Direct & Inverse Kinematics

10/24/2017
ROBOTICS
D R . M AQ S O O D A H M E D K H A N
A S S O C I AT E P R O F E S S O R & C O C H A I R M A N , I M D
Book
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Industrial Robotics
Sections:
1. Robot Anatomy and Related Attributes
2. Robot Control Systems
3. End Effectors
4. Sensors in Robotics
5. Industrial Robot Applications
6. Robot Programming
7. Robot Accuracy and Repeatability
Industrial Robot Defined
 Robot – a reprogrammable, multifunctional

manipulator designed to move materials, parts,
tools or specialized devices through variable
programmed motions for the performance of a
variety of tasks. (by the Robot Institute of
America)
 Robotics – the science of studying robots
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Why industrial robots are important:
 Robots can substitute for humans in hazardous work

environments
 Consistency and accuracy not attainable by humans
 Can be reprogrammed
 Most robots are controlled by computers and can therefore
be interfaced to other computer systems
 A major reason for the growth in the use of industrial
robots is their declining cost. Following figure indicates
that, through the decade of the 1990s, robot prices
dropped while human labor costs increased.
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 Following figure shows the number of robots being installed

per year in the major industrial regions of the world.
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Robot Anatomy
 Manipulator consists of joints and links

 Joints provide relative motion
 Links are rigid members between joints
 Various joint types: linear and rotary
 Each joint provides a “degree-of-freedom”
 Most robots possess five or six degrees-of-freedom
 Robot manipulator consists of two sections:

 Body-and-arm – for positioning of objects in the robot's
work volume
 Wrist assembly – for orientation of objects
Robot Anatomy
Robot manipulator - a series of joint-link combinations
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Types of Manipulator Joints
 Translational motion
 Linear joint (type L)
 Orthogonal joint (type O)
 Rotary motion
 Rotational joint (type R)
 Twisting joint (type T)
 Revolving joint (type V)
Translational Motion Joints
Linear joint
(type L)
Orthogonal joint
(type O)
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Translational Motion Joints
Example: Orthogonal joint (type O)
Rotary Motion Joints
Rotational joint
(type R)
Twisting joint
(type T)
Revolving joint
(type V)
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Joint Notation Scheme
 Use joint symbols (L, O, R, T, V) to designate joint

types.
 Separates body-and-arm assembly from wrist
assembly using a colon (:)
 Example: TLR : TR
Robot Body-and-Arm Configurations
 Five common body-and-arm configurations for industrial

robots:
1. Polar coordinate body-and-arm assembly
2. Cylindrical body-and-arm assembly
3. Cartesian coordinate body-and-arm assembly
4. Jointed-arm body-and-arm assembly
5. Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm (SCARA)
 Function of body-and-arm assembly is to position an end
effector (e.g., gripper, tool) in space
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Polar Coordinate
Body-and-Arm Assembly
 Notation TRL:
 Consists of a sliding arm (L joint) actuated relative to the

body, which can rotate about both a vertical axis (T joint)
and horizontal axis (R joint)
Cylindrical Body-and-Arm Assembly
 Notation TLO:
 Consists of a vertical column,

relative to which an arm
assembly is moved up or down
 The arm can be moved in or out
relative to the column
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Cartesian Coordinate Body-and-Arm Assembly
 Notation LOO:
 Consists of three sliding joints,

two of which are orthogonal
 Other names include rectilinear
robot and x-y-z robot
Jointed-Arm Robot
 Notation TRR:
 General configuration
of a human arm
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SCARA Robot
 Notation VRO
 SCARA stands for Selectively
Compliant Assembly Robot
Arm
 Similar to jointed-arm robot
except that vertical axes are
used for shoulder and elbow
joints to be compliant in
horizontal direction for
vertical insertion tasks
Wrist Configurations
 Wrist assembly is attached to end-of-arm

 End effector is attached to wrist assembly
 Function of wrist assembly is to orient end effector
 Body-and-arm determines global position of end effector
 Two or three degrees of freedom:
 Roll
 Pitch
 Yaw
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Wrist Configuration
 Typical wrist assembly has two or three degrees-of-freedom

(shown is a three degree-of freedom wrist)
 Notation :RRT
Joint Drive Systems
 Electric
 Uses electric motors to actuate individual joints
 Preferred drive system in today's robots
 Hydraulic
 Uses hydraulic pistons and rotary vane actuators
 Noted for their high power and lift capacity
 Pneumatic
 Typically limited to smaller robots and simple material
transfer applications
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Robot Control Systems
 Limited sequence control – pick-and-place operations

using mechanical stops to set positions
 Playback with point-to-point control – records work cycle
as a sequence of points, then plays back the sequence
during program execution
 Playback with continuous path control – greater memory
capacity and/or interpolation capability to execute paths
(in addition to points)
 Intelligent control – exhibits behavior that makes it seem
intelligent, e.g., responds to sensor inputs, makes decisions,
communicates with its environment.
End Effectors
 The special tooling for a robot that enables it to

perform a specific task
 Two types:
 Grippers – to grasp and manipulate objects (e.g., parts)
during work cycle
 Tools – to perform a process, e.g., spot welding, spray
painting
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Robot Grippers
 Mechanical grippers
 Vacuum grippers,
 Magnetized devices
 Adhesive devices,
 simple mechanical devices such as hooks and
scoops.
Robot Mechanical Gripper
 A two-finger mechanical gripper for grasping rotational

parts
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Advances in Mechanical Grippers
 Dual grippers
 Interchangeable fingers
 Sensory feedback
 To sense presence of object
 To apply a specified force on the object (fragile workparts)
 Multiple fingered gripper (similar to human hand)
 Standard gripper products to reduce the amount of
custom design required
 Dual grippers
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Tools
 spot welding gun

 arc welding tool
 spray painting gun
 rotating spindle for drilling, routing. grinding, and so
forth
 assembly tool (e.g., automatic screwdriver)
 heating torch
 water jet cutting tool.
Sensors in Robotics
Two basic categories of sensors used in industrial robots:
1. Internal - used to control position and velocity of the

manipulator joints
2. External - used to coordinate the operation of the robot
with other equipment in the work cell
 Tactile - touch sensors and force sensors
 Proximity - when an object is close to the sensor
 Optical - (Photoelectric sensors)
 Machine vision
 Other sensors - temperature, voltage, etc.
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Sensors in Robotics
Photoelectric sensor
Sensors in Robotics
Machine vision system
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Robot Application Characteristics
General characteristics of industrial work situations

that promote the use of industrial robots
1. Hazardous work environment for humans
2. Repetitive work cycle
3. Difficult handling task for humans
4. Multi shift operations
5. Infrequent changeovers
6. Part position and orientation are established in
the work cell
Industrial Robot Applications
1. Material handling applications

 Material transfer – pick-and-place, palletizing
 Machine loading and/or unloading
2. Processing operations
 Spot welding and continuous arc welding
 Spray coating
 Other – waterjet cutting, laser cutting, grinding
3. Assembly and inspection
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Robot Programming
 Lead-through programming - work cycle is taught

to robot by moving the manipulator through the
required motion cycle and simultaneously entering
the program into controller memory for later
playback
 Robot programming languages - uses different
programming language to enter commands into
robot controller
 Simulation and off-line programming – program is
prepared at a remote computer terminal and
downloaded to robot controller for execution
without need for lead-through methods
Lead through Programming
Two types:
1. Powered leadthrough
 Common for point-to-point robots
 Uses teach pendant to move joints to desired position and
record that position into memory
2. Manual leadthrough
 Convenient for continuous path control robots
 Human programmer physical moves manipulator through

motion cycle and records cycle into memory
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Teach Pendant for Powered Lead through

Programming
Robot Programming Languages
Programming languages provide the opportunity to

perform the following functions that lead through
programming cannot readily accomplish:
 Improved output capabilities to control external
equipment
 Program logic not provided by lead through methods
 Computations and data processing similar to
computer programming languages
 Communications with other computer systems
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Simulation and Off-Line Programming
 In conventional usage, robot programming languages

still require some production time to be lost in order to
define points in the workspace that are referenced in the
program
 They therefore involve on-line/off-line programming
 Advantage of true off-line programming is that the
program can be prepared beforehand and downloaded to
the controller with no lost production time
 Graphical simulation is used to construct a 3-D model of the robot
cell in which locations of the equipment in the cell have been defined
previously
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Robot Accuracy and Repeatability
Three terms used to define precision in robotics,

similar to numerical control precision:
1. Control resolution - capability of robot's
positioning system to divide the motion range of
each joint into closely spaced points
2. Accuracy - capability to position the robot's wrist at
a desired location in the work space, given the
limits of the robot's control resolution
3. Repeatability - capability to position the wrist at a
previously taught point in the work space
Control resolution
Control resolution is defined as the distance

separating two adjacent addressable points in the joint
movement.
 Addressable points are locations along the joint axis
to which the joint can be specifically directed to go.
 It
is desirable for control resolution to be as small as
possible.
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Control resolution
Control
resolution
Bit storage
Electromechanical
capacity of the
components
controller
· Lead-screw pitch
· Gear ratio
· Step angle
· Angle b/w encoder slots
Control resolution
 Control resolution of the electromechanical

system
 For open-loop positioning system:
p
CR1 
ns rg
 For closed-loop system

p
CR1 
ns rg rge
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Control resolution
 Control resolution of the computer system

 The ability to divide the axis range into individual
increments depends on the bit storage capacity in the
control memory
 The number of increments = 2n
 n = number of bits in the control memory
 Control resolution
L
CR2 
2 1
B
 Control resolution of the overall positioning system

CR  Max CR1, CR2 
Control resolution
A desirable criterion is for CR2 < CR1, meaning the

electromechanical system is the limiting factor.
 The bit storage capacity of modern computer controller is
sufficient to satisfy the requirement.
 Resolutions of 0.0025 mm is within the current state of NC
technology.
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Accuracy in Ideal Case
 The accuracy of any given axis of a positioning system is the

maximum possible error that can occur between the desired
target point and the actual position taken by the system.
Mechanical Errors
 The capability of a positioning system to move the worktable

to the exact location is limited by the following mechanical
errors.
1. Play between the lead-screw and the table
2. Backlash in the gears
3. Elastic deflection in the structural members
4. Stretching of pulley cords
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Accuracy in real case

 Assumptions
Mechanical errors form an normal distribution about the control point

whose mean is 0
Standard deviation is constant over the range of the axis.
 Accuracy is defined under worst case conditions in which

the desired target point lies in the middle between two
adjacent addressable points.
 Since the table can only be moved to one or the other of the
addressable point, there will be an error in the final position
of the work-table.
Accuracy in real case
 Mathematically
CR
Accuracy   3
2
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Repeatability
 Repeatability refers to the capability of the positioning system

to return to a given addressable point that has been previously
programmed
Re peatability  3
Problems-1
A robot performs a loading and unloading
operation for a machine tool. The work cycle
consists of the following sequence of activities:
Seq. Activity Time
(Sec.)
1 Robot reaches and picks part from incoming 5.5
conveyor and loads into fixture on machine tool.
2 Machining cycle (automatic). 38.0
3 Robot reaches in, retrieves part from machine 4.8
tool, and deposits it onto outgoing conveyor.
4 Move back to pickup position. 1.7
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Problems-1
The activities are performed sequentially as listed.
Every 30 work-parts, the cutting tools in the
machine must be changed. This irregular cycle
takes 3.0 minutes to accomplish. The uptime
efficiency of the robot is 97%; and the uptime
efficiency of the machine tool is 98%, not including
interruptions for tool changes. These two
efficiencies are assumed not to overlap (i.e., if the
robot breaks down, the cell will cease to operate, so
the machine tool will not have the opportunity to
break down; and vice versa).
Problems-1
Downtime results from electrical and
mechanical malfunctions of the robot, machine
tool, and fixture. Determine the hourly
production rate, taking into account the lost
time due to tool changes and the uptime
efficiency.
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Problems-2
In the previous problem, suppose that a double
gripper is used instead of a single gripper as
indicated in that problem. The activities in the
cycle
Seq. would be changed as follows:
Activity Time (s)
1 Robot reaches and picks raw part from incoming 3.3
conveyor in one gripper and awaits completion
of machining cycle. This activity is performed
simultaneously with machining cycle.
2 At completion of previous machining cycle, 5.0
robot reaches in, retrieves finished part from
machine, loads raw part into fixture, and moves
a safe distance from machine.
Problems-2
Seq. Activity Time (s)
3 Machining cycle (automatic). 38.0
4 Robot moves to outgoing conveyor and deposits 3.0

part. This activity is performed simultaneously
with machining cycle.
5 Robot moves back to pickup position. This 1.7
activity is performed simultaneously with
machining cycle.
Steps 1, 4, and 5 are performed simultaneously
with the automatic machining cycle. Steps 2 and 3
must be performed sequentially. The same tool
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Problems-2
change statistics and uptime efficiencies are
applicable. Determine the hourly production rate
when the double gripper is used, taking into
account the lost time due to tool changes and the
uptime efficiency.
Problems-3
Since the robot's portion of the work cycle requires
much less time than the machine tool in Problem
problem-1, the possibility of installing a cell with
two machines is being considered. The robot would
load and unload both machines from the same
incoming and outgoing conveyors. The machines
would be arranged so that distances between the
fixture and the conveyors are the same for both
machines. Thus, the activity times given in
Problem-1 are valid for the two machine cell. The
machining cycles would be staggered so that the
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Problems-3
robot would be servicing only one machine at a
time. The tool change statistics and uptime
efficiencies in Problem-1 are applicable. Determine
the hourly production rate for the two-machine
cell. The lost time due to tool changes and the
uptime efficiency should be accounted for. Assume
that if one of the two machine tools is down, the
other machine can continue to operate, but if the
robot is down, the cell operation is stopped.
Problems-4
Apparatus required for this exercise consists of two
wood or plastic blocks of two different colors that can
be grasped by the robot gripper. The blocks should
be placed in specific positions (call the positions A
and B on either side of a center location (call it
position C). The robot should be programmed to do
the following: (1) pick up the block at position A and
place it at the central position C; (2) pick up the
block at position B and place it at position A; (3) pick
up the block at position C and place it at position B.
(4) Repeat steps (1), (2), and (3) continually.
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Problems-5
The linear joint (type L) of a certain industrial
robot is actuated by a piston mechanism. The
length of the joint when fully retracted is 500
mm and when fully extended is 850 mm. If the
robot's controller has an 8-bit storage capacity,
determine the control resolution for this robot.
Problems-6
In the previous problem, the mechanical errors
associated with the linear joint form a normal
distribution in the direction of the joint
actuation with standard deviation = 0.08 mm.
Determine (a) control resolution, (b) accuracy,
and (c) repeatability for the robot.
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Problems-7
The revolving joint (type V) of an industrial robot
has a range of 240 rotation. The mechanical errors
in the joint and the input/output links can be
described by a normal distribution with its mean at
any given addressable point, and a standard
deviation of 0.25. Determine the number of
storage bits required in the controller memory so
that the accuracy of the joint is as close as possible
to, but less than, its repeatability. Use six standard
deviations as the measure of repeatability.
Problems-8
A cylindrical robot has a T-type wrist axis that
can be rotated a total of three rotations (each
rotation is a full 360). It is desired to be able to
position the wrist with a control resolution of
0.5 between adjacent addressable points.
Determine the number of bits required in the
binary register for that axis in the robot's
control memory.
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Problems-9
One axis of an RRL robot is a linear slide with a
total range of 950 mm. The robot's control memory
has an 10-bit capacity. It is assumed that the
mechanical errors associated with the arm are
normally distributed with a mean at the given
taught point and an isotropic standard deviation of
0.10 mm. Determine (a) the control resolution for
the axis under consideration, (b) the spatial
resolution for the axis, (c) the defined accuracy, (d)
the repeatability.
Direct & inverse kinematics of

manipulators
 Spatial description and transformation
 Direct kinematics
 Inverse kinematics
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Spatial description and transformation

Description of a position
 Once a coordinate system is established, we can locate any
point in the universe with a 3 x 1 position vector.
 Because we will often define many coordinate systems in
addition to the universe coordinate system, vectors must be
tagged with information identifying which coordinate system
they are defined within.
 Vectors are written with a leading superscript indicating the
coordinate system to which they are referenced for example,
𝐴
𝑃.

 This means that the components of 𝐴𝑃 have

numerical values that indicate distances along the
axes of {A}.
 Following figure represents a coordinate system,
{A}, with three mutually orthogonal unit vectors
with solid heads.
 A point 𝐴𝑃 is represented as a vector and can
equivalently be thought of as a position in space,
or simply as an ordered set of three numbers.
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𝑝𝑥
𝐴
𝑃 = 𝑝𝑦
𝑝𝑧
In summary, we will
describe the position of a
point in space with a
position vector.

Description of an orientation
 Often, we will find it necessary not only to represent a

point in space but also to describe the orientation of a
body in space.
 For example, if vector 𝐴𝑃 in the following figure locates
the point directly between the fingertips of a
manipulator's hand, the complete location of the hand
is still not specified until its orientation is also given.
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 In order to describe the orientation of a body, we will

attach a coordinate system to the body and then give a
description of this coordinate system relative to the
reference system.
 In the above figure, coordinate system {B} has been
attached to the body in a known way.
 A description of {B} relative to {A} now sufficient to
give the orientation of the body.
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 Thus, positions of points are described with vectors

and orientations of bodies are described with an
attached coordinate system.
 One way to describe the attached coordinate system,
(B), is to write the unit vectors of its three principal
axes in terms of the coordinate system {A}.
 We denote the unit vectors giving the principal
directions of coordinate system {B } as 𝑋𝐵 , 𝑌𝐵 , and
Ẑ B

 When written in terms of coordinate system {A},

they are called A Xˆ B , AYˆB , A Zˆ B
 It will be convenient if we stack these three unit
vectors together as the columns of a 3 x 3 matrix
 We will call this matrix a rotation matrix, and,
because this particular rotation matrix describes
{B } relative to {A}, we name it with the notation
𝐴
𝐵𝑅
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 r11 r12 r13 

A
R   A Xˆ B YˆB
A
Z B    r21 r22
A ˆ
r23 
B  
 r31 r32 r33 
In summary, a set of three vectors may be used to
specify an orientation.

 Hence, whereas the position of a point is
represented with a vector, the orientation of a
body is represented with a matrix.
 We can give expressions for the scalars in the
above equation by noting that the components of
any vector are simply the projections of that vector
onto the unit directions of its reference frame.
 Hence, each component can be written as the dot
product of a pair of unit vectors:
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The dot product of two unit vectors yields the cosine

of the angle between them, so it is clear why the
components of rotation matrices are often referred to
as direction cosines.

 Further inspection of the above equation shows that
the rows of the matrix are the unit vectors of {A}
expressed in {B}; that is,
 Hence, the description of frame {A} relative to {B}, is

given by the transpose of 𝐵𝐴𝑅 that is,
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Suppose a coordinate system B is defined with

respect to reference coordinate system A.
𝐵 = 𝐵𝑥 𝐵𝑦 𝐵𝑧
2 5 2
𝐵= 7 9 4
3 11 1
If we find unit vectors giving the principal
directions of coordinate system {B} then it can be
written as 𝑋𝐵 𝑌𝐵 𝑍𝐵

𝐵} = 𝑋𝐵 𝑌𝐵 𝑍𝐵
0.254 0.3319 0.4364
𝐵} = 0.889 0.5974 0.8729
0.381 0.7301 0.2182
𝐴} = 𝑋𝐴 𝑌𝐴 𝑍𝐴
1 0 0
𝐴} = 0 1 0
0 0 1
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𝐴
𝐵𝑅 = [ 𝐴𝑋 𝐵 𝐴
𝑌 𝐵 𝐴
𝑍 𝐵
𝑋𝐵 . 𝑋𝐴 𝑌𝐵 . 𝑋𝐴 𝑍𝐵 . 𝑋𝐴
𝐴
𝐵𝑅 = 𝑋𝐵 . 𝑌𝐴 𝑌𝐵 . 𝑌𝐴 𝑍𝐵 . 𝑌𝐴
𝑋𝐵 . 𝑍𝐴 𝑌𝐵 . 𝑍𝐴 𝑍𝐵 . 𝑍𝐴
0.254 0.3319 0.4364
𝐴 0.889 0.5974 0.8729
𝐵𝑅 =
0.381 0.7301 0.2182
Angle =
Prove that
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Description of a frame
 The information needed to completely specify the

manipulator hand in is a position and an
orientation.
 For convenience, the point whose position we will
describe is chosen as the origin of the body-
attached coordinate system.
 The situation of a position and an orientation pair
arises so often in robotics that we define an entity
called a frame.
 Which is a set of four vectors giving position and
orientation information.

 A frame is a coordinate system where, in

addition to the orientation, we give a position
vector which locates its origin relative to some
other embedding frame.
𝐴
 For example, frame {B} is described by 𝐵𝑅
and , where is the vector that
locates the origin of the frame {B}:
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 In the following figure, there are three frames that are

shown along with the universe coordinate system.
 Frames {A} and {B} are known relative to the universe
coordinate system, and frame {C} is known relative to
frame {A}.

 There is a graphical representation of frames,

which is convenient in visualizing frames.
 A frame is depicted by three arrows
representing unit vectors defining the principal
axes of the frame.
 An arrow representing a vector is drawn from
one origin to another.
 This vector represents the position of the origin
at the head of the arrow in terms of the frame at
the tail of the arrow.
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 The direction of this locating arrow tells us, for

example, in above figure, that {C} is known
relative to {A} and not vice versa.
 In summary, a frame can be used as a
description of one coordinate system relative
to another.
MAPPINGS: CHANGING DESCRIPTIONS

FROM FRAME TO FRAME
 In many problems in robotics, we are concerned
with expressing the same quantity in terms of
various reference coordinate systems.
 Until now, we say how to describe positions,
orientations and frames.
 We need to be able to change descriptions from one
frame to another: mapping.
 Mappings:
(1) translated frames (2) rotated frames (3) general
frames
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Mappings involving translated frames
 Expressing a point Bp in terms of frame {A},

when {A} has the same orientation as {B}:
A
p  B p  A pBorg
B
A p
p ZB
A
pBorg
ZA YB
XB
YA
XA
Mappings involving rotated frames
 Expressing a vector Bp in terms of frame {A},

when the origins of frames {A} and {B} are
coincident:
B
ZB p
ZA
XB YA
XA YB
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A
P  BA R B P
 Given:frame {B} is rotated relative to frame {A} about Z

by 30 degrees, and BP is (0, 2, 0).
Calc: AP
49
10/24/2017
 Sol:
 X B  X A YB  X A ZB  X A 
A
R   X B  YA YB  YA Z B  YA 
B  
 X B  Z A YB  Z A Z B  Z A 
 cos 30 cos120 0
 
 cos 300 cos 30 0
 0 0 1 

 1.000
A
P  R P   1.732 
A B
B  
 0 
50

Direct &amp; Inverse Kinematics

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10/24/2017

Industrial Robot Defined

 Robot – a reprogrammable, multifunctional

Why industrial robots are important:

 Robots can substitute for humans in hazardous work

Why industrial robots are important:

Why industrial robots are important:

Why industrial robots are important:

 Following figure shows the number of robots being installed

 Manipulator consists of joints and links

 Links are rigid members between joints

 Various joint types: linear and rotary

 Each joint provides a “degree-of-freedom”

 Most robots possess five or six degrees-of-freedom

 Robot manipulator consists of two sections:

Robot manipulator - a series of joint-link combinations

Types of Manipulator Joints

 Orthogonal joint (type O)

 Twisting joint (type T)

 Revolving joint (type V)

Translational Motion Joints

Translational Motion Joints

Example: Orthogonal joint (type O)

Rotary Motion Joints

Joint Notation Scheme

 Use joint symbols (L, O, R, T, V) to designate joint

Robot Body-and-Arm Configurations

 Five common body-and-arm configurations for industrial

 Consists of a sliding arm (L joint) actuated relative to the

Cylindrical Body-and-Arm Assembly

 Consists of a vertical column,

Cartesian Coordinate Body-and-Arm Assembly

 Consists of three sliding joints,

 Wrist assembly is attached to end-of-arm

 Typical wrist assembly has two or three degrees-of-freedom

Joint Drive Systems

 Preferred drive system in today's robots

 Noted for their high power and lift capacity

Robot Control Systems

 Limited sequence control – pick-and-place operations

 The special tooling for a robot that enables it to

Robot Mechanical Gripper

 A two-finger mechanical gripper for grasping rotational

Advances in Mechanical Grippers

Advances in Mechanical Grippers

Advances in Mechanical Grippers

Advances in Mechanical Grippers

 spot welding gun

Two basic categories of sensors used in industrial robots:

1. Internal - used to control position and velocity of the

Machine vision system

Robot Application Characteristics

General characteristics of industrial work situations

Industrial Robot Applications

1. Material handling applications

 Machine loading and/or unloading

 Other – waterjet cutting, laser cutting, grinding

3. Assembly and inspection

 Lead-through programming - work cycle is taught

Lead through Programming

 Human programmer physical moves manipulator through

Teach Pendant for Powered Lead through

Robot Programming Languages

Programming languages provide the opportunity to

Direct & Inverse Kinematics

Direct & Inverse Kinematics