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Article history: Energy use, water use and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions were assessed for the transformation of
Received 17 November 2014 cassava roots into starch by two small-scale (ST1, ST2: 1–2 t starch per day) and one large-scale (VLT:
Received in revised form 24 March 2015 100–200 t starch per day) technologies. The goal of the study was to identify hotspots of energy use and
Accepted 14 April 2015
GHG emissions, as well as sustainable practices, with a view to uncover opportunities to improve the
Available online 16 May 2015
environmental performance of cassava starch production. VLT required 2527 MJ/t starch, mainly (77%)
from biogas used to dry starch, but was the most efficient in terms of water use (10 m3 /t starch) due to
Keywords:
the practice of water recycling between unit operations. ST1 and ST2 were similar in terms of electricity
Cassava starch
Energy efficiency
use (212 MJ/t starch), and were able to rely on solar energy to dry starch, due to the small volumes of
Water use production. In contrast, water use varied from 21 to 62 m3 /t starch due to differences in the design of
Carbon footprint the rasping and starch recovery (extraction) operations. GHG emissions were 149, 93 and 105 kg CO2 eq/t
Greenhouse gas emissions starch for VLT, ST1 and ST2 respectively. For ST1 and ST2, methane emissions from untreated wastewater
were the main contribution to GHG emissions. For VLT, methane was captured to produce biogas and to
dry starch, and the main contribution to GHG emissions was the use of non-renewable grid electricity.
Biogas technology was adopted in the past 12 years in the case of VLT. Previously fuel oil was used instead
of biogas, which resulted in GHG emissions of 539 kg CO2 eq/t starch. VLT used markedly more electricity
than ST1 and ST2, which was necessary to ensure the high output and consistent starch quality. Strategies
to reduce the impacts of cassava starch production could focus on (1) increasing the energy efficiency
of the drying operation, in order to make more biogas available for other uses such as production of
renewable electricity; (2) improving the design of some unit operations with regards to water and energy
efficiency; and (3) promoting the transfer and adoption of water recycling practices.
© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2015.04.007
0921-3449/© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
32 T. Tran et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 100 (2015) 31–40
ter. At very large scale, conventional wastewater treatment consists Source: Adapted from Plevin and Donnelly (2004).
in decantation and fermentation in a series of anaerobic or fac-
ultative lagoons, before release in the local waterway system. In
Thailand, lagoons have been replaced with biogas generation sys- terms of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (also referred to as car-
tems (Chavalparit and Ongwandee, 2009), such as covered lagoons bon footprint), Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) tools were applied to
or more advanced anaerobic fermentation tanks, such as anaerobic calculate GHG emissions related to factory activities.
fixed-film reactors (AFFR) or up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket sys-
tems (UASB). Both lagoons and biogas production enable a 90–99% 2. Materials and methods
reduction in chemical oxygen demand (COD), from an initial con-
centration of 20,000–41,000 mg/L (Tran Thi My Dieu, 2003; Mai, 2.1. Data collection
2006; Sriroth et al., 2000a). In addition, biogas systems reduce the
surface of land needed for water treatment, and provide between 70 2.1.1. Description of the starch extraction technologies
and 100% of the starch factory energy needs (Plevin and Donnelly, Primary data for ST1 and ST2 factories were obtained from
2004). At small and medium scale, wastewater management prac- the authors’ own measurements during actual processing oper-
tices are still scarce, and wastewater, with COD levels in the range ations and trial runs, in collaboration with one cassava starch
4800–13,500 mg/L, is often discharged directly in the surrounding factory based in Vietnam (suburban Hanoi region) and one based
river or canal system, resulting in significant levels of pollution in Colombia (Cauca department) in 2008. Data collection included
(Colin et al., 2007; Da, 2008; Tran Thi My Dieu, 2003). Different the composition of the cassava roots used locally as raw materials
factors underlie this situation: small factory operators may not be (starch, lignocellulosic fibers and moisture content), mass balances
able to afford the investment required to build water treatment for each unit operation, and energy and water consumption.
facilities (Peters et al., 2000; Peters, 2005), while the lack of land For ST1, a survey in three craft villages of suburban Hanoi pro-
availability, due to high population density (Hanoi region, Vietnam) ducing cassava starch (Da, 2008) indicated that the factory selected
or mountainous area (Cauca department, Colombia), also restricts for the study was representative of 70% of the existing starch facto-
investments. Strategies to facilitate the adoption of wastewater ries, in terms of type and size of equipments, power of the motors
treatment facilities include process modifications to increase water and processing capacity (1 t starch/day), while other factories used
efficiency, such as water recycling practices (Da et al., 2010; Vélez the same technology but with larger capacities (2–4 t starch/day).
Hernandez, 2008), and the development of affordable systems, for For ST2, the surveyed factory used the same technology as 90% of
instance small scale filters and anaerobic reactors (Colin et al., 2007; the factories operating in the Cauca department, although some
Savitha et al., 2009). equipments were larger than average because the factory had one
Processing of cassava into starch generates by-products, such as of the highest production capacities (2 t starch/day) of the region.
peels, lignocellulosic fibers mixed with unextractible starch (called Follow-up interviews in 2013 indicated that in suburban Hanoi
bagasse in Colombia and Vietnam, and pulp in Thailand), and in several factories have invested in larger machines (capacity 2–4 t
the case of ST1 and ST2, a protein-rich layer deposited over the starch/day) based on the same technology, and that in Colombia
sedimented starch and in the wastewater holding tanks or canals the technology remains the same as in 2008, although new equip-
(referred to as mancha in Colombia, and black starch in Vietnam). ments to increase production capacity are also being tested by a
The peels may be used as fuel for the factory boiler, after sun-drying few factories.
and grinding. The bagasse and mancha are typically used for the The data for the VLT factory were based on measurements pub-
animal feed industry, since up to 60% of the dry weight is made lished by Piyachomkwan et al. (2005), Sriroth (1996) and Sriroth
of starch (Tran Thi My Dieu, 2003; Sriroth et al., 2000b). When no et al. (2000a) in Thailand for factories producing between 100
utilization outlet is available, the by-products are stored in heaps and 200 t starch/day. This range of production capacities is rep-
and landfilled. resentative of the majority of VLT factories in Thailand, with the
Chemicals released in the wastewater can be a concern, such full range of factory sizes extending from 50 to 800 t starch/day.
as sulfur dioxide (SO2 ) used to prevent microbial growth during Data related to factory operations were collected: composition of
processing, or cyanide contained in the cassava roots. Studies indi- cassava roots, water use, mass balances and chemicals consump-
cated that these chemicals are highly diluted (<250 mg/L) or rapidly tion (e.g. alum, SO2 ). Because these data were published several
degraded, and therefore unlikely to cause significant impacts years ago, interviews with factories were conducted in 2012–2013,
(Piyachomkwan et al., 2005; Rojas et al., 1999; Somboonchai et al., which confirmed that the cassava starch extraction process has
2008; Sriroth et al., 2000a). not changed significantly. One major change however was that
These environmental concerns, but also the implementation most cassava starch factories have switched their source of thermal
of clean technologies such as water recycling, wastewater treat- energy from fuel oil to biogas produced from the factory wastewa-
ment and biogas production, point to the potential for adaptation ter since 2004 (Chavalparit and Ongwandee, 2009). Data on biogas
and transfer of sustainable practices between regions, with a view production and use was consequently compiled from a report by
to enhance the overall environmental performance of the cas- Plevin and Donnelly (2004), as well as interviews with stakeholders
sava starch industry. In this paper, we analyze the distribution of (Table 1). Finally electricity use was estimated based on the list of
energy and water use between unit operations of three contrasted the nominal powers of all the machines used in the VLT factory, pro-
technologies for cassava starch production, with the objective to vided by an equipment manufacturer in 2011. The type of materials
identify hotspots of energy and water use, and to assess the poten- and weights of the machines were also collected.
tial for improvements through technology transfers. In order to The data collection was conducted separately for each machine
assess the effects of energy use during cassava starch production in used in the production process, in order to identify the hotspots
34 T. Tran et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 100 (2015) 31–40
of energy and water use. In the ST1 case, five pieces of equip- Table 2
Electricity mixes for Thailand, Vietnam and Colombia.
ment are used: a root washer, a rasper-extractor ensuring both
the rasping and extraction operations, a set of two consecutive Thailand Vietnam Colombia
sieves of mesh 70 and 10 (separation operation), two sedimenta- Hydroelectricity (%) 4.8 34.8 67.0
tion tanks, and shelves for air-drying. Additionally two motors are Coal (%) 20.0 18.5 5.2
used to operate the root washer and the rasper-extractor (nominal Natural gas (%) 64.1 33.6 27.6
power 4 and 15 kW, respectively). The distribution of energy use Other (%) 11.1a 13.1b 0.2
Year reported 2008 2010 2010
between the rasping and extraction operations was estimated at
a
40% and 60%, respectively (Da et al., 2008). Two pumps were also Other energy sources in Thailand include mainly renewable energies including
biogas, agricultural waste, paddy husk, sugar cane bagasse, wood, garbage.
used to feed water into the extractor and to transfer starch milk b
Other energy sources in Vietnam include renewable energies (3.2%), petrol
to the final sedimentation tank (0.75 kW, 260 L/min and 0.37 kW, (2.7%), importations (4.7%) and other miscellaneous sources (2.5%).
100 L/min, respectively). In the ST2 case, six pieces of equipment are
used corresponding to the six unit operations (Fig. 1). A particular
characteristic of ST2 is that a single motor (nominal power 9 kW) Nevertheless in order to assess the relative importance of cas-
operates the whole process, through a set of gears and pulleys. In sava farming compared to processing in terms of energy use, the
the VLT case, several machines are used for each unit operation: for energy for cassava farming was estimated at 50% of the energy for
instance the extraction and separation operations are carried out cassava processing (i.e. 30% of total energy use from farm to factory
through a series of coarse extractors, fine extractors and separa- gate), based on previous studies of the production of cassava roots
tors (Sriroth et al., 2000a). Therefore the results of data collection in Thailand (Nguyen and Gheewala, 2008b; Nguyen, 2007). Water
were aggregated per unit operation in order to present results in used for farming is almost exclusively due to evaporation of rain
the same format as ST1 and ST2 scenarios. water from the fields, as no irrigation is usually required. In con-
In addition to the energy use by the unit operations, the energy trast water used for processing is withdrawn from local rivers or
required to supply water to the factories was also calculated, based from underground and is therefore not available for other uses in
on the technical characteristics of a typical water pump and the the local watershed.
estimated distance and depth of pumping in the ST1, ST2 and VLT In order to compare the three technologies (ST1, ST2, VLT), a
scenarios. common functional unit (FU) was defined as one ton of loose, dried
cassava starch at 12% moisture (wet weight basis, wwb) obtained
at the end of the manufacturing process. The quantities of materials
2.1.2. Water and wastewater management (fresh roots, bagasses, crude fibers, water, etc.) and the energy and
The source of freshwater is dependent on the location of the water uses were reported per FU, except when indicated otherwise.
cassava starch factories. In this study, the VLT and ST2 scenar-
ios use surface water taken from nearby rivers or canal systems,
2.3. Assessment of greenhouse gas emissions
and treated with aluminum sulfate, also called alum (dose 100 mg
Al2 (SO4 )3 ,18H2 O/L), to flocculate particles in suspension. In the
Although ST1, ST2 and VLT produce the same product (cassava
VLT case, part of the water used at the extraction stage is also
starch), these three technologies use different quantities of water
treated with sulfur dioxide (dose 250 mg SO2 /L) as anti-microbial
and energy (thermal energy, solar energy, electricity from different
and whitening agent. In contrast, the ST1 scenario uses ground-
sources), and are expected to cause different emissions of CO2 and
water pumped from between 20 and 80 m below surface through
other greenhouse gases (GHG). In order to ascertain the effect of
boreholes, and purified by sand filters.
energy use and wastewater treatment on GHG emissions, the car-
Wastewater effluents from the starch extraction process carry
bon footprint of the processing of one ton of starch was assessed for
mainly cellulosic fibers and starch, resulting in a chemical oxygen
ST1, ST2 and VLT. The reduction in carbon footprint due to the use
demand (COD) of 6200, 4800 and 20,000 mg/L for ST1, ST2 and VLT,
of biogas in the VLT scenario, as compared with the use of fuel oil
respectively (Colin et al., 2007; Da, 2008; Sriroth et al., 2000a). In
before biogas technology was adopted, was also assessed. Conse-
the case of ST1 and ST2, wastewater is discharged directly into
quently two VLT sub-scenarios were assessed, labeled VLT-Biogas
the surrounding canal or river systems, while in the case of VLT
and VLT-Fuel oil.
wastewater treatment facilities remove 90% of the COD load and
Our calculations of GHG emissions followed the Life Cycle
generate 100–120 m3 of biogas/t starch, before discharging water
Assessment (LCA) guidelines and tools for assessing environmental
in open lagoons before release into the local river system.
impacts (ISO 14040 and 14044, ISO, 2006a, 2006b), however, they
The energy recovered in the form of biogas from wastewater
do not represent a full LCA because the assessment was limited to
treatment was estimated based on the following heats of combus-
processing of cassava into starch, without including other phases
tion: 22.3 MJ/m3 for biogas, based on a methane content of 62%
such as cassava farming, transportation, distribution, etc. Addition-
and methane heat of combustion of 36 MJ/m3 (Plevin and Donnelly,
ally the calculations were limited to the climate change impact,
2004); and 41.0 MJ/L for heavy fuel oil (Department of Alternative
which was taken as most relevant with regards to energy use and
Energy Development and Efficiency, 2009).
mitigation of global warming.
The calculations of GHG emissions were based on the inven-
2.2. System boundaries and functional unit for the assessment of tory data of energy and water use for ST1, ST2 and VLT. Additional
energy and water use generic data such as production and distribution of electricity were
taken from the Ecoinvent database (Ecoinvent Center, 2011), with
The system boundaries to assess energy and water uses focused adaptations to take into account different electricity mixes: in
on the factory operations required to transform fresh cassava roots order to better reflect GHG emissions of cassava starch production
into starch, starting from fresh roots delivered at the factory gate within different national contexts, data related to the electricity
to dried cassava starch before packaging (Fig. 1). Wastewater treat- mixes in Thailand, Vietnam and Colombia were gathered (Table 2)
ments were also included in the system boundaries, because of from governmental and international sources (Department of
the high impact of methane emissions. Cassava farming, roots Alternative Energy Development and Efficiency, 2009; Energy
transportation, packaging, distribution and use phases were not Sector Management Assistance Program, 2010; Institute of Energy,
included. 2011). The electricity mix used for Vietnam was an average for
T. Tran et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 100 (2015) 31–40 35
3.1.3.3. Small scale scenario 2 (ST2). In the ST2 scenario, the extrac-
tion operation used most electricity and water, similarly to the ST1
Fig. 4. GHG emissions by unit operations of three cassava starch production tech-
scenario. The high water use was related to the low efficiency of the nologies, calculated with country-specific electricity mixes. VLT: very large scale
rasping step, which yielded large particles from which the starch technology; ST1: small scale technology 1; ST2: small scale technology 2. For VLT,
was more difficult to extract. Therefore strategies to improve both two scenarios, Fuel oil and Biogas, illustrate the reduction in GHG emissions due
the rasping and extraction steps could be considered. To reduce to biogas. The numbers on the diagram and on the horizontal axis indicate respec-
tively the GHG emissions per operation and total GHG emissions, in kg CO2 eq/t
water use appears achievable, since the current 60 m3 /t starch is at
starch (numbers lower than 5 kg CO2 eq/t starch not shown). The category “Biogas”
least twice as high as the water use in the other two technologies. corresponds to GHG losses to the atmosphere during the production of biogas. The
Adapting the rasping technology used in ST1 or VLT would produce category “Wastewater” corresponds to emissions of methane from the fermentation
finer particles, and reduce the need for water during extraction, of organic matter in the wastewater in open lagoons or waterways.
although this approach may also increase electricity use for rasp-
ing. This trade-off between water use and electricity use may be
of these two operations. The higher GHG emissions of factory
worthwhile, considering that electricity use remains small com-
operations in the VLT scenario reflect a trade-off between the
pared to the VLT scenario (213.1 vs 583.2 MJ/t starch). Recycling
objectives of higher production capacity and of lower energy use.
practices would also reduce water use. For instance the root wash-
The comparison of VLT with ST1 and ST2 showed that electricity
ing operation accounts for 15% of the water used in the process, and
use and GHG emissions increased faster with production scale
some of the water from the sedimentation operation could be used
than the potential economies of scale, resulting in higher GHG
for that purpose instead of freshwater; however the risk of increas-
emissions (per FU) at large scale.
ing the concentration of pollutants and of decreasing the quality of
The adoption of biogas technology by starch factories in Thailand
the starch also needs to be taken into account. Reducing the use of
reduced GHG emissions by 72%, from 540 kg CO2 eq/FU in the fuel
water in the ST2 scenario appears important to reduce the volumes
oil scenario (VLT-Fuel oil) down to 149 kg CO2 eq/FU in the biogas
of wastewater to more manageable levels, which would improve
scenario (VLT-Biogas). For cassava starch factories, to produce bio-
the prospects of investments in wastewater treatment facilities; as
gas on-site is also cheaper than to purchase fuel oil, and factories
currently the wastewater is typically discharged directly into local
are able to recover their investment in biogas production facilities
rivers.
within 5 years (Plevin and Donnelly, 2004). Hence in this case study,
biogas technology markedly reduced both operation costs and GHG
3.2. Greenhouse gas emissions related to cassava starch
emissions, which confirms the potential for sustainable production
production
practices from both environmental and economic point of views.
Our results confirm that non-renewable energy is a key source
3.2.1. Country-specific electricity mixes
of GHG emissions, which could be mitigated in the case of cassava
GHG emissions of VLT-Biogas were higher than ST1 and ST2, at
starch production by switching to renewable energy where pos-
respectively 149, 93 and 105 kg CO2 eq/FU (Fig. 4). Two main fac-
sible, and by improving the energy efficiency of unit operations,
tors influenced GHG emissions of cassava starch production. Firstly,
through re-engineering or changes in the management of the pro-
emissions of methane from wastewater were the main contribution
duction line. Additionally, for industries generating large volumes
to GHG emissions in scenarios with no capture of biogas (ST1, ST2
of wastewater containing organic matter, this case study on cas-
and VLT-Fuel oil: 64, 77 and 45%, respectively). Secondly, grid elec-
sava starch production indicates that treating wastewater to limit
tricity from non-renewable energy was the main contribution to
the emissions of methane can substantially reduce GHG emissions,
GHG emissions in the VLT-Biogas scenario (57%), and the second
and generate renewable energy if the methane can be captured and
main contribution in the ST1 and ST2 scenarios.
used as biogas.
The greenhouse gases emitted for each operation of the starch
extraction process are detailed in Table 3. Most emissions of fossil
CO2 by the washing, rasping, extraction and separation operations 3.2.2. Average electricity mix
came from the use of grid electricity, and were related to the pro- In order to dissociate the effect of the country-specific elec-
portions of fossil fuels in the electricity mix of each country: 84.1% tricity mixes, GHG emissions of ST1, ST2 and VLT were calculated
fossil fuel in VLT; 54.8% in ST1, 32.8% in ST2. Emissions of bio- using the average electricity mix of the three countries (Fig. 5). The
genic methane occurred during wastewater treatment, and in the GHG emissions of ST2 increased from 105.2 to 115.5 kg CO2 eq/FU,
VLT-Biogas scenario, were also related to leaks and/or to methane because the high proportion of hydroelectricity in the electricity
dissolved in the water and not captured. mix of Colombia (Table 2) was replaced with non-renewable elec-
Among unit operations, all operations except washing had tricity in the average mix. Conversely, the GHG emissions of ST1
higher GHG emissions in the VLT-Biogas scenario. The extraction and VLT decreased due to the higher proportion of hydroelectricity
and rasping operations contributed most to GHG emissions for the in the average electricity mix. Hence the GHG emissions of a prod-
three technologies, which reflects the high electricity requirements uct can be significantly influenced by the energy infrastructure of
38 T. Tran et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 100 (2015) 31–40
Table 3
Types of greenhouse gases emitted for each operation of the cassava starch production process.
Note: Biogenic CO2 was not included within the scope of this study, with the assumption that biogenic CO2 emitted during the cassava starch process was balanced by CO2
absorbed during the growth of cassava plants, and hence did not contribute to increase the net amount of CO2 in the atmosphere.
a
n/a: not applicable.
Table 4
Dataset used for modeling the machinery and motors used in a very large scale (VLT)
cassava starch factory.
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