Deformability and Strength Parameters of Rockmass

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Deformability and strength parameters of rock

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Comprehensive training course on “Rock Mechanics” for THDC Engineers Training Material
April 05 – 30, 2010, Rishikesh, Uttarakhand
DEFORMABILITY AND STRENGTH PARAMETERS OF

ROCK MASS
R.K.Sinha, Scientist II
Geotechnical Engineering Department
1. INTRODUCTION
Design of rock structures in general uses the engineering mechanics-based approach to find
solution of rock mechanics problems. However, the rock engineering designer cannot
assume the rock to be CHILE (Continuous, Homogeneous, Isotropic and Linearly Elastic)
as such the dimension of the excavation and the imperfections in the rock are at times
comparable. In addition to this the rock may behave nonlinearly. Thus the designer has to
consider the rock mass as DIANE (Discontinuous, Inhomogeneous, Anisotropic and Non –
linear elastic).
2. DIFFERENT TERMINOLOGIES AND DEFINITIONS
The strength parameters of the rock mass can be better understood from the Complete
Stress Strain curve for a Rock (Figure 2.1). This curve comprises of mainly four regions
OA, AB, BC and CD or 1, 2, 3 and 4.
Figure 2.1: Complete stress strain curve of a rock specimen under uniaxial loading.
Region 1 & 2:
• OA is slightly convex upwards.

• AB is almost linear (slight hysterisis may be observed in this region) loading and
unloading in region 1 & 2 does not produce irreversible changes in the structure and
properties of the rock.
National Institute of Rock Mechanics 177

Region 3
• Region 3 , BC usually begins at 65% of of the maximum value at C.

• Slope of the curve decreases progressively to Zero as the stress increases.
• Irreversible changes are induced in the rock .
• Successive cycles of loading and unloading trace out different curves.
• e.g. an unloading cycle PQ leads to permanent set e0 at zero stress.
• If the matl. Is reloaded , curve QR is traced lying below OABC but ultimately joins
it.
Region 4
• Begins at C & characterized by negative slope.

• An unloading cycle ST , often leads to large permanent set
• Subsequent loading TU approaches the Curve CD at a stress lower than that
corresponding to S.
This region is characteristic of brittle behaviour, but it is usually totally obscured by the
instability of some machine - specimen system, resulting in violent failure very near to C.
Now, we define certain terms that are commonly used in understanding the failure of rocks.
Fracture: It is the formation of plane of separation in the rock material. It involves the
breakage of bonds to form new surfaces. The onset of fracture is not necessarily
synonymous with failure of the attainment of peak strength.
Strength or Peak Strength: it is the maximum stress usually averaged over a plane that
the rock can sustain under a given set of conditions. It corresponds to point C. after its peak
strength has been exceeded, the specimen may still have some load carrying capacity or
strength. The minimum or residual strength is generally reached only after considerable
post – peak deformation D.
Brittle: A material is said to be in a brittle state or brittle, under conditions in which it’s
ability to resist load decreases with increasing deformation.
Brittleness: It is defined as the magnitude of the greatest slope of the falling portion CD
Brittle Fracture: It is the process by which sudden loss of strength occurs across a plane
following little or no permanent (plastic) deformation. It is usually associated with strain
softening or strain weakening behaviour.
Ductile: A material is said to be in a ductile state or ductile, under conditions in which it

can sustain permanent deformation without loosing its ability to resist load.
3. Shear Behavior of Discontinuities
Rock discontinuity surfaces exhibit a diversity of features consisting of a range of micro to

macro wavelengths. These features may be very small asperities to large scale undulations.
The valleys and peaks formed by shorter wavelengths may be termed as roughness and the
longer wavelengths as waviness. Usually the roughness is superimposed on waviness

(Figure 3.1). In complex undulating joints, the actual shear strength may be function of both
the roughness and waviness components.
Figure 3.1: Showing explanation of joint roughness and waviness.
When a non-planar joint system is subjected to direct shear under constant normal stress,
the shear stress against displacement curve typically shows a curved pre-maximum, distinct
maximum and post minimum shear strength response. This can be explained as follows.
Before applying the shear force, the two sliding surfaces are in perfectly matched (mated)
position. At small shear displacement, the shear stress increases rapidly (i.e. high shear
stiffness. Yielding or breakage of asperities (diminishing roughness) is reflected by a
significantly reduced shear stiffness in the pre - peak region. The point of maximum shear
stress coincide with the totally mismatched position of the two sliding surfaces. The
downward movement along the asperities is charcterised by a quasi-linear reduction in
shear strength. The shear strength attains a minimum value after continued shearing. This
measures peak and residual direct shear strength as a function of stress normal to the
sheared plane (Figure 3.2).
Peak direct shear strength- the maximum shear stress in the shear stress versus
displacement curve.
Residual shear strength- the shear stress at which no further rise or fall in shear strength is
observed with increasing shear displacement.
A shear strength determination of rock mass should preferably comprise at least five tests
on the same test horizon with each specimen tested at a different but constant normal stress.
Displacement readings are averaged to obtain values of mean shear and normal
displacement Δs and Δn. Lateral displacements are recorded only to evaluate specimen
behavior during the test. For the evaluation and interpretation of the shear testing data, the
different terminologies used in reporting shear parameters is shown in the Figure 3.3

Figure 3.2 Joint behaviour under normal and shear loading.
Figure 3.3 : Plot showing explanation of different terminologies used for shear parameters

3.1 Estimating Shear Parameters of Rock Mass
Bieniawski classified the rock mass rating (RMR) into five classes and determined a range
of values of rock mass geomechanical properties for each class. Table 3.1
Table 3.1: Engineering Properties of Rock Mass (Bieniawski, 1979)

Parameters/ Rock mass rating (Rock class)
Sl.
Properties RMR = 81 RMR = 61 RMR = 41 RMR = 21
No. RMR < 20
of rock mass – 100 – 80 – 60 – 40
Classification
1. Very good Good Fair Poor Very poor
of rock mass
Cohesion of
2. Rock mass > 0.4 0.3 – 0.4 0.2 – 0.3 0.1 – 0.2 < 0.1
(MPa)
Internal
angle of
3. Friction for >45 35 – 45 25 – 35 15 – 25 < 15
rock mass
(degree)
3.2 Modeling Strength of Rock Mass with Discontinuity Planes.
Using single joint in rock a mathematical model can be developed which will indicate how
the strength of a rock is affected by the presence of discontinuities. We can start with a
single discontinuity and extend to a number of discontinuities. The analysis of single
discontinuity is attributed to Jaeger.
The strength of sample will depend on the orientation of the discontinuity. If the
discontinuity is for example parallel or perpendicular to the applied loading, the specimen
will have no effect on the strength properties. At some angle the discontinuity will certainly
affect the strength of the rock specimen. This is shown in Figure 3.4. The equation for
reduction in strength can be established as follows:
Figure 3.4: Strength reduction due to discontinuity plane.

The geometry of applied loading condition taken is shown in Figure 6.1. The normal and
shear stress over the discontinuity can be expressed as
  1 2 ( 1   3 ) sin 2 w
 n  1 2 ( 1   3 )  1 2 ( 1   3 ) cos 2 w
Substituting these values in Mohr – Coulomb criterion   c w   n tan  w and upon
simplification we get
2(c w   3 tan  w )
( 1   3 )  , where c w and  w are the cohesion and angle of
(1  cot  w tan  w ) sin 2  w
internal friction for the discontinuity.
We can extend on the single plane of weakness theory, to understand as to what would
happen if additional discontinuities were present in the specimen at different angles. Each
discontinuity will weaken the rock as discussed in Figure 3.4, but the angular portion of the
strength minima would not coincide. As a result of this the rock will be weakened in several
directions simultaneously as shown in Figure 3.5 (since we are using linear elasticity, the
principle of superposition can be easily applied). As the number of discontinuities increases
the material tends to be isotropic in strength analogous to granular soil.
Figure 3.5: Strength reduction due to multiple joints
The above discussion is described in 2 –dimensional case applicable to plane stress. We can
think of extending to a 3 – dimensional case in which none of the principal stress is
perpendicular to the discontinuity normal. This will be helpful in understanding the real
failure behaviour of the rock mass near to excavations.
Because of difficulty in modeling the complex nature of joints and their properties and the
error of each and every measurement of the discontinuity property, it is suggested to go for
directly evaluating the strength parameters of the rock mass in-situ in the field.

4. Examples of problems requiring knowledge of strength parameters of rocks:
Typical applications of the direct shear tests include
 Shear strength of foundation rock of dams

 Shear strength of rock to concrete interface for Dam foundations.
 Design of underground excavations.
 Design of optimal slope.
The shear strength of rock mass is one of the most important parameters used in design. A
key requirement in the evaluation of sliding stability of concrete gravity dams is the
prediction of shear strength in foundation joints and discontinuities. The shear strength
parameters cannot be predicted on the basis of case histories and on any classification
system. Therefore, the feasibility in the measurement of in-situ shear parameters cannot be
avoided due to variation of rock mass properties at different sites.
The best way of evaluating shear strength parameters is by actual measurement of shear
parameters in-situ. The procedure of measurement of in-situ parameters is described in
ISRM (1974) and IS 7746-(1975). The shear strength of concrete to rock depends upon
number of factors such as strength of concrete, strength of rock, saturation, rate of loading,
rate of shearing etc.
5. In-Situ Test for Determining Strength Parameters of Rock Mass Direct shear test
(In – situ)
This test measures peak and residual direct shear strength as a function of stress normal to
the sheared plane.
Shear strength determination of rock mass should preferably comprise at least five tests on
the same test horizon with each specimen tested at a different but constant normal stress.
Displacement readings are averaged to obtain values of mean shear and normal
displacement Δs and Δn. Lateral displacements are recorded only to evaluate specimen
behavior during the test. For the evaluation and interpretation of the shear testing data,
Shear and normal stress are computed as follows: (Ref: Suggested methods for determining
Shear Strength, ISRM Standard)
Ps Psa Cos
Shear stress =   
A A
P P  Psa Sin
Normal stress  n  n  na
A A
Where, Ps = total shear force
Pn = total normal force
Psa = applied shear force
Pna = applied normal force
 = inclination of the applied shear force to the shear plane
(if,  =0, cos  =1 and sin  = 0)

A = area of the shear surface overlap.

The test setup is described in Figure 5.1.
Bearing Plate
Extension Hydraulic Pump Pentium

Hydraulic Pump Columns (Normal Load) Computer
(Shear Load) Ram Jack
(Normal
Load)
Roller
Bearing
Data Acquisition
Load System
Distribution
Plate
Ram Jack
(Shear Load)
Specimen Transducer
Load cell
Figure 5.1 : Schematic setup for in – situ direct shear test
6. Interpretation of Test Results for Direct Shear test.
Behaviour of test results can give a guideline of the kind of rockmass tested and its
correlation with different geological conditions. The following figure explains the
Relationships between shear and normal stresses on sliding surface for five different
Geological conditions (Transportation Research Board, 1996)
Figure 6.1: Relationships between shear and normal stresses on sliding surface for five
different geological conditions
Curve 1 Infilled discontinuity: If the infilling is a weak clay or fault gouge, the infilling
friction angle (φinf ) is likely to be low, but there may be some cohesion if the infilling is
undisturbed. Alternatively, if the infilling is a strong calcite for example, which produces a
healed surface, then the cohesive strength may be significant.
Curve 2 Smooth discontinuity: A smooth, clean discontinuity will have zero cohesion, and
the friction angle will be that of the rock surfaces (φr). The friction angle of rock is related
to the grain size, and is generally lower in fine grained rocks than in coarse-grained rocks.
Curve 3 Rough discontinuity: Clean, rough discontinuity surfaces will have zero cohesion,
and the friction angle will be made up of two components. First, the rock material friction
angle (φr), and second, a component (i) related to the roughness (asperities) of the surface
and the ratio between the rock strength and the normal stress. As the normal stress
increases, the asperities are progressively sheared off and the total friction angle
diminishes.
Curve 4 Fractured rock mass: The shear strength of a fractured rock mass, in which the
sliding surface lies partially on discontinuity surfaces and partially passes through intact
rock, can be expressed as a curved envelope. At low normal stresses where there is little
confinement of the fractured rock and the individual fragments may move and rotate, the
cohesion is low but the friction angle is high. At higher normal stresses, crushing of the
rock fragments begins to take place with the result that the friction angle diminishes. The
shape of the strength envelope is related to the degree of fracturing, and the strength of the
intact rock.
Curve 5 Weak intact rock: Rock such as the tuff shown in Figure 4.5 is composed of
finegrained material that has a low friction angle. However, because it contains no
discontinuities, the cohesion can be higher than that of a strong intact rock that is closely
fractured.
7. Deformability Parameters of Rock Mass
The deformability parameter for rock mass which is widely accepted by the workers in the
field of rock engineering can be explained by Figure 7.1 shown below which is self-
explanatory.
Curve OA1 - Loading in first cycle.

Curve A1E1 - Unloading in first cycle.
Modulus calculated using P1, D1 and P2, D2 is called the Modulus of Deformation Ed.
Modulus calculated using P1, E1D1 and P2, E2D2 is called the Modulus of Elasticity Ee.
For displacements at extremely low loads the tangent OC is called initial modulus E0 i.e.
modulus at zero load.
Ratio ED/OE = ratio of elastic strain to total strain.
Displacement at constant pressure for time interval t1 = Creep.

Figure 7.1: Different terminology used for describing the deformability parameters of rock
mass.
7.1 Indirect Estimates of Deformation Modulus.
The values of deformation modulus has been suggested by many authors, however they
may differ from the actual results of tests from low to wide variations as high as + 15%
(Serafim and Perrira, 1983). The different estimates are presented as follows:
E m  2RMR - 100 for RMR > 50 [Bieniawski, 1978]
(RMR -10)
E m  10 40
for RMR < 50 [Serafim and Pereira, 1983]
E m  25 log10 Q for Q >1 [Grimstad and Barton, 1993]
E m  (E r stat x E m dyn ) / E r dyn [Clerici, 1993]
E m  5.6 RMi 0.375 for RMi > 0.1 [Palmstrom, 1995]
GSI 10 
c
Em   10 40
for  c < 100 MPa [Hoek and Brown, 1998]
100

Where,
Em = Modulus of deformation of rock mass (in GPa)
RMR = Rock mass rating system (Bieniawski, 1973)
Q = Q system (Barton et.al, 1974)
c = Unixial compressive strength (in MPa) of intact rock measured as per ISRM
standard.
RMi = Rock mass index (Palmstrom, 1995)
GSI = Geological strength index (Hoek and Brown, 1998)
E r dyn = Dynamic elasticity modulus of intact rock.
E r stat = Static elasticity modulus of intact rock.
E m dyn = Dynamic insitu deformation modulus.
7.2 Modeling Deformability of Rock Mass with Discontinuity Planes
The following demonstration explains the nature of deformability modulus variation with
respect to simple and single joint system. Let us consider a rock mass with a set of parallel
discontinuities under the action of a normal stress. The arrangement is shown in Figure 7.2.
σ
σ
Intact rock
E (units of
stress MPa)
L ε
σ
Discontinuities
(units of stress/
ED length)
σ MPa/m
N discontinuities, δ
frequency = λ
Figure 7.2: Modeling rock mass deformability of simple joint system
To evaluate the overall modulus of deformation we are required to divide the applied stress
with total deformation. Certain assumptions are also required to simplify the mathematical
model viz. the thickness of the discontinuity is assumed to assumed to be negligible in
comparison to the overall length of the rock mass under consideration. We also assume
linear elastic discontinuity stiffness. In addition we assume that the deformation is made up
of two components, one due to deformation of intact rock; the other due to deformability of
the discontinuities.
L
The contribution made by intact rock to deformation =  l  (Strain x length)
E


Contribution made by single discontinuity to deformation =  D  (Remember ED
ED
relates stress to displacement directly)
If the discontinuity frequency is  there will be L discontinuities.
L
Thus, total contribution made by these discontinuities =  Dt  .
ED
L L
Hence the total displacement for rock mass =  r  
E ED
r  
The overall strain being given by    
L E ED
Finally the overall modulus, E rock mass is given by
 1 
E rockmass   1 /[( )  ( )] _______________________ (7.1)
 E ED
From the above equation (7.1) it is evident that the deformability modulus of the rock mass
will always be lower than the deformability modulus of the intact rock. The deformability
of the rock mass still goes down further as the stiffness of the joints decreases. This is
explained in Figure 7.3.
σ E/L
ly
on
ck
t ro
ac
m ock
In t
ED
as
R
y only
d is c ontinuit
Single
δ
EMASS Eintact
ED
in g
as
c re
De
EFIELD may be ≈ 0.1 Eintact
Frequency, λ
Figure 7.3: Reduction of deformability due to joints.

The analysis rapidly becomes complex as we incorporate loading in 3- D and incorporate

different joint sets and their inclination. Practically it becomes a Herculean task to
incorporate the nonlinearities in the rock. Thus the need for in-situ determination of rock
properties comes into picture.
7.3 Rock Classification based on Deformability Values
Chappel, 1984, Classified rock mass into various class depending on the Deformability
modulus of rock mass, this is tabulated as follows :
Table 7.1: Values of deformability for different class of Rock mass (Chappel, 1984)
Ed (GPa) Quality Classes Description
0.05 – 0.5 V Very bad
0.5 – 4.0 IV Bad
4.0 – 5.0 III Fair
5.0 – 25 II Good
25 – 50 I Very Good
8. Examples of problems requiring knowledge of Deformability of rock mass:
The knowledge of the stress – strain behaviour of the rock mass (i.e. response of rock mass
towards loading and unloading) and the failure criteria of the rock mass play a vital role in
engineering of any rock structure. On the other hand determination of the global
mechanical properties of a large rock mass in-situ remains one of the most difficult
problems in the field of rock mechanics. The deformability and strength parameter
determined in the laboratory varies widely when compared with in-situ measurements.
Stress strain behaviour of the rock mass is required to determine the displacements induced
around excavations and strength properties are required for assessment of factor of safety of
excavation on any underground pillar.
8.1 Dam seated on varying rock types having dissimilar deformability properties:
If a dam is seated on varying rock types having dissimilar deformability properties, this will
develop shear and diagonal tension stress due to unequal deflections in the foundation. The
dam can be designed to handle these deflection tendencies if the properties of the rock are
known and the variations of properties are determined.
Modulus of deformation of rock mass (Ed) is an essential parameter for design of dam. The
ratio between Ed (deformability modulus of rock) and Ec (deformability modulus of

concrete) can give a basic idea about the importance of Ed vis – a – vis dam foundation for
gravity dam (Rocha 1976) which is as follows;
When Ec/Ed < 8, it would be safe for the dam, and when Ec/Ed > 16, it may create moderate
to serious problem for the dam
E1 , 1
E2 , 2 E6 , 6
E3 , 3 E4 , 4 E5 , 5 E7 , 7
Figure 8.1 : Development of shear stress due to variation of deformability in the foundation
of the dam.
8.2 Permanent deformation of rocks and design of dams:
Many hard rocks are elastic when considered as laboratory specimens. But in the field the
rock is bound to contain lots of discontinuities. The rock mass in such case may not show
linearity as well as recoverable displacements. Thus the extent of irrecoverability of
foundation strain in response to the loading and unloading cycle due to changes in the water
level of the reservoir will also play a major role in design of arch dams.
Reservoir Head
Reservoir
Head
x
c
a
b
Abutment Displacement x
Figure 8.2 : Permanent deformation of rock mass and associated problems for dam.
When the level of the reservoir rises, the rock under the arch responds along curve ‘a’. This
concave upwards curvature of the load vs. displacement curve is typical of virgin loading,
this is because, the fracture closes and stiffens at low loads. When the reservoir level gets
lowered, the rock unloads along path ‘b’ with the onset of a permanent deformation. The

dam tries to follow the loading, but since it is often more elastic than the rock, it will move
away from the rock on unloading. This can result in opening of the joints in the rock or
concrete or may lower the compressive stress flowing through the structure. Repeated
cycles of loading would produce a series of ‘hysterisis’ loops as shown in Figure 8.2 above.
Large hysterisis may be unacceptable even though the modulus of elasticity is considered
reasonable. Permanent deformations greater than 0.01 mm/ bar characterizes the site as
unacceptable for concrete dams (Schneider 1967).
8.3 Design of pressure tunnels and efficacy of support:
For the design of pressure tunnels it is desirable to know the expansion of the lining under
operating pressure as well as the amount of recovery when the pressure is lowered.
8.4 Determination of grouting efficiency.
Decrease in deformability after grouting is an indication of the strengthening of the rock

mass with the voids filled in with the grouts and exerting a binding effect.
In certain cases increase in deformability or no decrease in deformability may occur after
grouting, which is an indication of damage to the rock mass due to application of higher
grouting pressures, unsuccessful grouting or due to decrease in friction between the joint
sets as a result of presence of grouts.
Figure 8.3: Indication of Variations in deformability after grouting (Rocha 1964).

9. Different In-Situ Tests for Determining Deformability Parameters of Rock Mass
The deformability measurement tests can be divided into two parts based on the method
applicable:
a. Static Methods: Includes tests by Plate loading, flat jacks, and borehole jacks.
b. Dynamic Methods : Includes measurement of longitudinal wave
velocity(Geophones), measurement of longitudinal and transverse waves
(vibrographs), measurement of direct longitudinal wave velocity in borehole (sonic
coring)
Discussion of dynamic methods is beyond the scope of this chapter.
Although rock is neither homogeneous nor elastic, it is customary to interpret the results on
the basis of the theory of elasticity. Justification of such a procedure rests on the fact that at
moderate load rates the stress –strain relations are roughly linear. The accuracy of the
determination of the elastic recovery qualities of the rock mass is dependent on the duration
of the recovery period in each cycle.
Data gathered during the investigation are plotted to provide various cross plots between
deformation versus time, pressure and depth of measurements. These plots are used to
analyze elastic rebound and permanent set characteristics of the rock.
9.1 Plate loading Method
This method uses a rigid plate to load the rock mass through flat jacks or hydraulic jacks.
The response of rock towards loading and unloading is captured to get a pressure versus
deformation curve. The loading and unloading is carried out in four to five cycles with
loads increasing in successive cycles. The mathematical model used in finding the
deformability modulus is based on the well known Bossinesq’s solution for the
displacement of a surface of semi-infinite elastic solid under the action of a uniformly
distributed normal load (say over a circular area). The loading geometry is given in Figure
9.1.
a
p per unit
area P
r
r (r,z)
Figure 9.1: Describing the loading geometry and other terms for Bosinesque’s
solution.

The displacements  z and  r are given by the equations (9.1) and (9.2).
p (1   ) z
z  a[ H (1  )  A] _____________ (9.1)
E a
p (1   )
r  (  r )(1  2 ) E1  D  ____________ (9.2)
E
Where A, D, E1 and H are dependent on the dimensions of the loaded surface and co-
ordinates of the point. E is the modulus of elasticity of the semi infinite medium and  it’s
Poisson’s ratio.
Loading the plate requires an arrangement for taking the reaction for the applied load, such
reaction can be obtained either from the roof of an exploratory drift (Figure 9.2) or
externally loaded frame (Figure 9.3) or through anchorage in the floor for open surfaces
(Figure 9.4).
Concrete
Pad
Bearing
Plate
Extension Data
Columns Acquisition
System Pentium
Ram Computer
Jacks Hydraulic
Pressure Pump
Gauge
Figure 9.2: Schematic Diagram for conducting Plate load test for determination of Elastic
moduli of rock mass inside an exploratory drift (Reaction for loading the floor
is taken from the roof).
Figure 9.3: Photograph for conducting Plate load test for determination of Elastic moduli of
rock mass on surface. (Reaction from externally loaded frame)

Rope
Wire to take the
load required
Deformability
Equipment
Concrete
pad
“D” Links
Surface
76 mm Incline
Bore holes 76 mm Incline
4 sets Bore holes 4 sets.
76 mm vertical
Bore hole 3 m depth
To install Extensometers
76 mm Incline
Bore holes 4 sets.
Blow up at A
A
76 mm vertical Concrete
Bore hole 3 m depth pad
To install Extensometers
1” Rope
wire
A
Figure 9.4: Anchorage in floor to gain reaction for loading rock mass.
9.2 Flat jack Method
This method employs the pressurization of a slit inside the rock and measuring the response
of the center of the slit with respect to pressure. In this method a large rock –mass can also
be mobilized to know the deformability modulus of the rock mass. The mathematical model
employed is the relationship developed by Jaeger and Cook (1976) that permits the
calculation of the deformability modulus E as follows:
 
 
p (2c)  y 2
y 1  
E (1   )( 1  2  )  ________________ (9.3)
2y  c c y2 
 1 2 
 c 

Where, p=applied pressure, c = length of flat jack, 2 y = displacement of the central pin, 
= Poisson’s ratio of rock, y = separation of the pin. Schematic diagram of the flat jack
experiment is shown in Figure 9.5.
Figure 9.5 : Schematic diagram of flat jack experiment.
9.3 Borehole Pressurisation Methods
The most commonly used instruments are the OYO pressure meter and the dilatometer.
A. OYO Pressure meter
Pressure meter is a borehole probe that applies hydraulic pressure through a flexible
membrane to the borehole wall.
The cross sectional view of the instrument is shown in Figure 9.6.

Figure 9.6: Sectional view of the OYO Elastmeter – 2.
This instrument has the following feature:
 Both pressure and displacement are measured directly in the probe using electrical
transducers.
 Mechanical arm is used for the measurement of displacement making maintenance
easier.
 Applied pressure is measured by precise semi-conductor transducer in the probe.

Figure 9.7: View of the OYO Elastmeter – 2 and its accessories.
Theory of Measurement:
The solution is based on the assumption of plane strain condition. This treats the behaviour
of the earth during the measurement as the two dimensional deformation problem by
incising it with a horizontal plane. Based on such assumption as that the stress is within the
elasticity zone while the horizontal horizontal strain is being satisfied pertaining to the
plane to the direction of the radius, the Elasticity coefficient (E) can be expressed by the
following formula.
E = (1 -  ). r. K (9.4)
Where
 = Poisson’s ratio of the rock.
K = Load strength against the unit displacement volume.
= displacement of the loaded area (mm)
r = Represents the intermediate radius for the section to
calculate K value.
B. Dilatometer
The dilatometer consists of cylindrical borehole probe. It is a radially expandable rock

pressure meter used mainly to determine the short term deformability of rock in-situ. The
dilatometer operates in 76 mm boreholes and has a maximum working pressure of 30,000
kPa. Mean modulus of the rock may be calculated by measuring the total volume change of
the probe when loading. The movement of the piston is actuated by a pressurization using a
manual pump at the surface. By recording the displacement of the piston, volume changes
may be calculated.

Figure 9.8 : View of Dilatometer and it’s accessories.
The schematic representation of a dilatometer pressure-volume curve helps understanding

the interpretation procedure.
pb2
pb: pressure range selected for
Applied Pressure pb
Modulus calculation
V0 = Probe at rest in borehole
Δv = V0 + Vm Total cavity volume
pb1 at mid point
Vm = 0.5 (V1+ V2)
Volume Injected
For contact Borehole wall
contact Δv
Inflation Inertia curve
Unconfined
v0 Membrane inertia curve v1 vm v2 Injected Volume

Total Injected Volume to selected
pressure range midpoint
Figure 9.9 : Dilatometer Pressure Volume Curve
Modulus of deformation of the rock can be obtained from the following equation.

1
E R  21   R   v0  v m  
 v 
   c
 pb 
Where
Er : modulus of deformation of the rock
R: Poisson’s ration of the rock
Vm : mean additional volume (total cavity volume at the midpoint of the pressure range
over which the rock modulus is determined.)
V0: nominal initial or at rest volume of the deflated probe
c : equipment constant
10. Interpreting the test results of Deformability parameters of rock mass:
Figure 10.1 : Plate loading at Teesta III HEP, Powerhouse Complex Sikkim.
• The concavity towards the stress axis is due to compaction of fractured Rock.
• The concavity is not prominent in second & subsequent cycles. This indicates that
the damage is local and superficial.
• The high stresses near the loading surface compacts the rock , & it’s influence is
greatly reduced in the subsequent cycles.
• As the modulus changes the , the difference between third, fourth cycle is not very
much.
• The values obtained from these cycles give the modulus values for the undamaged
rock.

Subansiri Lower HEP , Plateloading at Shear Zone.

High inelastic strain persists in all cycles indicating deep lying less rigid layers.
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Deformability and strength parameters of rock

Chapter · January 2010

Rabindra Kumar Sinha

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DEFORMABILITY AND STRENGTH PARAMETERS OF

2. DIFFERENT TERMINOLOGIES AND DEFINITIONS

• OA is slightly convex upwards.

National Institute of Rock Mechanics 177

• Region 3 , BC usually begins at 65% of of the maximum value at C.

• Begins at C & characterized by negative slope.

Ductile: A material is said to be in a ductile state or ductile, under conditions in which it

3. Shear Behavior of Discontinuities

Rock discontinuity surfaces exhibit a diversity of features consisting of a range of micro to

National Institute of Rock Mechanics 178

Figure 3.1: Showing explanation of joint roughness and waviness.

National Institute of Rock Mechanics 179

Figure 3.2 Joint behaviour under normal and shear loading.

National Institute of Rock Mechanics 180

3.1 Estimating Shear Parameters of Rock Mass

Table 3.1: Engineering Properties of Rock Mass (Bieniawski, 1979)

3.2 Modeling Strength of Rock Mass with Discontinuity Planes.

Figure 3.4: Strength reduction due to discontinuity plane.

National Institute of Rock Mechanics 181

Figure 3.5: Strength reduction due to multiple joints

National Institute of Rock Mechanics 182

4. Examples of problems requiring knowledge of strength parameters of rocks:

Typical applications of the direct shear tests include

 Shear strength of foundation rock of dams

National Institute of Rock Mechanics 183

A = area of the shear surface overlap.

Extension Hydraulic Pump Pentium

Figure 5.1 : Schematic setup for in – situ direct shear test

6. Interpretation of Test Results for Direct Shear test.

7. Deformability Parameters of Rock Mass

Curve OA1 - Loading in first cycle.

National Institute of Rock Mechanics 185

7.1 Indirect Estimates of Deformation Modulus.

E m  2RMR - 100 for RMR > 50 [Bieniawski, 1978]

E m  25 log10 Q for Q >1 [Grimstad and Barton, 1993]

E m  (E r stat x E m dyn ) / E r dyn [Clerici, 1993]

E m  5.6 RMi 0.375 for RMi > 0.1 [Palmstrom, 1995]

National Institute of Rock Mechanics 186

7.2 Modeling Deformability of Rock Mass with Discontinuity Planes

National Institute of Rock Mechanics 187

If the discontinuity frequency is  there will be L discontinuities.

EFIELD may be ≈ 0.1 Eintact

National Institute of Rock Mechanics 188

The analysis rapidly becomes complex as we incorporate loading in 3- D and incorporate

7.3 Rock Classification based on Deformability Values

0.05 – 0.5 V Very bad

0.5 – 4.0 IV Bad

4.0 – 5.0 III Fair

8. Examples of problems requiring knowledge of Deformability of rock mass:

National Institute of Rock Mechanics 189

8.2 Permanent deformation of rocks and design of dams:

National Institute of Rock Mechanics 190

8.3 Design of pressure tunnels and efficacy of support:

8.4 Determination of grouting efficiency.

Decrease in deformability after grouting is an indication of the strengthening of the rock

Figure 8.3: Indication of Variations in deformability after grouting (Rocha 1964).

National Institute of Rock Mechanics 191

9. Different In-Situ Tests for Determining Deformability Parameters of Rock Mass

Discussion of dynamic methods is beyond the scope of this chapter.