The final stage of aerobic respiration is the electron transport chain, which is located

on the inner mitochondrial membrane

 The inner membrane is arranged into folds (cristae), which increases the surface area
available for the transport chain

The electron transport chain releases the energy stored within the reduced hydrogen
carriers in order to synthesise ATP
 This is called oxidative phosphorylation, as the energy to synthesise ATP is derived
from the oxidation of hydrogen carriers

Oxidative phosphorylation occurs over a number of distinct steps:

 Proton pumps create an electrochemical gradient (proton motive force)
 ATP synthase uses the subsequent diffusion of protons (chemiosmosis) to synthesise
ATP
 Oxygen accepts electrons and protons to form water

Step 1: Generating a Proton Motive Force

 The hydrogen carriers (NADH and FADH2) are oxidised and release high energy
electrons and protons
 The electrons are transferred to the electron transport chain, which consists of several
transmembrane carrier proteins
 As electrons pass through the chain, they lose energy – which is used by the chain to
pump protons (H+ ions) from the matrix
 The accumulation of H+ ions within the intermembrane space creates an
electrochemical gradient (or a proton motive force)
 Understanding:
• In chemiosmosis protons diffuse through ATP synthase to generate ATP

Step Two: ATP Synthesis via Chemiosmosis

 The proton motive force will cause H+ ions to move down their electrochemical gradient
and diffuse back into matrix
 This diffusion of protons is called chemiosmosis and is facilitated by the transmembrane
enzyme ATP synthase
 As the H+ ions move through ATP synthase they trigger the molecular rotation of the
enzyme, synthesising ATP

Understanding:
• Oxygen is needed to bind with the free protons to maintain the hydrogen gradient,
resulting in the formation
of water
 Step Three: Reduction of Oxygen
 In order for the electron transport chain to continue functioning, the de-energised
electrons must be removed
 Oxygen acts as the final electron acceptor, removing the de-energised electrons to
prevent the chain from becoming blocked
 Oxygen also binds with free protons in the matrix to form water – removing matrix
protons maintains the hydrogen gradient
 In the absence of oxygen, hydrogen carriers cannot transfer energised electrons to the
chain and ATP production is halted

Summary: Oxidative Phosphorylation

 Hydrogen carriers donate high energy electrons to the electron transport chain (located
on the cristae)
 As the electrons move through the chain they lose energy, which is transferred to the
electron carriers within the chain
 The electron carriers use this energy to pump hydrogen ions from the matrix and into
the intermembrane space
 The accumulation of H+ ions in the intermembrane space creates an electrochemical
gradient (or a proton motive force)
 H+ ions return to the matrix via the transmembrane enzyme ATP synthase (this diffusion
of ions is called chemiosmosis)
 As the ions pass through ATP synthase they trigger a phosphorylation reaction which
produces ATP (from ADP + Pi)
 The de-energised electrons are removed from the chain by oxygen, allowing new high
energy electrons to enter the chain
 Oxygen also binds matrix protons to form water – this maintains the hydrogen gradient
by removing H+ ions from the matrix
 Glycolysis, part of cellular respiration, is a series of reactions that constitute the
first phase of most carbohydrate catabolism, catabolism meaning the breaking
down of larger molecules into smaller ones. The word glycolysis is derived
from two Greek words and means the breakdown of something sweet.
Glycolysis breaks down glucose and forms pyruvate with the production of two
molecules of ATP. The pyruvate end product of glycolysis can be used in
either anaerobic respiration if no oxygen is available or in aerobic
respiration via the TCA cycle which yields much more usable energy for the
cell.
 The following general outline of glycolysis follows the organization of
Audesirk & Audesirk.

A glucose molecule is
energized by the addition
of a high-energy
phosphate from ATP,
forming glucose-6-
phosphate.

A rearrangement of the
molecule forms fructose-
6-phosphate.

Using the available

energy of a second ATP
molecule, a second
phosphate is added to the
fructose.
The fructose-1,6-
biphosphate is split into
two three-carbon
molecules, each having
one phosphate group
attached. The
dihydrooxacetone
(DHAP) quickly
rearranges to form
another G3P molecule, so
the net result is two G3P
molecules.

In near-simultaneous
reactions, each G3P
molecule gains an
inorganic phosphorous
while contributing two
electrons and a hydrogen
ion to NAD+ to form the
energized carrier
molecules NADH. The
resulting molecules have
two high-energy
phosphates.

Two molecules of low

energy ADP are elevated
to ATP molecules by
phosphates from the
biphosphoglycerates. This
recovers the energy
invested in the first step
of the glycolysis. The
remaining phosphorous is
relocated to the center
position.
The final phosphate is
transferred to ADP to
form ATP, and this step
represents the net yield of
2 ATP for the glycolysis
process as a whole.

noun

(1) A cycle of reactions catalyzed by enzymes in which pyruvate derived from nutrients and converted to Acetyl

Coenzyme A is completely oxidized and broken down into carbon dioxide and water to produce high-
energy phosphate compounds, which are the source of cellular energy.

(2) One of the major metabolic pathways of cellular respiration, and involves a cyclic series of enzymatic reactions by

which pyruvate converted into Acetyl Coenzyme A is completely oxidized to CO2and hydrogen is removed from

the carbon molecules, transferring the hydrogen atoms and electrons to electron-carrier molecules (e.g. NADH and
FADH2) as well as the metabolic energy to high energy bonds (e.g. ATP).

Supplement

The citric acid cycle is an alternative name for Krebs cycle, which was first described by Hans Adolf Krebs in 1937.

It is called citric acid cycle because the citric acid is both the first product and the final reactant of

this metabolic pathway. It involves eight step processes in which the Acetyl Coenzyme A is converted
to Citrate, Isocitrate, α-ketoglutarate, succinyl-CoA, succinate, fumarate, malate, and oxaloacetate.

In eukaryotes, the citric acid cycle takes place in the matrix of the
mitochondria, just like the conversion of pyruvate to
acetyl \text{CoA}CoAC, o, A. In prokaryotes, these steps both take place in
the cytoplasm. The citric acid cycle is a closed loop; the last part of the
pathway reforms the molecule used in the first step. The cycle includes eight
major steps.

In eukaryotes, the citric acid cycle takes place in the matrix of the
mitochondria, just like the conversion of pyruvate to
acetyl \text{CoA}CoAC, o, A. In prokaryotes, these steps both take place in
the cytoplasm. The citric acid cycle is a closed loop; the last part of the
pathway reforms the molecule used in the first step. The cycle includes eight
major steps.

In eukaryotes, the citric acid cycle takes place in the matrix of the
mitochondria, just like the conversion of pyruvate to
acetyl \text{CoA}CoAC, o, A. In prokaryotes, these steps both take place in
the cytoplasm. The citric acid cycle is a closed loop; the last part of the
pathway reforms the molecule used in the first step. The cycle includes eight
major steps.

Step 1. In the first step of the citric acid cycle, acetyl \text{CoA}CoAC, o,
A joins with a four-carbon molecule, oxaloacetate, releasing
the \text{CoA}CoAC, o, A group and forming a six-carbon molecule called
citrate.

Step 2. In the second step, citrate is converted into its isomer, isocitrate. This
is actually a two-step process, involving first the removal and then the
addition of a water molecule, which is why the citric acid cycle is sometimes
described as having nine steps—rather than the eight listed here^33start
superscript, 3, end superscript.

Step 3. In the third step, isocitrate is oxidized and releases a molecule of

carbon dioxide, leaving behind a five-carbon molecule—α-ketoglutarate.
During this step, \text{NAD}^+NAD+N, A, D, start superscript, plus, end
superscript is reduced to form \text{NADH}NADHN, A, D, H. The enzyme
catalyzing this step, isocitrate dehydrogenase, is important in regulating the
speed of the citric acid cycle.

Step 4. The fourth step is similar to the third. In this case, it’s α-ketoglutarate
that’s oxidized, reducing \text{NAD}^+NAD+N, A, D, start superscript, plus,
end superscript to \text{NADH}NADHN, A, D, H and releasing a molecule
of carbon dioxide in the process. The remaining four-carbon molecule picks
up Coenzyme A, forming the unstable compound succinyl \text{CoA}CoAC,
o, A. The enzyme catalyzing this step, α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase, is
also important in regulation of the citric acid cycle.

Step 5. In step five, the \text{CoA}CoAC, o, A of

succinyl \text{CoA}CoAC, o, A is replaced by a phosphate group, which is
then transferred to \text{ADP}ADPA, D, P to make \text{ATP}ATPA, T, P.
In some cells, \text{GDP}GDPG, D, P—guanine diphosphate—is used
instead of \text{ADP}ADPA, D, P, forming \text{GTP}GTPG, T, P—
guanine triphosphate—as a product. The four-carbon molecule produced in
this step is called succinate.
[Learn more about GTP.]

\text{GTP}G, T, P\text{ATP}A, T, P\text{ATP}A, T, P\text{GTP}G, T, P

Step 6. In step six, succinate is oxidized, forming another four-carbon

molecule called fumarate. In this reaction, two hydrogen atoms—with their
electrons—are transferred to \text{FAD}FADF, A, D,
producing \text{FADH}_2FADH2F, A, D, H, start subscript, 2, end subscript.
The enzyme that carries out this step is embedded in the inner membrane of
the mitochondrion, so \text{FADH}_2FADH2F, A, D, H, start subscript, 2,
end subscript can transfer its electrons directly into the electron transport
chain.
[Why use FAD here?]

\text{FAD}F, A, D\text{NAD}^+N, A, D, start superscript, plus, end

superscript\text{NAD}^+N, A, D, start superscript, plus, end
superscript\text{FAD}F, A, D^{4,5}start superscript, 4, comma, 5, end
superscript

Step 7. In step seven, water is added to the four-carbon molecule fumarate,

converting it into another four-carbon molecule called malate.
 Step 8. In the last step of the citric acid cycle, oxaloacetate—the starting
four-carbon compound—is regenerated by oxidation of malate. Another
molecule of \text{NAD}^+NAD+N, A, D, start superscript, plus, end
superscript is reduced to \text{NADH}NADHN, A, D, H in the process.

Products of the citric acid cycle

Let’s take a step back and do some accounting, tracing the fate of the carbons
that enter the citric acid cycle and counting the reduced electron carriers—
\text{NADH}NADHN, A, D, H and \text{FADH}_2FADH2F, A, D, H, start
subscript, 2, end subscript—and \text{ATP}ATPA, T, P produced.

In a single turn of the cycle,

 two carbons enter from acetyl \text{CoA}CoAC, o, A, and two molecules of

carbon dioxide are released;

 three molecules of \text{NADH}NADHN, A, D, H and one molecule

of \text{FADH}_2FADH2F, A, D, H, start subscript, 2, end subscript are
generated; and

 one molecule of \text{ATP}ATPA, T, P or \text{GTP}GTPG, T, P is

produced.

These figures are for one turn of the cycle, corresponding to one molecule of
acetyl \text{CoA}CoAC, o, A. Each glucose produces two
acetyl \text{CoA}CoAC, o, A molecules, so we need to multiply these
numbers by 222 if we want the per-glucose yield.

Two carbons—from acetyl \text{CoA}CoAC, o, A—enter the citric acid

cycle in each turn, and two carbon dioxide molecules are released. However,
the carbon dioxide molecules don’t actually contain carbon atoms from the
 acetyl \text{CoA}CoAC, o, A that just entered the cycle. Instead, the carbons
from acetyl \text{CoA}CoAC, o, A are initially incorporated into the
intermediates of the cycle and are released as carbon dioxide only during
later turns. After enough turns, all the carbon atoms from the acetyl group of
acetyl \text{CoA}CoAC, o, A will be released as carbon dioxide.

Where’s all the \text{ATP}ATPA, T, P?

You may be thinking that the \text{ATP}ATPA, T, P output of the citric acid
cycle seems pretty unimpressive. All that work for just
one \text{ATP}ATPA, T, P or \text{GTP}GTPG, T, P?

It’s true that the citric acid cycle doesn’t produce much \text{ATP}ATPA, T,
P directly. However, it can make a lot of \text{ATP}ATPA, T, P indirectly,
by way of the \text{NADH}NADHN, A, D, H and \text{FADH}_2FADH2F,
A, D, H, start subscript, 2, end subscript it generates. These electron carriers
will connect with the last portion of cellular respiration, depositing their
electrons into the electron transport chain to drive synthesis of ATP
molecules through oxidative phosphorylation.
 BiologyAnimal and Plant CellsMitochondria
Top
Mitochondria
Mitochondria are well-defined cytoplasmic organelles of the cell which take part in a variety of cellular
metabolic functions. Survival of the cells requires energy to perform different functions. The mitochondria
are important as the fact that these organelles supply all the necessary biological energy of the cell, and
they obtain this energy by oxidizing the substrates of the Krebs cycle. Energy of the cell is got from the
enzymatic oxidation of chemical compounds in the mitochondria. Hence, the mitochondria re referred to as
the 'power houses' of the cell. Almost all the eukaryotic cell have mitochondria, though they are lost in the
later stages of development of cell like in the red blood cells or in elements of phloem sieve tube.

In 1890, mitochondria was first described by Richard Altmann and he called them as bioblasts. Benda in
the year 1897 coined the term mitochondrion. In the 1920s, a biochemist Warburg found that oxidative
reactions takes place in most tissues in small parts of the cell.
 BiologyAnimal and Plant CellsMitochondria
Top
Mitochondria
Mitochondria are well-defined cytoplasmic organelles of the cell which take part in a variety of cellular
metabolic functions. Survival of the cells requires energy to perform different functions. The mitochondria
are important as the fact that these organelles supply all the necessary biological energy of the cell, and
they obtain this energy by oxidizing the substrates of the Krebs cycle. Energy of the cell is got from the
enzymatic oxidation of chemical compounds in the mitochondria. Hence, the mitochondria re referred to as
the 'power houses' of the cell. Almost all the eukaryotic cell have mitochondria, though they are lost in the
later stages of development of cell like in the red blood cells or in elements of phloem sieve tube.

In 1890, mitochondria was first described by Richard Altmann and he called them as bioblasts. Benda in
the year 1897 coined the term mitochondrion. In the 1920s, a biochemist Warburg found that oxidative
reactions takes place in most tissues in small parts of the cell.
Mitochondria Definition
Back to Top

Mitochondria is a membrane bound cellular structure and is found in most of the eukaryotic cells. The
mitochondria ranges from 0.5 to 1.0 micrometer in diameter. The mitochondria are sometimes described
as power plants of the cells. These organelles generate most of the energy of the cell in the form of
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and it is used a source of chemical energy. The mitochondria also involved
in other cellular activities like signaling, cellular differentiation, cell senescence and also control of cell cycle
and cell growth. Mitochondria also affect human health, like mitochondrial disorder and cardiac dysfunction
and they also play important role in the aging process. The term 'mitochondrion' is derived from a Greek
word 'mitos' which means 'thread' and 'chondrion' which means 'granule'.
Structure of Mitochondria
Back to Top

Mitochondria are rod shaped structure found in both animal and plant cells. It is a double membrane bound
organelle. It has the outer membrane and the inner membrane. The membranes are made up of
phospholipids and proteins.
The components of mitochondria are as follows:
Outer membrane

 It is smooth and is composed of equal amounts of phospholipids and proteins.

 It has a large number of special proteins known as the porins.
 The porins are integral membrane proteins and they allow the movement of molecules that are of
5000 daltons or less in weight to pass through it.
 The outer membrane is freely permeable to nutrient molecules,ions, energy molecules like the ATP
and ADP molecules.

Inner membrane

 The inner membrane of mitochondria is more complex in structure.

 It is folded into a number of folds many times and is known as the cristae.
 This folding help to increase the surface ares inside the organelle.
 The cristae and the proteins of the inner membrane aids in the production of ATP molecules.
 Various chemical reactions takes place in the inner membrane of the mitochondria.
 Unlike the outer membrane, the inner membrane is strictly permeable, it is permeable only to
oxygen, ATP and it also helps in regulating transfer of metabolites across the membrane.

Intermembrane space

 It is the space between the outer and inner membrane of the mitochondria, it has the same
composition as that of the cell's cytoplasm.
 There is a difference in the protein content in the intermembrane space.

Matrix

 The matrix of the mitochondria is a complex mixture of proteins and enzymes. These enzymes are
important for the synthesis of ATP molecules, mitochondrial ribosomes, tRNAs and mitochondrial
DNA.
 Function of Mitochondria
Back to Top

Functions of mitochondria depends on the cell type in which they are present.

 The most important function of the mitochondria is to produce energy. The simpler molecules of
nutrition are sent to the mitochondria to be processed and to produce charged molecules. These
charged molecules combine with oxygen and produce ATP molecules. This process is known as
oxidative phosphorylation.
 Mitochondria help the cells to maintain proper concentration of calcium ions within the
compartments of the cell.
 The mitochondria also help in building certain parts of blood and hormones like testosterone and
estrogen.
 The liver cells mitochondria have enzymes that detoxify ammonia.
 The mitochondria also play important role in the process of apoptosis or programmed cell death.
Abnormal death of cells due to the dysfunction of mitochondria can affect the function of organ.

Mitochondrial DNA
Back to Top

Mitochondrial DNA or mtDNA or mDNA is the DNA in the mitochondria, rest of the DNA present in the
eukaryotic cells is in the nucleus, in plants DNA is also found in chloroplasts.

The mitochondria have a small amount of DNA of their own. Human mitochondrial DNA spans about 16,500
DNA base pairs, it represents a small fraction of the total DNA in cells. The mtDNA contains 37 genes. All
these genes are essential for normal function of the mitochondria.

These DNA help the mitochondria divide independently from the cell. mtDNA is maternally inherited. The
fact that mt DNA is maternally inherited enables to trace the maternal lineage far back in time.

The mt DNA in most multicellualr organisms is circular, covalently closed, double-stranded DNA. mt.DNA
is susceptible to free oxygen radicals. Mutations in the mitochondrial DNA leads to a number of illness like
exercise intolerance.
 BiologyAnimal and Plant CellsMitochondria
Top
Mitochondria
Mitochondria are well-defined cytoplasmic organelles of the cell which take part in a variety of cellular
metabolic functions. Survival of the cells requires energy to perform different functions. The mitochondria
are important as the fact that these organelles supply all the necessary biological energy of the cell, and
they obtain this energy by oxidizing the substrates of the Krebs cycle. Energy of the cell is got from the
enzymatic oxidation of chemical compounds in the mitochondria. Hence, the mitochondria re referred to as
the 'power houses' of the cell. Almost all the eukaryotic cell have mitochondria, though they are lost in the
later stages of development of cell like in the red blood cells or in elements of phloem sieve tube.

In 1890, mitochondria was first described by Richard Altmann and he called them as bioblasts. Benda in
the year 1897 coined the term mitochondrion. In the 1920s, a biochemist Warburg found that oxidative
reactions takes place in most tissues in small parts of the cell.
Mitochondria Definition
Back to Top

Mitochondria is a membrane bound cellular structure and is found in most of the eukaryotic cells. The
mitochondria ranges from 0.5 to 1.0 micrometer in diameter. The mitochondria are sometimes described
as power plants of the cells. These organelles generate most of the energy of the cell in the form of
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and it is used a source of chemical energy. The mitochondria also involved
in other cellular activities like signaling, cellular differentiation, cell senescence and also control of cell cycle
and cell growth. Mitochondria also affect human health, like mitochondrial disorder and cardiac dysfunction
and they also play important role in the aging process. The term 'mitochondrion' is derived from a Greek
word 'mitos' which means 'thread' and 'chondrion' which means 'granule'.
Structure of Mitochondria
Back to Top

Mitochondria are rod shaped structure found in both animal and plant cells. It is a double membrane bound
organelle. It has the outer membrane and the inner membrane. The membranes are made up of
phospholipids and proteins.
The components of mitochondria are as follows:
Outer membrane

 It is smooth and is composed of equal amounts of phospholipids and proteins.

 It has a large number of special proteins known as the porins.
 The porins are integral membrane proteins and they allow the movement of molecules that are of
5000 daltons or less in weight to pass through it.
 The outer membrane is freely permeable to nutrient molecules,ions, energy molecules like the ATP
and ADP molecules.

Inner membrane

 The inner membrane of mitochondria is more complex in structure.

 It is folded into a number of folds many times and is known as the cristae.
 This folding help to increase the surface ares inside the organelle.
 The cristae and the proteins of the inner membrane aids in the production of ATP molecules.
 Various chemical reactions takes place in the inner membrane of the mitochondria.
 Unlike the outer membrane, the inner membrane is strictly permeable, it is permeable only to
oxygen, ATP and it also helps in regulating transfer of metabolites across the membrane.

Intermembrane space

 It is the space between the outer and inner membrane of the mitochondria, it has the same
composition as that of the cell's cytoplasm.
 There is a difference in the protein content in the intermembrane space.

Matrix

 The matrix of the mitochondria is a complex mixture of proteins and enzymes. These enzymes are
important for the synthesis of ATP molecules, mitochondrial ribosomes, tRNAs and mitochondrial
DNA.
Function of Mitochondria
Back to Top

Functions of mitochondria depends on the cell type in which they are present.

 The most important function of the mitochondria is to produce energy. The simpler molecules of
nutrition are sent to the mitochondria to be processed and to produce charged molecules. These
charged molecules combine with oxygen and produce ATP molecules. This process is known as
oxidative phosphorylation.
 Mitochondria help the cells to maintain proper concentration of calcium ions within the
compartments of the cell.
 The mitochondria also help in building certain parts of blood and hormones like testosterone and
estrogen.
 The liver cells mitochondria have enzymes that detoxify ammonia.
 The mitochondria also play important role in the process of apoptosis or programmed cell death.
Abnormal death of cells due to the dysfunction of mitochondria can affect the function of organ.

Mitochondrial DNA
Back to Top

Mitochondrial DNA or mtDNA or mDNA is the DNA in the mitochondria, rest of the DNA present in the
eukaryotic cells is in the nucleus, in plants DNA is also found in chloroplasts.

The mitochondria have a small amount of DNA of their own. Human mitochondrial DNA spans about 16,500
DNA base pairs, it represents a small fraction of the total DNA in cells. The mtDNA contains 37 genes. All
these genes are essential for normal function of the mitochondria.

These DNA help the mitochondria divide independently from the cell. mtDNA is maternally inherited. The
fact that mt DNA is maternally inherited enables to trace the maternal lineage far back in time.

The mt DNA in most multicellualr organisms is circular, covalently closed, double-stranded DNA. mt.DNA
is susceptible to free oxygen radicals. Mutations in the mitochondrial DNA leads to a number of illness like
exercise intolerance.
Mitochondrial Diease
Back to Top

Disease of mitochondria results due to the failure of mitochondria. Dysfunction in the mitochondria fails to
produce energy that is needed for the sustainment of life and growth of an organism. Injury in the cell or
even cell death results in the production of less energy. If the process happens throughout the body, the
whole system begins to fail. The disease primarily affects young. The mitochondrial disease causes most
of the damage to the cells of brain, heart, liver, muscles, kidney, respiratory and the endocrine systems.
The symptoms may be as follows depending upon the cells that are affected:

 Loss of motor control,

 Muscle weakness and pain,
  Gastro-intestinal disorders,
 Swallowing difficulties,
 Poor growth,
 Cardiac disease,
 Liver disease,
 Respiratory illness,
 Seizures,
 Visual/hearing problems,
 Lactic acidosis,
 Developmental delays and
 Susceptibility to infection.

Plant Cell Mitochondria

Back to Top

Like in other eukaryotic cells, the mitochondria in plants play an important role in the production of ATP via
the process of oxidative phosphorylation. Mitochondria also play essential roles in other aspects of plant
development and performance. It also has various properties which allows the mitochondria to interact with
special features of metabolism in plant cell.
Animal Cell Mitochondria
Back to Top

Mitochondria are known as "power houses" of the cells, they are unusual organelles and are surrounded
by a double membrane. These organelles have their own small genome. They divide independently by
simple fission. The division of the mitochondria is a result of the energy demand, so the cells with high
need of energy have greater number of mitochondria.

The process creating energy for the cell is known as cellular respiration. Most of the chemical reactions
of this process happen in the mitochondria.

A typical animal cell may have about 1000 to 2000 mitochondria.

Structure of Mitochondria

Mitochondria are bound by a double membrane - the outer membrane and the inner membrane. The
outer membrane is smooth and covers the organelle. The inner membrane has many folds known as
cristae. The cristae increases the available surface are to enhance the productivity of cellular respiration.

The double membrane of the mitochondria divides the organelle into two distinct parts - the
intermembrane space and the mitochondrial matrix. The intermembrane space is the narrow space
between the outer and the inner membrane. The mitochondrial matrix is the content enclosed by the inner
membrane.

The fluid inside the mitochondria is called the matrix. Most of the chemical reactions of the cellular
respiration process happens in the inner membrane of the mitochondria due to the high concentration of
enzymes.

Mitochondria are independent organelles, they have their own DNA and ribosomes. They can replicate
and multiply on their own and make their own proteins. They have circular DNA similar to bacteria and
replicate by fission.

Structure of the Cytoskeleton

All cells have a cytoskeleton, but usually the cytoskeleton of eukaryotic cells is
what is meant when discussing the cytoskeleton. Eukaryotic cells are complex
cells that have a nucleus and organelles. Plants, animals, fungi, and protists
have eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotic cells are less complex, with no true nucleus
or organelles except ribosomes, and they are found in the single-celled
organisms bacteria and archaea. The cytoskeleton of prokaryotic cells was
originally thought not to exist; it was not discovered until the early 1990s.

The eukaryotic cytoskeleton consists of three types of filaments, which are

elongated chains of proteins: microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and
microtubules.
Cytoskeleton Definition
The cytoskeleton is a network of filaments and tubules that extends
throughout a cell, through the cytoplasm, which is all of the material within a
cell except for the nucleus. It is found in all cells, though the proteins that it is
made of vary between organisms. The cytoskeleton supports the cell, gives it
shape, organizes and tethers the organelles, and has roles in molecule
transport, cell division and cell signaling.
Structure of the Cytoskeleton
All cells have a cytoskeleton, but usually the cytoskeleton of eukaryotic cells is
what is meant when discussing the cytoskeleton. Eukaryotic cells are complex
cells that have a nucleus and organelles. Plants, animals, fungi, and protists
have eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotic cells are less complex, with no true nucleus
or organelles except ribosomes, and they are found in the single-celled
organisms bacteria and archaea. The cytoskeleton of prokaryotic cells was
originally thought not to exist; it was not discovered until the early 1990s.

The eukaryotic cytoskeleton consists of three types of filaments, which are

elongated chains of proteins: microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and
microtubules.
Microfilaments

Microfilaments are also called actin filaments because they are mostly
composed of the protein actin; their structure is two strands of actin wound in
a spiral. They are about 7 nanometers thick, making them the thinnest
filaments in the cytoskeleton. Microfilaments have many functions. They aid
in cytokinesis, which is the division of a cytoplasm of a cell when it is dividing
into two daughter cells. They aid in cell motility and allow single-celled
organisms like amoebas to move. They are also involved in cytoplasmic
streaming, which is the flowing of cytosol (the liquid part of the cytoplasm)
throughout the cell. Cytoplasmic streaming transports nutrients and cell
organelles. Microfilaments are also part of muscle cells and allow these cells
to contract, along with myosin. Actin and myosin are the two main
components of muscle contractile elements.
Intermediate Filaments

Intermediate filaments are about 8-12 nm wide; they are called intermediate
because they are in-between the size of microfilaments and microtubules.
Intermediate filaments are made of different proteins such as keratin (found in
hair and nails, and also in animals with scales, horns, or hooves), vimentin,
desmin, and lamin. All intermediate filaments are found in the cytoplasm
except for lamins, which are found in the nucleus and help support the nuclear
envelope that surrounds the nucleus. The intermediate filaments in the
cytoplasm maintain the cell’s shape, bear tension, and provide structural
support to the cell.

Microtubules

Microtubules are the largest of the cytoskeleton’s fibers at about 23 nm. They
are hollow tubes made of alpha and beta tubulin. Microtubules form structures
like flagella, which are “tails” that propel a cell forward. They are also found in
structures like cilia, which are appendages that increase a cell’s surface area
and in some cases allow the cell to move. Most of the microtubules in an
animal cell come from a cell organelle called the centrosome, which is a
microtubule organizing center (MTOC). The centrosome is found near the
middle of the cell, and microtubules radiate outward from it. Microtubules are
important in forming the spindle apparatus (or mitotic spindle), which
separates sister chromatids so that one copy can go to each daughter cell
during cell division. They are also involved in transporting molecules within the
cell and in the formation of the cell wall in plant cells.
Function of the Cytoskeleton
As described above, the cytoskeleton has several functions. First, it gives the
cell shape. This is especially important in cells without cell walls, such as
animal cells, that do not get their shape from a thick outer layer. It can also
give the cell movement. The microfilaments and microtubules can
disassemble, reassemble, and contract, allowing cells to crawl and migrate,
and microtubules help form structures like cilia and flagella that allow for cell
movement.

The cytoskeleton organizes the cell and keeps the cell’s organelles in place,
but it also aids in the movement of organelles throughout the cell. For
example, during endocytosis when a cell engulfs a molecule, microfilaments
pull the vesicle containing the engulfed particles into the cell. Similarly, the
cytoskeleton helps move chromosomes during cell division.
One analogy for the cytoskeleton is the frame of a building. Like a building’s
frame, the cytoskeleton is the “frame” of the cell, keeping structures in place,
providing support, and giving the cell a definite shape.