1

Chapter 1 – Fundamentals
Dr. Zifeng Yang
1.1 Introduction
a. Basic laws
- Law of conservation of mass
- Newton’s law
- Laws of thermodynamics
b. Divergence theorem – the way to convert certain types of surface integrals to volume
integrals
 = ∭ ∇ ∙ 
∬  ∙   .

(1.1.1)


c. Three laws can be expressed in the following descriptive form :

  ℎℎ  ! ℎ ℎ "!



+   ℎℎ   ℎ "!


−   ℎℎ  !" ℎ "!

0
=  &   "! .
 & ℎ  +  & '   "!
d. Tensor – The general term used to classify all fluid quantities.
- Tensors of order zero: Pressure, temperature, density
- Tensor of order one: Velocity
- Tensor of order two: Stress
- Tensor of order higher than two: Derivative or products of lower-order tensors
(Example: fourth-order Einstein curvature tensor of relativity theory)
e. Index notation
- Cartesian coordinates: First convention (x,y,z); second convention (x1,x2,x3)
- The convensitons used to represent the components of a vector are typically
("( , "* , "+ ), (", , "- , ". ), (, ", )
1.2 Velocity, Acceleration, and the Material Derivative
a. A fluid is defined as a material that will undergo sustained motion when shearing forces
are applied, the motion continuing as long as the shearing forces are maintained.
b. Lagrangian or Material Description
- Lagrangian description named after Joseph Louis Lagrange (1736-1836).

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Chapter 1 of Advanced Fluid Mechanics
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- Let (/ 0/1 , 21 , 31 , 4, 2 0/1 , 21 , 31 , 4, 3 0/1 , 21 , 31 , 4) be the position at time t of a
particle initially at the point (/1 , 21 , 31 ). Then the velocity and acceleration of that
particle is given by
5/0/1 , 21 , 31 , 4
", 0/1 , 21 , 31 , 4 =
5
520/1 , 21 , 31 , 4
"- 0/1 , 21 , 31 , 4 =
5
530/1 , 21 , 31 , 4
". 0/1 , 21 , 31 , 4 =
5
And
5", 0/1 , 21 , 31 , 4 5 * /0/1 , 21 , 31 , 4
, 0/1 , 21 , 31 , 4 = =
5 5 *
5"- 0/1 , 21 , 31 , 4 5 20/1 , 21 , 31 , 4
*
- 0/1 , 21 , 31 , 4 = =
5 5 *
5". 0/1 , 21 , 31 , 4 5 30/1 , 21 , 31 , 4
*
, 0/1 , 21 , 31 , 4 = =
5 5 *
The partial derivatives signify that differentiation is performed holding /1 , 21 , 31 fixed.

c. Eulerian or Spatial Description

- Eulerian description named after Leonard Euler (1707-1783).
- This description starts with velocity, written as " = "06, 4, where 6 refers to the
position of a fixed point in space, as the basic descriptor rather than displacement.
 = 7 6 + 7  + 7 8 + 7 
   

7, 7- 7. 79
-

:  :,
7  :-
7  :.
7  :9
7 
7 
7 
7 
7
-  = :9
= 7, :9
+ 7- :9 + 7. :9 + 79 :9
=  7, + " 7- +  7. + 79

7;
 = + 0" ∙ ∇4"
79
-

Temporal acceleration convective acceleration

- The convective acceleration term 0" ∙ ∇4" can be written as
1
0" ∙ ∇4" = ∇0" ∙ "4 + " × 0∇ × "4
2
? 7
- ?9
= 79 + 0" ∙ ∇4 has been variously called the material, or substantial derivative and
represents differentiation as a fluid particle is followed.
- " ∙ ∇≠ ∇ ∙ "

1.3 Relations between Line, Surface, and Volume Integrals

- Stokes’ theorem

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Chapter 1 of Advanced Fluid Mechanics
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A B ∙  = D 0∇ × A
4 ∙ dS
C

- Divergence theorem

D B ∙  = H I∇ ∙ BJ


- Gradient theorem

D K = H ∇K"

1.3 The local continuity Equation
- The net rate of change of mass inside and entering the control volume is expressed
5L
H  + D L" ∙  = 0
 5
- According to Divergence Theorem (Green’s theorem)

D L" ∙  = H ∇ ∙ 0L"4


- Making the replacement and rearranging the integral
5L
H M + ∇ ∙ 0L"4N  = 0
 5
- Since the choice of the control volume was arbitrary and since the integral must
vanish no matter what choice of control volume was made, the only way this integral
can vanish is for the integrand to vanish. Thus,

5L
+ ∇ ∙ 0L"4 = 0
5
An alternate expression of it can be obtained by expanding the divergence term to obtain

5L
+ " ∙ ∇ρ + L∇ ∙ " = 0
5
? 7
≡ 79 + " ∙ ∇, the above equation becomes
?9
Since

QL
+ L∇ ∙ " = 0
Q
- Incompressible flow is defined as one where the mass density of a fluid particle does
not change as the particle is followed. It can be expressed as
QL
=0
Q
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Chapter 1 of Advanced Fluid Mechanics
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Thus, the continuity equation for an incompressible flow is

∇ ∙ " = 0
1.4 Path Lines, Streamlines, and Stream Functions
a. Path line – is a line along which a fluid particle actually travels.
- The equation of a path line is given by
/ 2 3
 = = =
, - .
The integration of above being performed with /1 , 21 and 31 held fixed.
b. Streamline – is defined as a line drawn in the flow at a given instant of time such that the
fluid velocity vector at any point on the streamline is tangent to the line at that point.
- The requirement of tangency means that the streamlines are given by the equation
6  8
= =
", "- ".
A stream surface (or stream sheet) is a collection of adjacent streamlines, providing a
surface though which there is no flow. A stream tube is a tube made up of adjoining
streamlines.
- For steady flows, path lines and streamlines coincide. For unsteady flows, pathlines
and streamlines may differ. Generally path lines are more difficult to find analytically
than are streamlines, and they are of less use in practical applications.
c. Stream function – are used principally in connection with incompressible flows.
d. Lagranges’s Stream Function for Two-Dimensional Flows
For two-dimensional flows, continuity equation becomes
5", 5"-
+ =0
56 5
Let
5R
", =
5
Then the continuity equation becomes
5 * R 5"-
+ =0
565 5
Which can be integrated with respect to y to give
5R
"- = −
56
Therefore, expressing the two velocity components in terms of R which guarantees that
continuity is satisfied for an incompressible flow.
- On a streamline,
5R 5R
R = 6 +  = 0
56 5
It states that along a streamline R vanishes. In other words, on a streamline, R is a
constant. This is the motivation for the name stream function for R.
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Chapter 1 of Advanced Fluid Mechanics
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- In cylindrical polar coordinates,

7T 7T
"S = and "U =
S7U 7S

1.5 Newton’s Momentum Equation

a. Integral Newton’s momentum equation
- The net rate of change of momentum is then
5 50L"4
H L" + D L" "  ∙  = H  + H ∇ ∙ 0L" "
4
5   5 
5L 5"
= H V" +L + "∇ ∙ 0L"4 + L0" ∙ ∇4"W 
 5 5
5L 5" Q"
= H X" M + ∇ ∙ 0L"4N + L V + 0" ∙ ∇4"WY  = H L  .
 5 5  Q
the first bracket in the third line of equation vanishes by virture of equation, the
continuity equation. The second bracket represents the material derivative of the
velocity, which is the acceleration.
- The forces applied to the surface of the control volume are due to pressure and
viscous forces on surface and gravitational force distributed thoughout the volume.
The net force is then

D 0−K + [0\4 4  + H L 



Equating this to the net change in momentum gives

Q"
H L  = D 0−K + [0\4 4  + H L 
 Q 

Using the gradient theorem,

D −K  = H −∇p 


This reduces the momentum equation to

Q"
H L  = H 0−∇p + L4 + D [0\4 
 Q 

1.6 Stress – is defined as a force applied to an area divided by that area.

- Thus, two directions are associated with stress: the direction of the force and the
direction of the area.
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Chapter 1 of Advanced Fluid Mechanics
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- The stress vector [0\4 is defined as

∆c
[0\4 = lim
∆ →1 ∆
Where ∆ is the magnitude of the infinitesimal area. In the limit as ∆ approaches
zero the direction of the normal to ∆ is held fixed.
- For a force ∆c acting on a surface ∆, with unit normal pointing in the x direction,
write the stress on this face of our tetrahedron as
∆c
[0,4 = lim = [,, f̂ + [,- ĥ + [,. 'i
∆de →1 ∆B,
Similarly,
∆c
[0-4 = lim = [-, f̂ + [-- ĥ + [-. 'i
∆de →1 ∆B-

∆c
[ 0.4 = lim = [., f̂ + [.- ĥ + [.. 'i
∆de →1 ∆B.
Change the surface integral to a volume integral using divergence theorem,

D [0\4  = D j, I[,,  + [,- k + [,. 'J + - I[-,  + [-- k + [-. 'J

+ . I[.,  + [.- k + [.. 'Jl
5 5
=H M I[,,  + [,- k + [,. 'J + I[  + [-- k + [-. 'J
 56 5 -,
5
+ I[.,  + [.- k + [.. 'JN 
58

5[,, 5[-, 5[., 5[,- 5[-- 5[.-

= H V0 + + 4+km + + n
 56 5 58 56 5 58
5[,. 5[-. 5[..
+'m + + nW 
56 5 58
Inserting this into the momentum equation gives,
Q"
H L  = H 0−∇p + L4
 Q 
5[,, 5[-, 5[., 5[,- 5[-- 5[.-
+ H V0 + + 4+km + + n
 56 5 58 56 5 58
5[,. 5[-. 5[..
+'m + + nW 
56 5 58
The differential momentum equations becomes,

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Chapter 1 of Advanced Fluid Mechanics
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pq yz{{ yz|{ yz}{ yz{| yz|| yz}|
o st = 0−uv + ow 4st + x m + + n + ~m + + n
pr y{ y| y} y{ y| y}
yz{} yz|} yz}}
+ m + + n
y{ y| y}
- Symmetric stress tensor
[,- = [-, , [-. = [.-, [,. = [.,

1.7 Rates of Deformation

The important geometric quantity that describes the fluids’ behavior under stress is the rate of
deformation.

- Time rate of change of length

∂v€
M∆x + ‚v€ + ∆x… ∆tN − ‡∆x + v€ ∆tˆ ∂v
∂x €
d€€ = =
∆x∆t ∂x

∂v‰
M∆y + ‹v‰ + ∆yŒ ∆tN − j∆y + v‰ ∆tl ∂v
∂y ‰
d‰‰ = =
∆y∆t ∂y

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Chapter 1 of Advanced Fluid Mechanics
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∂v
M∆z + ‚v + ∆z… ∆tN − ‡∆z + v ∆tˆ ∂v
∂z 
d = =
∆z∆t ∂z
The ,, , -- , .. are the normal rates of deformation and can loosely be thought of
as rate of normal, or extensional, strain.
- Dilatational strain rate – the rate of change of volume per unit volume
0∆6 + ,, ∆6∆4I∆ + -- ∆∆J0∆8 + .. ∆8∆4 − ∆6∆∆8
lim
∆,,∆-,∆.,∆9→1 ∆6∆∆8∆
= d€€ + d‰‰ + d = ∇ ∙ "
- Rate of change of angles
5"-
tan”( ∆( ∆6∆ ∂v‰
( ≈ ≈ 56 ≈
∆ 5" ∂x
∆6∆ ‹1 + , ∆Œ
56
5",
tan”( ∆* ∆∆ ∂v€
* ≈ 5
≈ ≈
∆ 5"- ∂y
∆∆ ‹1 + ∆Œ
5
- Rate of shear deformation

1 ∂v‰ ∂v€
,- = -, = 0.5I( + * J = m + n
2 ∂x ∂y

1 ∂v‰ ∂v.
-. = .- = m + n
2 ∂z ∂y

1 ∂v ∂v,
., = ,. = ‹ + Œ
2 ∂x ∂z
1.8 Constitutive Relations
Considering a fluid of simple molecular structure, such as water or air, experience and
many experiments suggest the following:
1. Stress will depend explicitly only on pressure and the rate of deformation.
Temperature can enter only implicitly through coefficients such as viscosity.
2. When the rate of deformation is identically zero, all shear stresses vanish, and the
normal stresses are each equal to the negative of the pressure.
3. The fluid is isotropic. That is, the material properties of a fluid at any given point are
the same in all directions.
4. The stress must depend on rate of deformation n a linear manner, according to the
original concepts of Newton.

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Chapter 1 of Advanced Fluid Mechanics
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The most general constitutive relation satisfying all of the above requirements is

[,, = −K + – — ∇ ∙ " + 2–,, , [-- = −K + – — ∇ ∙ v  + 2–-- ,

[.. = −K + – ∇ ∙ " + 2–.. , [,- = [-, = 2–,- ,
—

[,. = [., = 2–,. , [-. = [.- = 2–-. ,

where we have used the abbreviation

5", 5"- 5".

,, + -- + .. = + + = ∇ ∙ "
56 5 58

Here, µ is the viscosity and – — is the second viscosity coefficient. Both of these viscosities can
depend on temperature and even pressure. The fluid descried by equation is called a Newtonian
fluid, although the term Navier-Stokes fluid is also used.

Up until now, pressure has deliberately been left undefined. The definition of pressure varies in
different instances. For instance, in elementary thermodynamics texts, the term pressure is
commonly used for the negative of mean normal stress. Summing our constitutive equation gives
˜™š ›œ 9ž 9›9Ÿ  \›SšŸ  ˜9Sž˜˜ ¡›š¢›\ž\9˜ £ee ¤£¥¥ ¤£¦¦
Mean normal stress = +
=
+

From the above equation, however, we see that

[,, + [-- + [.. 2–

= ‹– — + Œ ∇ ∙ " − K
3 3
*¨
The coefficient – — + +
is called the bulk viscosity, or volume viscosity, since it represents the
amount of normal stress change needed to get a unit specific volume rate change. The second
*¨
law of thermodynamics can be used to show that – — + ≥ 0. If we are to have the mean normal
+
stress equal to the negative of pressure, it follows that the bulk viscosity must be zero. At one
time Stokes suggested that this might in general be true but later wrote that he never put much
faith in this relationship. Since for most flows the term is numerically much smaller than p,
Stokes’s assumption is still widely used.

1.9 Equations for Newtonian Fluids

From the momentum equation, we can obtain

Q", 50K − – — ∇ ∙ "4 5 5", 5 5", 5"-

L =− + L, + M2– ‹ ŒN + V– m + nW
Q 56 56 56 5 5 56
5 5", 5".
+ M– ‹ + ŒN
58 58 56
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Chapter 1 of Advanced Fluid Mechanics
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Q"- 50K − – — ∇ ∙ "4 5 5"- 5", 5 5"-

L =− + L- + V– m + nW + V2– m nW
Q 5 56 56 5 5 5
5 5"- 5".
+ V– m + nW
58 58 5

Q". 50K − – — ∇ ∙ "4 5 5". 5", 5 5". 5"- 5 5".

L =− + L. + M– ‹ + ŒN + V– m + nW + M2– ‹ ŒN
Q 58 56 56 58 5 5 58 58 58

When ρ and µ are constant, and for incompressible flows, this simplifies greatly with the help of
the continuity condition ∇ ∙ " = 0 to the vector form

Q"
L = −∇K + L + –∇* "
Q
Where

5* 5* 5*
∇ ≡ *+ *+ *
*
56 5 58

is called the Laplace operator.

Equation above can be written in component notation as

5", 5", 5", 5", 5K

L‹ + ", + "- + ". Œ=− + L, + –∇* ",
5 56 5 58 56

5"- 5"- 5"- 5"- 5K

Lm + ", + "- + ". n=− + L- + –∇* "-
5 56 5 58 5

5". 5". 5". 5". 5K

L‹ + ", + "- + ". Œ=− + L. + –∇* ".
5 56 5 58 58

Either form is referred to as the Navier-Stokes equation

1.10 Boundary Conditions

To obtain a solution of the Navier-Stokes Equations that suits a particular problem, it is
necessary to add conditions that need to be satisfied on the boundaries of the region of
interest. The condtions that are most commonly encountered are the following:
1. The fluid velocity component normal to an impenetrable boundary is always equal to the
normal velocity of the boundary. If  is the unit normal to the boundary, then
 ∙ I"œ ™ª: − "«›™\:ŸS- J = 0
on the boundary. If this condition were not true, fluid would pass through the boundary.
This condition must hold true even in the case of vanishing viscosity (“inviscid flows”).

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Chapter 1 of Advanced Fluid Mechanics
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If the boundary is moving, as in the case of a flow with a free surface or moving body,
then, with c06, 4 = 0 as the equation of the boundary surface, the above equation is
satisfied if
Qc
= 0  ℎ & c = 0
Q
This condition is necessary to establish that c = 0 is a material surface – that is , a
surface moving with the fluid that always contains the same fluid particles.
2. Stress must be continuous everywhere within the fluid. If stress were not continuous, an
infinitesimal layer of fluid with an infinitesimal mass would be acted upon by a finite
force, giving rise to infinite acceleration of that layer.
3. Velocity must be continuous everywhere. That is, in the interior of a fluid, there can be
no discrete changes in ". If there were such changes, it would give rise to discontinuous
deformation gradients and, from the constitutive equations, results in discontinuous
stresses.
The velocity of most fluids at a solid boundary must have the same velocity tangential to
the boundary as the boundary itself. This is the “no-slip” condition that has been
observed over and over experimentally. The molecular forces required to peel away fluid
from boundary are quite large, due to molecular attraction of dissimilar molecules.

1.11 Vorticity and Circulation

In considering the transformation of ABC into B′­′®′, it is seen that two thins have happened:
The Angle has changed, or deformed, by an amount of ( + * , and the bisector of the angle
ABC has rotated an amount 0.50( − * 4. Considering only this rotation, the rate of rotation
of the bisector is seen to be

1 5"- 5",
m − n
2 56 5

Writing the curl of " in Cartesian coordinates, we have

5". 5"- 5", 5". 5"- 5",

! " = ∇ × " =  m − n+k‹ − Œ+'m − n
5 58 58 56 56 5

We therefore define the vorticity vector as being the curl of the velocity – that is

¯ = ! " = ∇ × "

Vorticity also can be represented as a second-order tensor. Writing

( 7; 7;¥
¯,, = ¯-- = ¯.. = 0, ¯,- = * ‚ 7-e − 7,
…,

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Chapter 1 of Advanced Fluid Mechanics
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( 7;e 7;¦ ( 7;¥ 7;¦

¯,. = ‚ − …, ¯-. = ‚ − …,
* 7. 7, * 7. 7-

Note that ∇ × " = 2I.-  + ,. k + -, 'J. Thus the vector and the second-order tensor contain
the same information.

If we present the rate of deformation and voracity in index notation, we can summarize some of
our findings as follows:

( 7; 7;² ( 7; 7;²
ª° = * ‹7,± + 7, Œ = °ª , ¯ª° = * ‹7,± − 7, Œ = −¯°ª ,
² ± ² ±

7;±
ª° + ¯ª° =
7,²
,

Flows with vorticity are said to be rotational flows; flows without vorticity are said to be
irrotational flows. Note for later use that, from a well-known vector identity, it follows that

 = ∇ ∙ 0∇ × "4 = 0
"¯

1.12 The Vorticity Equation

Differential equations governing the change of vorticity can be formed from the Navier-Stokes
equations. Dividing equation by the mass density and then taking the curl of the equation the
result after some manipulation and use of the continuity equation is

Q¯
 1 –
= 0¯
 ∙ ∇4" − ∇ ‹ Œ × ∇K + ∇* ¯

Q L L

The right-hand side of equation tells us that as we follow a fluid particle, there are three
mechanisms by which its vorticity can change. The first term, 0¯  ∙ ∇4", is vorticity change due to
vortex line stretching. The operator ¯ ∙ ∇ is the magnitude of the vorticity times the derivative in
the direction of the vortex line. Consequently, if the velocity vector changes along the vortex line
(thus “stretching” the vortex line), there will be a contribution to the change of vorticity. The
second term says that unless the pressure gradient and the density gradient are aligned so that
they are parallel to one another, the local vorticity will be changed by the density gradient. The
third term says that vorticity will be diffused by viscosity.

- The circulation taken over any cross-sectional area of a vortex tube is a constant.
- Vortex lines can neither originate nor terminate in the interior of the flow. Either they
are closed curves (e.g, smoke rings) or they originate at the boundary.

1.13 The Work-Energy Equation

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Chapter 1 of Advanced Fluid Mechanics
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Another useful equation derived from the Navier-Stokes equations is a work-energy

statement. If we take the dot product of the previous N-S equations with velocity, with the
help of the product rule of calculus we have

Q "∙"
L ‚ … = L" ∙  + "
Q 2
5[,, 5[-, 5[., 5[,- 5[-- 5[.-
∙ V m + + n+km + + n
56 5 58 56 5 58
5[,. 5[-. 5[..
+'m + + nW
56 5 58

50", [,, 4 5I", [-, J 50", [., 4 5I"- [,- J 5I"- [-- J 5I"- [.- J
= L" ∙  + V + + W+V + + W
56 5 58 56 5 58
50". [,. 4 5I". [-. J 50". [.. 4 5", 5", 5",
+V + + W − ‹[,, + [-, + [., Œ
56 5 58 56 5 58
5"- 5"- 5"- 5". 5". 5".
− m[,- + [-- + [.- n − ‹[,. + [-. + [.. Œ
56 5 58 56 5 58

5 5
= L" ∙  + I", [,, + "- [,- + ". [,. J + I" [ + "- [-- + ". [-. J
56 5 , -,
5
+ I", [., + "- [.- + ". [.. J
58
5", 5", 5"- 5", 5". 5"- 5"- 5".
− V[,, + [-, m + n + [., ‹ + Œ + [-- + [.- m + n
56 5 56 58 56 5 58 5
5".
+ [.. W
58
7 7
= 0K − – — ∇ ∙ "4∇" + L" ∙  + 7, I", [,, + "- [,- + ". [,. J + 7- I", [-, + "- [-- + ". [-. J +
7
7.
I", [., + "- [.- + ". [.. J − Ф ,

Where

5", 5", 5"- 5", 5". 5"- 5"- 5". 5".

Ф = [,, + [-, m + n + [., ‹ + Œ + [-- + [.- m + n + [..
56 5 56 58 56 5 58 5 58
+ 0K − – ∇ ∙ "4∇ ∙ "
—

= [,, ,, + [-- -- + [.. .. + 2I[-, -, + [., ., + [.- .- J + 0K − – — ∇ ∙ "4∇ ∙ "

= 2–j,,
*
+ --
*
+ ..
*
+ 2I,-
*
+ -.
*
+ .,
*
Jl

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Chapter 1 of Advanced Fluid Mechanics
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The function Ф represents the rate of dissipation of energy by viscosity and is called the
dissipation function. Since the viscosity is always positive, the quantity Ф is positive definite.

1.14 The First Law of Thermodynamics

The conservation of energy principal in its rate from states that the rate of change of energy of
the system is equal to the rate of heat addition to the system due to conduction from the
surroundings, radiation, and internal reactions plus the rate at which work is done on the system.
In equation form, that is

´ µ ¶
= +
  
For the rate of energy change we have

´ 50L4
=H  + D L" ∙ 
 ; 5 ˜

Where  is the specific energy (energy per unit mass), given by

" ∙ "
= +
2
With u being the specific internal energy. Also, write

µ 
= − D · ∙  + H 
 ˜ ; 

Where · is the heat flux vector represent heat transfer from the surroundings. The body term
dr/dt represents heat generated either internally or transferred by radiation. Fourier’s law of
conductivity is used to relate the heat flux vector to the temperature. This law states that · =
−'∇¸, T being the temperature and k the coefficient of thermal conduction.

The rate at which work is being done by the various forces can be written as

¶
= H L ∙ "  + D " ∙ [0\4 
 ; ˜

Putting these expressions into the first equation in this section and with the help of divergence
theorem, this becomes

50L4
H V + ∇ ∙ 0L"4W  =
; 5

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Chapter 1 of Advanced Fluid Mechanics
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 5 5
H M−∇ ∙ · + + L ∙ " + I", [,, + "- [-, + ". [., J + I" [ + "- [-- + ". [.- J
;  56 5 , ,-
5
+ I", [,. + "- [-. + ". [.. JN 
58
The differential equation can be obtained as

50L4 Q QL
+ ∇ ∙ 0L"4 = L +
5 Q Q
 5 5
= −∇ ∙ · + + L ∙ " + I", [,, + "- [-, + ". [., J + I" [ + "- [-- + ". [.- J
 56 5 , ,-
5
+ I", [,. + "- [-. + ". [.. J
58
By using the work-energy equation, we can obtain

" ∙ "
Q QL Q‹ 2 Œ 
L + −L = −∇ ∙ · + − 0K − – — ∇ ∙ "4∇ ∙ " + Ф
Q Q Q 
Combining the first and the third term, and applying continuity equation, we can obtain

Q 
L = −∇ ∙ · + + Ф + 0−K + L + – — ∇ ∙ "4∇ ∙ "
Q 
In words, this equation states that the internal energy of the fluid will be changed by t he addition
of heat transfer from the surroundings (first term), heat generated internally (second term),
viscosity (third term), and compressibility effects (fourth term).

For incompressible flow, the equation can be written as

Q 
L = −∇ ∙ · + +Ф
Q 
The thermodynamic field quantities are thus seen to be coupled to the mechanical portion
through the convective change of the internal energy, the viscous dissipation, and the pressure.

1.15 Dimensionless Parameters

To express data in the most useful form, dimensional analysis was used extensively. It is also
extremely useful in analysis.
¹?
¨
- The Reynolds number, named after Osborne Reynolds, it is typically found in the form

-The Froude number was named after William Froude, a British mathematics professor who
became interested in ship construction. The Froude number represents the ratio of the convective
Copyright 2013 by Zifeng yang
Chapter 1 of Advanced Fluid Mechanics
 16

acceleration terms in the Navier-Stokes equation to the wave forces as represented by the gravity

º»
terms. It is typically used in the form , although the square of this is also used.


- The Richardson number ∆½¾¿
, named after Colonel A. R. Richardson. It is used in studying
¼
½

wave in flows with density stratification.

- The Strouhal number is named after C. Strouhal, a German physicist who studied the Aeolian
sounds generated by wind blowing through trees. It is an important parameter in studying the
À? œ?
, where &is the frequency and ¯ the circular
 
shedding of vortices and is written as or
frequency.
∆¢
- The pressure coefficient Á , sometimes called the Euler coefficient, is a form suited for the
¹ Â
Â
presentation of pressure data.
ÃÄ
- The drag coefficient Á is used for presenting the drag force (the force in the direction of
¹ Â d
Â
motion), where A is the projected area.
ÃÅ
- The lift coefficient Á is similar to the drag force but perpendicular to the direction of
¹ Â d
Â
motion.
Æ
- The moment coefficient Á is convenient for measuring the moment on a wing or rubber.
¹ Â dÇ
Â

¹ Â ?
È
- The Weber number was named after Moritz Weber, a professor of naval mechanics at the
Polytechnic Institute of Berlin. He introduced the name similitude to describe model studies that
were scaled both geometrically and using dimensionless parameter for forces, and introduced a
capillary parameter, including surface tension.

1.16 Non-Newtonian Fluids

Fluids such as large molecular weight polymers that do not obey the Newtonian constitutive
equation are encountered frequently in the chemical and plastics industry. Paints, slurries,
toothpastes, blood, drilling mud, lubricants, nylon, and colloids all exhibit non-Newton behavior.

The most general form of constitutive equation we could propose for flows that are described by
only stress and rate of deformation is given by

[ª° = 0−K + – — ∇ ∙ "4ɪ° + –ª° + – —— ªÊ Ê°

Copyright 2013 by Zifeng yang
Chapter 1 of Advanced Fluid Mechanics
 17

where – —— is an additional viscosity coefficient. Note that its dimensions differ from the standard
viscosity by an additional unit of time. This constitutive law describes what are called Stokesian
fluids, after George Stokes, or sometimes Reiner – Rivlin fluids.

Suspensions such as paint, clays and wood pulp solutions appear to behave as if they must have a
certain level of stress applied before the fluid deforms. Such fluids have been referred to as
Bingham fluids, or sometimes visco-plastic fluids. The constitutive equation that has been
proposed for them is
(
[ª° = ¸ª° if ¸ ¸ ≤ ¸ * , or
* ª° °Ê

(
[ª° = ¸ª° + 0−K + ∇ ∙ "4ɪ° + –ª° if ¸ ¸ > ¸*
* š\ š\

*Í
In the latter case, ¸ª° = ª° . Here, ¸ª° are components of the yield stress tensor and T is
º*ÍÎÏ ÍÎÏ
the yield stress according to the von Mises yield criterion.

1.17 Moving Coordinate Systems

Occasionally, it is necessary to use moving coordinate systems to understand a given flow.

Consider first a coordinate system rotating with an angular velocity Ω1 and whose origin
translates with a velocity "1 . Then the velocity is given by

"Ÿ«˜ = "Sž  + "1 + Ω1 × 

Here "Ÿ«˜ is the velocity with respect to a nonmoving axes system "Sž  is the velocity measured
in the moving system, and  is the position in the moving system. The acceleration is given by

Q"Ÿ«˜ Q"Sž  "1 Ω1

= + + Ω1 × "1 + ×  + Ω1 × 0Ω1 × 4 + 2Ω1 × "Sž 
Q Q  
These follow from well-known results in dynamics. The last two terms on the right-hand side
represent the centripetal and Coriolis acceleration, while the second, third and fourth represent
the acceleration due to the coordinate system.

This result for the acceleration can be put in a more useful form by a bit of rearranging. Consider
the following:

Q"Ÿ«˜ 5"Sž  "1 Ω1

= + 0"Sž  ∙ ∇4"Sž  + + Ω1 × "1 + ×  + Ω1 × 0Ω1 × 4 + 2Ω1 × "Sž 
Q 5  
5
= ‡" + "1 + Ω1 × ˆ + Ω1 × ‡"Sž  + "1 + Ω1 × ˆ + "Sž  ∙ ∇‡"Sž  + "1 + Ω1 × ˆ
5 Sž 
Copyright 2013 by Zifeng yang
Chapter 1 of Advanced Fluid Mechanics
 18

5
= ‹ + Ω1 × +"Sž  ∙ ∇Œ "Ÿ«˜
5
Since

0"Sž  ∙ ∇4"1 = 0 and 0"Sž  ∙ ∇40Ω1 × 4 = Ω1 × "Sž 

This can be also be written as

Q"Ÿ«˜ 5"Ÿ«˜
= + Ω1 × "Ÿ«˜ + ‡0"Ÿ«˜ − "1 − Ω1 × 4 ∙ ∇ ˆ"Ÿ«˜
Q 5

Copyright 2013 by Zifeng yang

Chapter 1 of Advanced Fluid Mechanics