511

VIBRATION AND NOISE

ANY FLUCTU AnONS in movement, or variations in system pressure, can cause sound
to be generated. Hydraulic systems are not immune from such disturbances; indeed,
because they are tending towards greater compactness, the power densities are increasing
with higher cyclic forces in reduced volumes, with the resulting greater excitation levels.
Sound is assessed by the human being in terms of intensity and harmonic content. The
design of the ear is such that it is able to detect a considerable range of intensity; this means
that in order to define the intensity a logarithmic scale is normally used, i.e. the decibel
(dB) scale. Table 6.6.1 gives an idea of the dB range both in terms of the dB scale and the
actual sound pressure levels.
The harmonic (or frequency) content of a noise is also of importance. A young person
may at the very best be able to hear up to 20 kHz, but most adults would find 17 kHz or
less their upper limit; also detection ability changes with different frequencies. It is,
therefore, more common to use the dB (A) scale which takes into account the varying
degree of sensitivity from low to medium to high frequencies, and applies a higher
weighting factor to the 1kHz-4 kHz band and a lowerfactor to above and below this band.
Permanent damage can be caused to the hearing if the sound level occurs more than just
momentarily above around 90 dB(A).
Unusual harmonics may also be a cause of distress. Human beings may well describe
the noise in terms of dislike like 'howling', 'screeching', 'whining', etc. and if the level
of such sounds, although below 90 dB(A), is not further reduced illness may well result.
Vibration and noise can also be a serious feature when attempts are made to mask the
presence of equipment such as in naval warfare or fishing. However, the actual power
developed in the noise is relatively small and virtually no improvement in efficiency
results from a reduction in noise; for example, less than 1W of effective sound power level
may be emitted by a 10 kW pump producing 90 dB (A) of noise.
There are, fortunately, a number of ways of reducing the effect of vibration. The subject
of vibration and noise is best addressed by examining sources of excitation, transfer paths
and means of reduction - 'vibration' being the actual movement and 'noise' being what
the human hears. ('Resonance' occurs when the frequency of excitation matches the
natural frequency of some component or part of the system.)
512 THE HYDRAULIC HANDBOOK

Sources of vibration and noise

The following components are the most important as regards sources of noise in hydraulic
systems:
• The pump and its driver
• The pipes and hoses
• Control elements
Possible reasons for the excitation are outlined in Table 6.6.2 which looks not only at
the normal source but also where the vibration increases due to faults developing in the
system or component. Although not normally a 'source', the reservoir is quite frequently
a sounding device which releases sound due to pulsations entering it; this is also discussed
later.

Transfer paths
The path which the fluctuations take in their journey to the ear, may be anyone or more
of the three media:
• Structure-borne
• Liquid-borne
• Air-borne
 The path may be quite complex, and an analysis based on cross correlation may be
required to determine the route. However, if that route has been correctly diagnosed then
the most efficient means of reduction can be applied. If the path is unknown, then a number
of exploratory tests may be necessary, with differen t types of reduction, to determine the
optimum. It must be remembered that more than one media may be involved and hence
more than one type of reduction may be necessary. Air-borne and, normally, liquid-borne
noise originate from structure-borne noise.

Reduction of vibration
Vibration may be reduced, as far as the listener is concerned, by
• Damping - absorbing the energy
• Detuning - increasing the frequency difference between the excitation frequency
and the natural frequency of the component
• Reducing pulsations - dropping the levels of excitation (which may involve, at the
same time, changing the frequency of excitation).
These will be discussed below in relation to the individual components examined.
514 THE HYDRAULIC HANDBOOK

Pump drivers vibration and noise

Electric motors
The source of sound from electric motors is the cyclical changes in magnetic flux which
cause small dimensional changes and a resulting hum. Careful design can reduce this
slightly, but not completely.
The cooling fan is often totally enclosed (i.e. the totally enclosed fan cooled - tefc -
motor) and is designed so that rotation is in either direction. This means that it must have
straight blades which are notoriously noisy. If the motor is to be used in one direction only,
a quieter fan may be fitted.

Diesel drivers
Heavy diesel engines have a very characteristic diesel 'knock' and it may be necessary to
place the noisier engines in suitably damped enclosures.

Pump vibration and noise

The pump is the primary source of noise in an hydraulic system. In particular, the cyclic
pressure pulsations cause a sound to be generated at a distinct frequency and harmonics.
In addition there is the mechanical generation through the motion of bearings, flexing of
teeth or vanes, and the general sliding and forces associated with piston pumps. Although
it may be possible to reduce the noise output to the human listener to moderate levels by
suitable acoustic treatment (enclosure or mounting), much effort has been expended on
reducing pump excitation by subtle design changes. Another approach, particularly for the
larger system, is to use smaller, but more, pumps, or run the pumps at lower speed; it is
also possible that resonances can be avoided at a slightly changed speed. Mounting on a
resonant 'sounding board', like a reservoir, should also be avoided.

Pump design
External gear pumps usually have equalisation grooves milled in order to smooth the
pressurisation process around the circumference; even so, pulsations around 10-14% of
the delivery flow still occur. A greater number of smaller teeth could reduce this, but only
at the expense of performance. More recently other techniques have been adopted such as
offsetting by a half tooth a coupled gear pair which can drop the pulsations to around
3-6%, or by using helical gearing. (See chapter on Hydraulic pumps.) Another method,
shown in Figure 6.6.1 is that of using zero backlash; this results in a similar output to the
phased pair design as regards frequency but a slightly lower level of noise. Although such
a 'perfect' design would normally be prohibitive as regards cost, the manufacturers have
managed to achieve this mesh by incorporating an adapti ve degree of freedom to the gears'
centre distance.
Piston pumps, with a gradual phasing of the pulsations from each piston, can also
significantly reduce the sound levels which each individual piston would otherwise
produce. The radial piston pump design has the advantage of incorporating a reaction ring
which remains in constant contact; this constitutes a force cage in the sense of absorbing
a considerable amount of the cyclical forces generated by the pump.
 The material properties of the casings used can also contribute a few dB to the reduction
in noise. With this, and careful design of the casings, one pump design may be
considerably quieter than another

Acoustic treatment (damping)

Pump/motor vibration can be minimised by mounting the pump and motor on a common
base (or mounting the motor integral with the pump) and isolating the complete unit on
a resilient mount. A general recommendation is that the natural frequency of the isolated
mount should not exceed one-quarter of the shaft speed (frequency), although it may be
permissible to approach one-third of the shaft speed if a stiffer mount is required.
If further acoustic treatment is required the whole pump/motor unit can be fitted with,
or within, a suitable enclosure. The majority of hydraulic pumps are driven by electric
motors, so no special problems are involved other than size and ensuring an adequate
airflow for cooling the electric motor. If necessary a forced draught ventilating system can
be used with a completely sealed enclosure, employing duct silencers of the absorptive
type.
A simple method of isolating or decoupling the pump from the delivery line is by a
flexible hose connection. Isolation can be further improved (if necessary) by using two
such hose lengths in close proximity and mounted at 90° to each other. Ideally, isolation
by flexible pipe should include bends in two mutually perpendicular directions with equal
distances between bends.
A further method of decoupling is the use of O-ring or similar elastomeric seals in a
suitable coupling. This is particularly effective for decoupling high frequency vibrations
but is less effective at lower frequencies. Couplings of a similar type are produced for
semi-flexible connections, allowing for a limited degree of movement or misalignment.
Such couplings are not effective isolators unless the resilient elements employed provide
complete isolation between the components connected (i.e. do not allow direct metal-to-
metal contact).
516 THE HYDRAULIC HANDBOOK

In general, isolation of the pump and motor from the tank by suitable mountings and
decoupling from the pipework will free the rest of the system from the transmission of
mechanical vibrations and the consequent possibility that these would be amplified. The
coupling between the pump and motor may need careful design and fitting to avoid out-
of-balance and a too solid a route for the sound; a flexible coupling is ideal.

Although pressure pulsations are always expected to be present in pipe lines, it is highly
desirable to isolate the lines from the hardware so that vibration generated by the pump
unit is not transmitted through the pipes, with the possibility of resonance occurring at
other connecting points. Hoses can be used in this process of decoupling.
Sound waves carried in pipe walls may produce flexural motion, longitudinal or
torsional waves, although it is the flexural waves which generate the majority of the air-
borne sound. The sound in the liquid is in the form of longitudinal waves which produce
audible sound at each discontinuity or bend. The waves may be pump generated (changes
in power and pressure, or varying amplitudes of pressure pulsations) or fluid generated
(flow instability, turbulence or simple fluid friction).
Fluid-generated noise in small bore pipes with low to moderate flow rates is generally
negligible, unless pressure pulsations or cavitation are present. Thus consequent radiation
of airborne noise, is usually due to the higher level of vibration generated by couplings.
Pipe resonance is the cause of the highest sound levels, where standing waves resonate
with particular supported lengths of pipe; this can be removed by changing the lengths of
pipe or the support points - see sub-section below.
Thus standard treatment for noise reduction is:
i) Damping by means of suitable isolating pipe supports. This also provides decoupling
for supporting structures
ii) Decoupling from other sources of noise or vibration in the system.
iii) Soundproof 'lagging'.
For the majority of systems only i), and to a lesser extent ii), should be necessary.
'Lagging' is normally only required when there are vibrations present which cannot be
damped or isolated by simple means. This is most likely to occur on pumped systems
employing thin walled large diameter piping, particularly on the suction side.
Sufficient damping for pipes is usually provided by suitable supports, or pipe clips
spaced at regular intervals, the supports having resilient linings so that vibration in the pipe
is not transmitted directly to the surface to which the supports are fixed (Figure 6.6.2).
All pipework installations should be designed on the basis of avoiding abrupt changes
of section which could lead to large flow velocity changes and generation of turbulence.
As far as possible, too, generous bend radii should be employed for similar reasons.

Suction line
The suction line is a first suspect in a normally acceptable hydraulic installation which
proves noisy, and where the noise cannot be directly attributed to pump or components.
Suction lines can generate noise if there is an excessive pressure drop when the pump is
VIBRATION AND NOISE 517

sucking below atmospheric pressure and drawing air out of solution (hydraulic oils
normally contain about 8% air in solution) and cavitation causing the oil to vapourise. The
resulting formation of bubbles, and their subsequent collapse, can cause a 'mechanical'
noise which is often erroneously diagnosed as a pump fault. This cavitation must be
avoided not just for the noise level, but for the erosion that will ensue in the pump.
Suction line noise can also be caused by a partially blocked or undersized suction filter,
poor placement of the outlet pipe in the reservoir (or possibly the reservoir being fitted
below the pump) or entrained air.

Standing waves
Optimum pipe clamp spacing can be analysed in terms of standing wave phenomena,
although this is seldom necessary. The case of axial standing wave is usually academic,
for practical lengths are usually substantially lower than the critical length, which is
defined by:-

Theoretically, at least, the distance between pipe supports should always be less than
this resonant or critical length. A more expensive way of reducing the noise effects is the
use of gas loaded accumulators or pulsation dampers (see below).

Actuator vibration and noise

Although some noise in generated by the motion and 'thumping' of the pistons, the
primary effect in cylinders is to radiate noise rather than produce it. Dampers can be fitted
both internally and around the cylinder.

Valve vibration and noise

Noise due to the operation of valves, regulators and control elements is transient and
related to the degree of turbulence or cavitation produced. In specific designs and certain
518 THE HYDRAULIC HANDBOOK

circumstances individual elements may be subject to vibration and generate a continuous

noise. The noise level of such devices is dependent on the design and the localised flow
velocities produced and also on the response time, where applicable. The latter effect can
be minimised by arranging that the response time is not shorter than that required by the
system. This will result in minimum 'hammer'. 'Water hammer', as it is termed, depends
on the switching velocity of the valve - i.e. on the spool-switching velocity in the case of
spool valves. Valves operated by dry solenoids have uncontrolled response and so often
produce 'hammer'. Wet solenoids are cushioned by the hydraulic fluid so move more
smoothly and open the valve passages more gradually (but at the expense of some loss of
solenoid power).
As a general recommendation, simple undamped ball-and-spring non-return and relief
valves should not be used. On the design side, every effort should be made to ensure that
the flow passages of valves are swept and free from sharp edges and comers as far as
possible. Directional control valves must also be carefully designed to prevent flow
instability occurring.

Cavitation in valves
Cavitation is a breakdown in flow caused by the localised fluid falling below the vapour
pressure of the fluid. Consequently, vapour bubbles are formed resulting in irregular and
noisy flow. Such a reduction in pressure can occur in regions of localised high flow
velocities, e.g. at restrictions to the flow path. Thus, the onset of cavitation is marked by
a critical pressure, which in turn is dependent on a critical velocity. The effective critical
pressure is also a function of temperature because this governs the vapour pressure of the
fluid. Accurate prediction of cavitation conditions is most difficult, and usually impossi-
ble, in the design of valves and fittings, and problems have to be tackled on empirical lines.
Although much has been done to design fittings which do not produce cavitation at normal
or recommended flow rates, it does not follow that this will be maintained over the full
range of operation. If the flow rate is sufficiently restricted, cavitation and noisy flow can
be expected. Thus a partially closed tap or valve is nearly always noisier than when fully
opened; also quite a small change in position, and thus flow rate, can cause a change from
cavitating (and noisy) to non-cavitating (and relatively quiet) flow. It is also a character-
istic of many valves, that for flow rates or valve openings which produce cavitation,
cavitation noise increases with increasing frequency; whilst for higher flow and large
openings, where flow is non-cavitating, noise does not vary greatly with frequency. This
also explains the considerable difference in interpreted sounds - higher frequencies being
more readily radiated and sounding louder to the ear.
In the case of high pressure systems, or valves subject to high pressure drops, it is
desirable to utilise flow paths designed to eliminate cavitation as this can cause physical
damage to the valve components as well as excessive noise. The problem, basically, is one
of preventing the pressure in the val ve throat from falling below the fluid vapour pressure
in order to prevent cavitation occurring. This requirement can be rendered in mathematical
form:
520 THE HYDRAULIC HANDBOOK

Gas-loaded pulsation dampers such as that shown in Figure 6.6.3 are relatively expensive
but are highly successful at attenuating sound. This is particularly true of the straight
through type shown. Small bladder type accumulators can also be used with only perhaps
15 mL of gas to provide adequate attenuation. One disadvantage of gas-loaded devices is
the need to regularly top up the gas and the occasional need to replace the bladder or
diaphragm used.

Shock preventers are pulsation dampers (or accumulators) characterised by having very
large flow inlet apertures which are partially closed off by liquid trying to flow back out
of them. They are not shock absorbers, as they prevent shock or surge occurring. For the
same reason, they do not attenuate shock.

Acoustic filters can be fitted to systems where pressure ripple is high. These are essentially
tuned silencers (like automobile silencers) which are critical in design and are usually
effective over only very narrow frequency bands; the attenuation achieved can be quite
high. They are particularly suitable for constant speed pump systems, but they may be
expensive as they are purpose built.
Untuned silencers simply comprise an expansion chamber with broader coverage but
reduced attenuation. An accumulator is, in effect, an untuned hydraulic acoustic silencer
and is most effective at lower frequencies. Dissipative-type silencers provide for dissipa-
tion of energy through viscous flow losses and, as a consequence, consume some fluid
energy. They may be combined with an untuned silencer, although the attenuation will still
be appreciably lower than that of the tuned type.
In general, wave cancelling filters are to be preferred since the frequencies involved are
low. If the pressure transients are narrow band, a Quincke Tube and expansion chamber
can be effective. A major disadvantage of this and other types of simple wave-cancelling
filters, however, is the relatively high pressure drop produced. The more usual form of
hydraulic silencer is the pressure-release type. This gives minimum pressure drop and
broad band filtering, but is pressure sensitive and needs regular routine maintenance.

See also chapter on Shock absorbers