed in the
stroke in feet or preceeding
fractions of a paragraph is the
foot. theoretical power of
A = the area of the a frictionless
piston head in square engine. However,
inches. N = the there is no such
number of power thing as a
strokes per minute frictionless engine.
for one All engines require
cylinder. On a energy to draw a
four-stroke fuel/air charge into
engine, this is the combustion
found chamber, compress
by it, and expel
dividing the exhaust gases.
rpm by two. Furthermore, gears,
K = the pistons, and
number of accessories create
cylinders on friction that must be
the engine. overcome. Engine
lubrication is crucial
in limiting friction
In the formula above,
and wear, but
the area of the piston
friction cannot be
times the mean
completely
effective pressure
eliminated.
provides the force
Therefore, not all of
acting on the piston
the horsepower
in pounds. This
developed in an
force multiplied by
engine goes to
the length of the
driving the
stroke in feet results
propeller. The power
in the work per-
required to over-
formed in one
come the friction and
power stroke,
energy losses is
which, when multi-
known as friction
plied by the number
horsepower and is
of power strokes per
measured by driving
minute, gives the
an engine with a
number of foot-
calibrated motor
pounds per minute of
and measuring
work produced by
power needed to turn
one cylinder.
the engine at a given
Multiplying this
speed.
result by the number
of cylinders in the
engine gives the
BRAKE
amount of work
performed, in foot- HORSEPOWER
pounds, by the The actual amount
engine. Since of power delivered
horsepower is to the propeller shaft
defined as work is called brake
done at the rate of horsepower. One
33,000 foot-pounds way to
per minute, the total
number of foot-
Reciprocating Engines 1-41
determine brake horsepower is to subtract an
engine's friction horsepower from its indicated
horsepower. In practice, the measurement of an
engine's brake horsepower involves the measure-
ment of a quantity known as torque, or twisting
moment. Torque is a measure of load and is prop-
erly expressed in pound-inches or pound-feet.

There are a number of devices that are capable of

measuring torque, including the dynamometer and
torquemeter. Early powerplant design engineers
measured brake horsepower using a Prony brake
dynamometer, which consists of a hinged collar, or
brake, clamped to the propeller shaft. The collar acts
as an adjustable friction brake. An arm of a known
length is rigidly attached to the hinged collar and
bears on a set of scales. As the propeller shaft
rotates, it tries to spin the brake which, in turn,
applies force to a scale. If the resulting force regis-
tered on the scale is multiplied by the length of the
arm, the resulting product represents the torque
exerted by the rotating shaft.
Once the torque is known, the work done per revo-
lution of the propeller shaft is computed using the
equation:
Work per revolution = 2K X Torque
If the work per revolution is multiplied by the rpm,
the result is work per minute, or power. Since work
is expressed in foot-pounds per minute, this quan-
tity is divided by 33,000 to arrive at an engine's
brake horsepower. The resulting formula for calcu-
lating brake horsepower is:
Figure 1-63. In the example above, the 3-foot arm of the
prony brake is exerting a force of 200 pounds on the scale.
This results in a torque of 600 foot-pounds.
knowing the amount of friction between the collar
and drum. As long as the torque increase is propor-
tional to the rpm decrease, the horsepower deliv-
ered at the shaft remains unchanged. [Figure 1-63]
Today, the brake horsepower on most modern
engines is measured with an electric or hydraulic
dynamometer. With an electric dynamometer, an
engine drives an electrical generator. The output of
the generator is used to do work, and the amount of
work done in a given time is used to calculate the
power the engine is producing. [Figure 1-64]
PISTON DISPLACEMENT
Piston displacement is defined as the volume of air
displaced by a piston as it moves from bottom cen-
ter to top center. To determine a piston's displace-
ment, you must multiply the area of a piston head
by the length of the piston stroke. If you recall from

If the friction between the brake collar and pro-

Figure 1-64. With a dynamometer, the power produced by
peller shaft imposes a load without stopping the an engine is used to drive an electrical generator or fluid
engine, brake horsepower can be computed without pump so the power output can be accurately measured.
7-42 Reciprocating Engines
your previous study of mathematics and the discus-
sion on indicated horsepower (PLANK), the area of
a circle is calculated with the formula:
For example, one cylinder of a four-cylinder aircraft
engine has a bore, or diameter, of four inches. What
is the area of the piston head?
Given:
Bore = 4 inches
Area = 7tr2
= 3.14X22
= 12.56 square inches
Once the area of one piston is known, total piston
displacement is calculated with the formula:
Total Piston Displacement = A x L x N
Where: : . ..,-..■■-.
A = area of piston head in square inches L =
length of the stroke in inches N = number
of cylinders
Using the example presented earlier, determine the
total displacement if each of the four cylinders has a
stroke of six inches.
Given:
Area = 12.56 square inches
Stroke = 6 inches Number
of cylinders = 4
Piston Displacement = A x L x N
; =12.56X6X4
= 301.44 cubic inches
The total engine displacement is 301.44 cubic
inches. Since the amount of work done by the
expanding gases is determined in part by the piston
area and the piston stroke, it should be evident that
increasing either the cylinder bore or the piston
stroke increases piston displacement.
ENGINE EFFICIENCY
Energy is the capacity for doing work and cannot be
created or destroyed. However, energy can be trans-
formed from potential, or stored energy into kinetic
energy. Aircraft reciprocating engines transform the
potential, or chemical energy stored in fuel into heat
energy during the combustion process. The heat
energy is then converted to kinetic energy by
mechanical means. Engine design and construction,
fuel type, and environmental conditions all play a
part in how efficiently an engine converts a fuel's
potential energy. To determine how efficient an
engine is, several factors must be examined, includ-
ing an engine's thermal, volumetric, and mechani-
cal efficiency.
THERMAL EFFICIENCY
An engine's thermal efficiency (TE) is a ratio of the
amount of heat energy converted to useful work to
the amount of heat energy contained in the fuel used
to support combustion. In other words, thermal effi-
ciency is a measure of the inefficiencies experienced
when converting the heat energy in fuel to work. For
example, consider two engines that produce the
same amount of horsepower, but consume different
amounts of fuel. The engine using less fuel converts
a greater portion of the available energy into useful
work and, therefore, has a higher thermal efficiency.
Thermal efficiency is found by the formula:
26, , 26.,,,. . Horsepower x
33,000
Thermal Efficiency = ------F x BTTJ x K---------------
Where:
Horsepower = An engine's brake or indicated horse-
power 33,000 = Number of foot-pounds of
work per
minute in one horsepower F = Weight of
fuel burned per minute BTU = Heat value of
the fuel burned measured in BTU's
K = Constant representing the number of
foot-pounds of work each BTU is
capable of doing in one second.
Thermal efficiency can be calculated using either
brake or indicated horsepower. If brake horsepower
is used, the result is brake thermal efficiency (BTE),
and if indicated horsepower is used, you get indi-
cated thermal efficiency (ITE).
The constant, 33,000, is the number of foot-pounds
of work per minute in one horsepower. Therefore,
when horsepower is multiplied by 33,000, the out-
put of an engine in foot-pounds per minute results.
Almost all engine performance data relating to fuel
consumption is expressed in terms of gallons per
hour. Therefore, you must be able to convert gallons
Reciprocating Engines 1-43
per hour to pounds per minute. For example, the
weight of 100LL aviation gasoline is six pounds per
gallon. If a particular engine burns 10 gallons per
hour, you must multiply the gallons consumed per
hour by six pounds and divide the product by 60,
the number of minutes per hour. The resulting fuel
burn is one pound per minute (10 x 6 -f- 60 = 1).
In the English system of measurement, the relation-
ship between heat and work is the British Thermal
Unit, or BTU, of heat energy. Each pound of aviation
gasoline contains 20,000 BTU's of heat energy,
therefore, the number 20,000 is typically used in the
formula for determining thermal efficiency.
By multiplying the pounds per minute of fuel an
engine burns by 20,000, you get the total number of
BTU's, or total heat energy that is produced in a
given engine. One BTU is capable of doing 778 foot-
pounds of work. Therefore, when you multiply the
total number of BTU's by the constant 778, both the
top and bottom of the formula produce a product
that is in foot-pounds.
Based on the information just presented, the for-
mula used to calculate thermal efficiency can be
simplified to read:
28. , rr. . Horsepower x 33,000
Thermal efficiency =--------------------------
To check your understanding of this formula, deter-
mine the brake thermal efficiency of a piston engine
that produces 150 brake horsepower while burning
8 gallons of aviation gasoline per hour.
12,448,000
.398 39.8
percent
Most reciprocating engines are between 30 and 40
percent efficient. The remaining heat is lost through
the exhaust gases, the cooling system, and the fric-
tion within the engine. In fact, of the total heat pro-
duced in a reciprocating engine, 30 to 40 percent is
utilized for power output; 15 to 20 percent is lost in
cooling; 5 to 10 percent is lost in overcoming fric-
tion of moving parts; and 40 to 45 percent is lost
through the exhaust.
VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY
Volumetric efficiency (VE) is the ratio of the volume
of fuel and air an engine takes into its cylinders to
the total piston displacement. For example, if an
engine draws in a volume of fuel and air that is
exactly equal to the engine's total piston displace-
ment, volumetric efficiency would be 100 percent.
By the same token, if an engine draws in 288 cubic
inches of fuel and air and has a total piston dis-
placement of 320 cubic inches, the volumetric effi-
ciency would be 90 percent.
Because the density of the air drawn into an engine
varies with changes in atmospheric conditions, the
only way to accurately calculate volumetric effi-
ciency is to correct for nonstandard temperature and
pressure. If you recall from your earlier studies,
standard temperature and pressure at sea level is
59蚌 (15蚓 ) and 29.92 inches of mercury (1013.2
millibars) respectively. Based on this, the formula
for determining volumetric efficiency is:
The volumetric efficiency of most normally aspi-
rated engines is less than 100 percent. The reason
for this is because bends, surface roughness, and
obstructions inside the induction system slow the
flow of air which, in turn, reduces the air pressure
within the manifold. On the other hand, tur-
bocharged engines compress the air before it enters
the cylinders, and often have volumetric efficien-
cies greater than 100 percent.
Anything that decreases the density, or volume of
air entering a cylinder decreases volumetric effi-
ciency. Some of the typical factors that affect volu-
metric efficiency of a non-turbocharged engine
include:
1. Part throttle operation 28 This restricts the
vol
ume of air that flows into the cylinders.
2. Long, small diameter, intake pipes 28 As air
flows
through an induction system, friction slows the air
flow, causing a decrease in air density. The amount of
friction created is directly proportional to the length
of the intake pipes and inversely proportional to their
cross-sectional area. In other words, long, small
diameter intake pipes create the most friction while
short, large diameter intake pipes create less friction.
7-44 Reciprocating Engines
3. Induction systems with sharp bends 30 Each
time
intake air turns a corner in an induction system, air
flow slows and less air enters the cylinders.
4. High carburetor air temperatures 30 As the
tem
perature of the intake air increases, air density
decreases. A lower air density means less air enters
the cylinders. ■ /■■30. > c . .■
u-
5. High cylinder head temperatures 30 As the
cylin
der heads and corresponding combustion chambers
heat up, air density in the cylinders decreases and
volumetric efficiency decreases.
6. Incomplete scavenging 30 If the valve overlap
in
an engine is incorrect, exhaust gases will displace
some of the incoming fuel/air mixture. When this
happens, less fuel and air is drawn into the cylin
ders and a lower volumetric efficiency results.
7. Improper valve timing 30 If the intake valve
does
not remain open long enough to allow a complete
charge of fuel and air to enter a cylinder, volumetric
efficiency drops.
8. Increases in altitude 30 As an aircraft climbs,
ambient air pressure drops and air density
decreases. As an engine draws the "thin" air into its
cylinders, its volumetric efficiency drops. This
problem can be overcome, to a certain degree, by
turbocharging an engine. Turbocharging increases
the induction air pressure above atmospheric pres
sure which, in turn, increases the density of the
fuel/air charge entering the cylinders.
MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY
Mechanical efficiency is the ratio of brake horse-
power to indicated horsepower and represents the
percentage of power developed in the cylinders that
reaches the propeller shaft. For example, if an
engine develops 160 brake horsepower and 180
indicated horsepower, the ratio of brake horsepower
to indicated horsepower is 160:180, which repre-
sents a mechanical efficiency of 89 percent. Since
aircraft engines are mechanically efficient, it is not
unusual for ninety percent of the indicated horse-
power to be converted into brake horsepower.
The factor that has the greatest effect on mechanical
efficiency is the friction within the engine itself. The
friction between moving parts in an engine remains
relatively consistent throughout an engine's speed
range. Therefore, the mechanical efficiency of an
engine is highest when the engine is running at an
rpm that maximum brake horsepower is developed.
FACTORS AFFECTING POWER
According to the general gas law which combines
Boyle's Law and Charles' Law, a definite relation-
ship between gas volume, temperature, and pressure
exists. That relationship is the reason why the inter-
nal combustion process must be precisely con-
trolled for an engine to produce power efficiently.
MANIFOLD PRESSURE
Changes in manifold air pressure affect the amount
of power an engine can produce for a given rpm.
Manifold air pressure, or manifold absolute pressure
(MAP) readings are monitored by a gauge and pro-
vide a means of selecting power settings. Absolute
pressure is the pressure above a complete vacuum
indicated in inches of mercury (in. Hg.) or pounds
per square inch absolute (psia). MAP gauges indi-
cate absolute pressure of the fuel/air mixture at a
point just outside a cylinder intake port.
Excessive pressures and temperatures shorten
engine life by overstressing cylinders, pistons, con-
necting rods, bearings, crankshaft journals, and
valves. Continued operation past upper manifold
absolute pressure limits leads to worn engine parts,
decreasing power output and lower efficiency, or
worse, engine failure.
DETONATION AND PREIGNITION
A fuel/air mixture burns in a very controlled and
predictable way when normal combustion takes
place. Even though the process happens in a frac-
tion of a second, the mixture starts burning at the
point where it is ignited by the spark plugs, then
burns away from the plugs until it is all consumed.
The dual spark plug design common in most aircraft
reciprocating engines promotes a complete even
burn of the fuel/air charge by providing two ignition
sparks at the same time. The plugs are arranged
across from one another so that, as the flame
advances from each spark plug, the mixture burns
in a wavelike form toward the center of the cylinder.
This type of combustion causes a smooth buildup of
temperature and pressure so that maximum force is
applied to the piston at exactly the right time in the
power stroke. [Figure 1-65]
Detonation is the uncontrolled, explosive ignition of
the fuel/air mixture in the cylinder. Detonation
causes high cylinder temperatures and pressures
which lead to a rough running engine, overheating,
and power loss. If detonation occurs in an engine,
damage or even failure of pistons, cylinders, or valves
can happen. The high pressures and temperatures,
combined with the high turbulence generated, cause
a "hammering" or "scrubbing" action on a cylinder
and piston that can burn a hole completely through
either of them in seconds. You can detect detonation
as a "knock" in the engine. [Figure 1-66]
Reciprocating Engines 1-45
Figure 1-65. During normal combustion, the fuel/air mixture burns evenly, producing a steady force similar to the even pressure of
someone pushing down on the piston.

Detonation is caused by several conditions such as using a fuel grade lower than recommended and allowing the
engine to overheat. Wrong ignition tim-
Figure 1-66. When detonation occurs, the fuel/air charge burns in an explosive fashion causing a rapid increase in pressure that
produces a "hammering" action on the piston.

ing, heavy engine load at low rpm, fuel/air mixture too lean, and compression ratios of 12:1 or higher are also
possible causes of detonation. [Figure 1-67]
Figure 1-67. This chart illustrates the pressure created in a cylinder as it passes through its various strokes. As you can see, when
normal combustion occurs, cylinder pressure builds and dissipates evenly. However, when detonation occurs, cylinder pressure
fluctuates dramatically.
7-46 Reciprocating Engines
Preignition takes place when the fuel/air mixture
ignites too soon. It is caused by hot spots in a cylin-
der that ignite the fuel/air mixture before the spark
plugs fire. A hot spot can be caused by something as
simple as a carbon particle, overheated valve edges,
silica deposits on a spark plug, or a red-hot spark
plug electrode. Hot spots are caused by poor engine
cooling, dirty intake air filters, or shutting down the
engine at high rpm. When the engine continues run-
ning after the ignition is turned off, preignition may
be the cause.
Preignition and detonation can occur simultane-
ously, and one may cause the other. Sometimes it is
difficult distinguishing between the two, but they
both cause engine roughness and high operating
temperatures.
COMPRESSION RATIO
All internal combustion engines must compress the
fuel/mixture to receive a reasonable amount of work
from each power stroke. The fuel/air charge in the
cylinder can be compared to a coil spring, in that the
more it is compressed, the more work it is poten-
tially capable of doing.
An engine's compression ratio is defined as the
ratio of cylinder volume with the piston at the bot-
tom of its stroke to the volume with the piston at the
top of its stroke. For example, if there are 140 cubic
inches of space in a cylinder when the piston is at
bottom center and 20 cubic inches of space when
the piston is at top center, the compression ratio is
140 to 20. When this ratio is expressed in fraction
form, it becomes 140/20, or 7 to 1, usually repre-
sented as 7:1. [Figure 1-68]
To a great extent, an engine's compression ratio
determines the amount of heat energy that is con-
verted into useful work. Specifically, high compres-
sion ratios allow the fuel/air mixture to release its
energy rapidly and produce maximum pressure
inside a cylinder just as the piston begins the power
stroke. As a general rule, the higher the compression
ratio, the greater an engine's power output.
Figure 1-68. A cylinder's compression ratio compares cylinder volume with a piston at bottom dead center to the cylinder volume
when the piston is at top dead center. In this example, the compression ratio is 7:1.
Reciprocating Engines 1-47
Compression ratios can be increased or decreased
by altering an engine's design. For example, if the
crankshaft "throw" is lengthened, a piston's stroke
increases which, in turn, increases the compres-
sion ratio. By the same token, if you shave a cylin-
der head's mating surface, you effectively decrease
the distance between the cylinder head and piston
head which increases the compression ratio.
Another way to increase compression ratios without
changing the piston stroke length include installing
domed pistons.
To some degree, the characteristics of available
fuels determine the practical limits of compression
ratios that can be used in engine design. For exam-
ple, if the compression ratio of an engine is
increased up to or beyond a fuel's critical pressure,
detonation will occur. Because of this, engine man-
ufacturers specify the correct grade of fuel to be
used based, in part, on an engine's compression
ratio. Use of fuel grades lower than recommended
should be avoided.
tion timing as engine operating conditions change.
Aircraft engines, on the other hand, use fixed tim-
ing, which is a compromise between the timing
required to give best performance for takeoff and
best performance at cruise.
If the ignition event occurs too early, an engine
loses power because maximum cylinder pressure
builds too early. In other words, when the fuel/air
charge is ignited early, the force of the expanding
gases opposes the engine's rotational inertia
because the piston is still moving upward. On the
other hand, late ignition also causes a loss of
power, since cylinder volume is increasing at the
same time the gases are expanding. The result is
that gas pressure on the piston head does not build
to expected levels. Furthermore, late ignition does
not allow enough time for complete combustion
before the exhaust valve opens. Burning gases then
engulf the valve, increase its temperature, and
often lead to detonation or engine damage due to
overheating.
If an engine is turbocharged, the degree of tur-
bocharging limits the engine's compression ratio.
Although turbocharging does not change an engine's
compression ratio, it does increase manifold pres-
sure as well as each cylinder's mean effective pres-
sure. If you recall from your study of the gas laws, as
the pressure of a gas increases, the temperature also
increases. As a result, turbocharging raises the tem-
perature of the fuel/air mixture in an engine's cylin-
ders and increases the possibility of detonation.
Therefore, compression ratios in turbocharged
engines must be limited to allow for the increased
operating temperatures.
IGNITION TIMING
When the ignition event is properly timed, complete
combustion and maximum pressure occur just after
the piston passes top dead center at the beginning of
the power stroke. To accomplish this, ignition tim-
ing is typically set to ignite the fuel/air charge
shortly before a piston reaches top center on the
compression stroke. For example, some small
Continental engines ignite the fuel/air charge
between 25 and 32 degrees before top center on the
compression stroke.
An automobile engine employs a variable timing
device on the ignition distributor to change the igni-
ENGINE SPEED
The amount of power an aircraft engine produces
is determined by cylinder pressure, piston area,
the distance a piston moves on each stroke, and
the number of times this movement occurs in one
minute. Stated in simple terms, the faster an
engine runs, the more power it produces.
However, there are some limitations to how fast an
engine can rotate. Some of these limitations
include ignition timing, valve timing, and the iner-
tia of rapidly moving pistons. For example, when
intake and exhaust valves move too quickly, they
can "float," or not seat properly. In addition, the
inertia of pistons reversing their direction of travel
thousands of times per minute can overstress
crankshaft journals and bearings when engine rpm
exceeds safe limits.
Another limitation on an engine's maximum rota-
tional speed is propeller tip speed. In order to effi-
ciently produce thrust, the tip speed of a propeller
blade must not exceed the speed of sound. If you
recall, the further from the propeller hub a point is,
the faster that point moves through the air.
Therefore, engines that operate at high rpm's must
either be fitted with short propeller blades or some
form of propeller reduction gearing. Reduction gears
allow an engine to turn at higher speeds to produce
1-48 Reciprocating Engines

Figure 1-69. As this figure illustrates, a propelleris speed is
highest at the blade tips. If you recall from Section A, when
propeller tip speeds exceed the speed of sound, propeller
efficiency drops.
more power while the propeller rotates at a slower,
more efficient speed. [Figure 1-69]
SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION
An engine's specific fuel consumption is the num-
ber of pounds of fuel burned per hour to produce
one horsepower. For example, if an engine burns 12
gallons per hour while producing 180 brake horse-
power, the brake specific fuel consumption is .4
pounds per horsepower hour. Most modern aircraft
reciprocating engines have a brake specific fuel con-
sumption (BSFC) that is between .4 and .5 pounds
per horsepower hour. While not actually a measure
of power, specific fuel consumption is useful for
comparing engine efficiencies.
An engine's specific fuel consumption varies with
several factors including: engine speed, engine
design, volumetric efficiency, and friction losses. The
best specific fuel consumption for most engines
occurs at a cruise power setting when producing
approximately 75 percent power. The amount an
engine's specific fuel consumption varies with
engine rpm can be illustrated in a chart. [Figure 1-70]
Figure 1-70. Aircraft engines operate most efficiently
around 2,400 rpm. Below 2,400 rpm an engine is not devel-
oping as much power as it is capable of for the amount of
fuel it is using. On the other hand, above 2,400 rpm, friction
horsepower increases, causing an overall drop in brake
horsepower. As shown by the lower curve, a typical engine
requires about 0.51 pounds of fuel per hour for each horse-
power it produces at 2,400 rpm.
ALTITUDE
As an aircraft climbs, ambient air pressure drops
and air density decreases. Density altitude is a term
that describes the density of the air at a given alti-
tude corrected for nonstandard pressure and tem-
perature. Any time an aircraft engine operates at a
density altitude that is higher than sea level, less air
is drawn into the engine for combustion. Whenever
less air is available for combustion, engine power
output decreases.
Even though the actual, or true altitude at a location
does not change, density altitude can change con-
stantly. For example, on a hot day as the air heats
and pressure drops, air becomes less dense, causing
the density altitude to increase. One way to over-
come the problems associated with high density
altitudes is by turbocharging an engine.
Turbocharging increases the induction air pressure
above atmospheric pressure which, in turn,
increases the density of the fuel/air charge entering
the cylinders.
FUEL/AIR RATIO
Gasoline and other liquid fuels must be converted
from their liquid state to a vapor before they will
burn. In addition, the ratio of fuel vapor to oxygen
in the air must be chemically correct for complete
combustion. A stoichiometric mixture is a perfectly
balanced fuel/air mixture of 15 parts of air to 1 part
of fuel, by weight. A fuel/air mixture that is leaner
than 15:1 has less fuel in the fuel/air mixture, while
a rich mixture has more fuel. Combustible fuel/air
ratios range from 8:1 to 18:1.
Reciprocating Engines 1-49
Mixture controls allow adjustment of the fuel/air by an engine must be converted into thrust. Since a
ratio from idle cut-off to full rich conditions. Leaning propeller converts only about 90% of the torque it
raises engine operating temperatures while enrich- receives into thrust, the actual thrust horsepower
ing provides a cooling effect. Leaning becomes nec- delivered by the propeller is 180 horsepower. Thrust
essary as altitude increases, because air density horsepower represents the actual horsepower devel-
drops, causing the fuel/air ratio to gradually become oped by the thrust of the propeller. [Figure 1-71]
richer. Best power mixture develops maximum
power at a particular rpm and is typically used dur-
ing takeoff. Best economy mixture provides the best POWER CURVES
specific fuel consumption which results in an air- Most engine manufacturers produce a set of power
craft's maximum range and optimum fuel economy. curves for each engine they build. These charts
show the power developed for each rpm as well as
indicate the specific fuel consumption at each
DISTRIBUTION OF POWER power setting. [Figure 1-72]
When considering the amount of power that is avail-
able in aviation gasoline compared to the amount of
power that is actually delivered to the propeller
shaft, you can easily see that an aircraft engine is a
fairly inefficient machine. For example, a typical six
cylinder engine develops 200 brake horsepower
when burning 14 gallons of fuel per hour. However,
the burning fuel releases enough heat energy to pro-
duce 667 horsepower. When you examine the distri-
bution of power you will see that 200 of the 667
horsepower is delivered to the propeller while
approximately 33 horsepower is used to turn the
engine and compress the air in the cylinders. In
addition, an equivalent of about 434 horsepower is
lost to the air through the cooling and exhaust sys-
tems. The power loss continues when power is
delivered to the propeller, because in order to pro-
pel an aircraft through the air, the torque produced

Figure 1-72. This figure illustrates a typical power curve for

Figure 1-71. The distribution of power in 14 gallons of avia-
tion gasoline when consumed by a typical 200 bhp engine.
a four-cylinder aircraft engine. The upper curve shows the
maximum amount of power produced at full throttle on a
dynamometer. The diagonal power curve represents the
amount of horsepower produced with less than full throt -
tle. The two bottom curves represent the specific fuel con-
sumptions for full throttle operations and propeller load
conditions. To use this chart, let's assume you have an
engine operating at a cruise power setting of 2,400 rpm
(item 1). At this power setting, the specific fuel consump-
tion is 0.51 LB/BHP/HR (item 2), and the engine produces
118 brake horsepower (item 3). By multiplying the specific
fuel consumption by the brake horsepower, you can deter-
mine the engine's fuel consumption of 60.18 pounds per
hour (.51 x 118 = 60.18).