Irrigation Design Pipe Hydraulics

CONTENTS
Pipe hydraulics
1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 6.1
2 The SI system in irrigation .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 6.1
3 General definitions .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6.2

3.1 Density......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6.2
3.2 Viscosity.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6.2
3.3 Cohesion.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6.2
3.4 Adhesion ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6.2
3.5 Pressure....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6.3
3.6 Atmospheric pressure ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6.3
3.7 Vapour pressure (head)........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6.4
4 Hydrostatics ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6.4

4.1 Statics ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 6.4
4.2 Static pressure (head) ................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 6.5
5 Hydrodynamics.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 6.5
5.1 Flow through pressure conduits................................................................................................................................................................................... 6.5
5.1.1 Friction ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6.6
5.1.2 Shear tension ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6.6
5.2 The Reynolds number .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 6.6
5.2.1 Laminar flow..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6.6
5.2.2 Turbulent flow ................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 6.6
5.3 Flow types ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6.7
5.3.1 Steady and unsteady flow ................................................................................................................................................................................. 6.7
5.3.2 Even and uneven flow ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 6.7
5.3.3 Average flow velocity ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 6.8
5.4 General laws and equations............................................................................................................................................................................................... 6.9
5.4.1 Newton's law ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6.9
5.4.2 Movement equations ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 6.10
5.5 Bernoulli equation...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6.10
5.6 Pipe friction equations .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6.11
5.6.1 Darcy-Weisbach equation ............................................................................................................................................................................. 6.12
5.6.1.1 Laminar flow conditions .............................................................................................................................................................. 6.12
5.6.1.2 Turbulent flow conditions .......................................................................................................................................................... 6.12
5.6.2 Hazen-Williams equation .............................................................................................................................................................................. 6.13
5.6.3 Lamont equation........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 6.14
5.6.3.1 Hydraulic smooth pipes with general flow velocities ............................................................................. 6.14
5.6.3.2 Pipes with medium roughness and general flow velocities.............................................................. 6.14
5.6.3.3 Pipes with medium roughness and high flow velocities ...................................................................... 6.14
5.6.4 General exponential equation ................................................................................................................................................................... 6.14
5.6.5 Pipe friction loss curves ................................................................................................................................................................................... 6.16
5.7 Secondary pressure losses ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 6.16
5.8 The hydraulic gradient and energy line........................................................................................................................................................... 6.17
5.9 Rising mainlines ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6.22
5.10 Gravitation pipelines ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6.23
5.11 Steady uneven flow............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6.22
6.2 Irrigation Design Manual
6 Pipe classes ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6.26
7 Air and anti-vacuum valves ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 6.30

7.1 General ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6.30
7.1.1 Large orifice air valves ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 6.30
7.1.2 Small orifice air valves ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 6.30
7.1.3 Multi-purpose air valves.................................................................................................................................................................................. 6.30
7.1.4 Anti-vacuum valves .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 6.30
7.2 Air accumulation: The problem................................................................................................................................................................................ 6.31
7.3 Air accumulation: The solution................................................................................................................................................................................. 6.31
7.3.1 Location of pipeline .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 6.31
7.3.2 Placing of air valves.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 6.31
7.3.2.1 Peaks ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6.32
7.3.2.2 Slope changes which do not create peaks ............................................................................................................... 6.33
7.3.2.3 Long, ascending pipe sections............................................................................................................................................... 6.34
7.3.2.4 Long, descending pipe sections ........................................................................................................................................... 6.35
7.3.2.5 Long horizontal pipe sections ................................................................................................................................................ 6.35
7.3.2.6 Precise positions where air accumulation occurs .......................................................................................... 6.35
7.3.2.7 Vacuum conditions.............................................................................................................................................................................. 6.36
7.3.3 The pipeline as a whole .................................................................................................................................................................................... 6.36
8 Waterhammer................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 6.36
9 Example ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6.40
10 References ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6.45
All rights reserved

Copyright ¤ 2003 ARC-Institute for Agricultural Engineering (ARC-ILI)
ISBN 1-919849-24-6
Pipe Hydraulics 6.1
1 Introduction
Hydraulics is the study of the rest and movement of fluid substances, i.e. liquids and gases.
This chapter is meant to provide irrigation design technique students with information only on those
sections of hydraulics which are directly applicable to the medium and components with which they
will be involved.
This is the only medium which concerns the irrigator, therefore no study is made of the remainder of
the spectrum (gases and liquids with different densities and viscosity levels to water).
As both Flood irrigation (Chapter 15) and Channels (Chapter 7) are covered elsewhere in the
manual, this study will be confined to water hydraulics in pipes. A few liquid properties which
influence this study are:
x Liquids differ from solids in the sense that they cannot withstand external tension except by
continuous transformation at velocities determined by the liquid viscosity. Irrespective of a
liquid's viscosity, it will eventually flow due to even the smallest force, unless it is restricted by
the surface and shape of the container.
x Liquids are relatively incompressible and therefore cannot change volume.
x When the liquid volume is less than that of its container, a free surface is formed which is usually
either in touch with the atmosphere (or trapped air) or forms a vacuum. This property plays an
important role with water-hammer and suction properties of pumps.
x A liquid particle will be in a state of rest as long as the sum of all forces acting upon it cancel each
other out, therefore being equal to zero. When the sum of the forces (DYNAMICS) produces a
vector which is not zero, movement of the liquid will begin (KINETIC ACTION) in the direction
of the unbalanced force.
x The study of hydraulics is therefore basically divided into the study of:
Hydrostatics: Liquids at rest
Hydrodynamics and Hydrokinetics: Moving liquids (kinetics describes the movement while
dynamics includes the forces which produce movement).
2 The SI system in irrigation

The "System International d'Unities", generally known as the SI system of units, applies in the RSA.
The SI has seven basic units of which the following three are generally used in hydraulics:
Table 6.1: Applicable basic units in the SI system
Dimension Unit Symbol
Length metre m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Table 6.2: Applicable deduced SI units
SI unit
Dimension
Expression in other SI units,
Unit Symbol
and definition of unit
Area square meters m² –
Volume cubic meters m³ –
Density kilograms per cubic meter kg/m³ –
Velocity meters per second m/s –
Acceleration meters per second squared m/s² –
Force Newton N kg.m/s²
Energy Joule J N.m
Power Watt W J/s

Pressure Pascal Pa N/m²
3 General definitions
3.1 Density
The density of a liquid is described as the mass per unit volume [kg/m³] of the liquid. The density
of water at a temperature of 24°C is 997,3 kg/m³. At normal working temperatures this figure is so
close to 1 000 kg/m³ for all practical purposes that it is accepted as such.
3.2 Viscosity
The viscosity of a liquid [kg/ms] is measured by the relative ease or difficulty with which a
particle of the liquid can be transformed. It is known e.g. that a heavy oil has a higher viscosity
than water and that water has a higher viscosity than air. The viscosity of a liquid decreases with
an increase in temperature whereas exactly the opposite applies to a gas. The viscosity of water is
9,20 × 10-4 kg/ms.
3.3 Cohesion
This term describes the process by which water molecules cling together.
3.4 Adhesion
Here the process whereby water molecules cling to the wall of the container or pipe is described.
3.5 Pressure
Water pressure is the force (p or H) exerted by water [kPa or m] per unit of area restricting it,
relative to air pressure. This pressure is described as force per unit area. Therefore the container
size (an ocean or a pipe) is irrelevant – the water column (90 m high) determines the amount and
therefore the mass of water supported by a unit of area (refer Figure 6.1).
Pipe Hydraulics 6.3
Figure 6.1: Water pressure
Both static and dynamic pressures can be measured accurately by means of manometers or
piezometers, but due to the clumsiness of these instruments, use is normally made of pressure
gauges which indicate pressure directly on a calibrated dial.
3.6 Atmospheric pressure

The atmosphere surrounding the earth has mass just like any other substance, therefore it exerts
pressure all over. Atmospheric pressure [m or kPa], however, varies with height above sea level
and is normally measured with a barometer. The normal atmospheric pressure, measured at sea
level, is a pressure elevation of 10,34 metres water pressure.
Figure 6.2: Atmospheric pressure/elevation above sea level ratio
This principle plays an important role in pump selection (refer Chapter16: Pumps for more
detail) as far as the "suction features" of the pump are concerned.
3.7 Vapour pressure

All liquids, including water, mercury and alcohol, evaporate when they come into contact with air
or another gas. This evaporation rate is low at low temperatures and accelerates with an increase
in temperature. When a liquid evaporates, the vapour formed by this action exerts pressure on the
liquid and the container. This pressure is known as the vapour pressure [m or kPa] of the liquid.
Figure 6.3: Vapour pressure/temperature ratio of water
Every liquid has its own characteristic vapour pressures at specific temperatures. Vapour pressure
varies considerably with temperature and always reaches atmospheric pressure at the boiling point
of the specific liquid.
Due to the effect of vapour pressure, water placed in a tube containing no air at all, will never rise
to a height of 10,34 m (atmospheric pressure at sea level). The effect of vapour pressure will
result in the water only rising to a level below 10,34 m. Therefore, at a temperature of 20qC, water
will only rise to a total height of approximately 10,1 m.
4 Hydrostatics
Hydrostatics is the study of liquids when in a static or immovable state.
4.1 Statics
The only property of liquids which plays a role in hydrostatics is the density of the liquid. As the
mass of any liquid can be measured to a high degree of accuracy and due to the fact that liquids
cannot be compressed, hydrostatic calculations can be done very accurately and results determined
with a high degree of certainty. The only reservation is that the liquid must be in a total state of
rest.
4.2 Static pressure

When a column of water is at rest (i.e. static), it makes no difference if it is vertical to a height of
"x" metres, or if it gradually descends over a distance of say 100 kilometres – the total static
pressure measured at the bottom of each of these columns of water will still be "x" metres height,
or 10 u "x" kPa.
Pipe Hydraulics 6.5
Figure 6.4: Static pressure
5 Hydrodynamics
Hydrodynamics is the study of moving liquids.
When the sum of forces produced a resultant vector z0, movement of the fluid will begin in the
direction of the unbalanced force.
5.1 Flow through pressure conduits

Factors influencing movement of water in pipelines.
Figure 6.5: Velocity vectors
5.1.1 Friction
When a liquid moves through any tube-like conduit, friction occurs between the liquid and
the wall of the tube, in other words, irrespective of the lightness of the substance and the
smoothness of the conduit, liquid molecules cling (adhesion) to the tube walls. Therefore
friction is one of the factors restricting movement of a liquid through a pipeline.
5.1.2 Shear tension
Due to the fact that cohesive forces generally tend to be less than adhesion, it follows that the
water molecules near the pipe centre will move faster than those close to the wall. Shear
tension arises between these circular layers of particles. This shear tension narrowly
coincides with the viscosity and velocity of the liquid. Therefore, when the effect of
adhesion and cohesion is in equilibrium with the force exerted thereon, the average flow
velocity will remain constant.
5.2 The Reynolds number

An early publication dealing with the forms taken by the flow of liquids in pipes and tubes, was
done by Prof. Osborne Reynolds in 1880. He studied the flow patterns of liquids in cylindrical
tubes by injecting colorants into the moving stream. Reynolds compiled his data by means of a
dimensionless figure known as the Reynolds number (Re). The Reynolds number is determined
by the equation:
di v U
Re = (6.1)
P
where Re = Reynolds number

U = density of the liquid (997,28 kg/m³ at 24°C for water)
P = dynamic viscosity (0,000 92 kg/m.s for water at 24°C)
v = average velocity of flow [m/s]
di = internal diameter of the pipe [m].
Reynolds also found that, with an increase of velocity in the tube, the flow pattern changed from
laminar flow to turbulent flow at a Reynolds number of approximately 2 100. Other researchers,
however, later determined that laminar flow can occur at substantially higher Reynolds numbers
and that the transition is reached at 2 000 < Re < 4 000.
5.2.1 Laminar flow
Laminar flow is normally described as viscous or stream line flow. With this flow type
different layers of liquid move relative to each other without any macroscopic intermixing.
Therefore laminar flow systems are generally graphically represented by stream lines. No
liquid flow occurs across these lines. Pressure loss is also directly proportional to flow
velocity.
5.2.2 Turbulent flow
With turbulent flow an uneven, indeterminate movement of liquid against the main flow
direction takes place. Pressure loss is approximately inversely proportional to flow velocity.
Pipe Hydraulics 6.7
Figure 6.6: The Reynolds number
It can therefore be assumed that where flow velocity is low and straight, the flow will be
laminar and alternatively when flow velocity increases or is affected by external factors like
deflection, the flow changes to a turbulent form.
5.3 Flow types

The different flow types in hydraulics are usually classified in two main groups.
5.3.1 Steady and unsteady flow
In this subdivision all the parameters (Q, v, etc.) are linked to a time scale, as measured at a
specific section.
Therefore steady flow occurs when the parameters do not vary with time, as measured at a
specific point on the pipeline. It can only occur when Q is constant and the pipe diameter
does not vary.
On the other hand, unsteady flow occurs when the parameters do vary with time, as
measured at a specific point on the pipeline. A typical example of unsteady flow is when a
pipeline is being filled with water, or during the opening or closing of a valve. Q, measured
at any specific point, varies with time in these cases.
5.3.2 Even and uneven flow
Here all the parameters (Q, v, etc.) are linked to a distance scale on the pipeline and the
measurements at different points along the flow path are compared to each other.
Therefore even flow conditions occur when the parameters are identical, as measured at the
same time at different points along the flow path. This particular condition occurs in a
pipeline with constant diameter, provided that Q does not vary.
Uneven flow conditions occur when the parameters differ from each other, as measured at
the same time at different points along the flow path. A typical example of these conditions
occurs in a reducer, where Q remains constant and v varies, due to the change in cross-
sectional area.
Various combinations of these basic flow conditions occur in practice. A few examples are
illustrated as follows:
Example 6.1
The steady, even flow conditions which occur in a pipe of uniform diameter and with a
constant flow rate in which the relationship between Q and v is then expressed by the
equation::
Q Av (6.2)
where Q = flow rate [m³/s]

A = cross-sectional area [m²]
v = average flow rate at any particular cross-section [m/s].
Example 6.2
A typical sprinkler line, drip line, etc. where take-offs occur equidistant from each other,
placed on a pipeline with constant diameter. The flow in this pipe is therefore described as a
steady, uneven condition.
Figure 6.7: Steady, uneven flow
x Consider SECTION 1 at any time: Q is constant and does not vary with time. The
condition here is steady.
x Consider SECTION 2 at any time: (Q – 2q) is also constant and does not vary with time –
therefore also steady.
x The same conditions prevail at any and every section, until section n, and the flow in this
pipe is therefore definitely steady.
x Consider SECTIONS 1 to n at the same time: Q (and v) differs from section to section and
the flow pattern therefore satisfies the definition of uneven flow.
5.3.3 Average flow velocity
As previously discussed in Section 5.1.1, it follows that flow velocity of particles near the
centre of a pipeline will be higher than particles near the pipe wall. In hydraulics, however,
it is convenient and normally also accurate enough to assume that all the particles at a
specific section in the pipeline will move at the same velocity. This flow velocity is equal to
the average velocity of particles over the entire cross-section of the pipeline and is known as
the average velocity at that specific point.
x The average velocity of turbulent flow is approximately 80% of the maximum flow
velocity and that of laminar flow approximately 50% of the maximum flow velocity.
x It is interesting to note that the distribution of particles in turbulent flow occurs more
uniformly over the larger part of the pipeline, but that the velocity gradient at the walls
increases accordingly (refer to Figure 6.8).
Pipe Hydraulics 6.9
Figure 6.8: Average flow velocity
5.4 General laws and equations

5.4.1 Newton's law
F ma (6.3)
Where F = force [N]

m = mass [kg]
a = acceleration [m/s²].
m (v o v t )
F (6.4)
t
where vo = initial velocity [m/s]

vt = terminal velocity [m/s]
t = time [s].
5.4.2 Movement equations
Sa vt (6.5)
vt = vo + at (6.6)
Sa vo t 1
2 a t2 (6.7)
v 2t v 2o 2 a Sa (6.8)
where Sa = distance [m]

t = time [s]
vo = initial velocity [m/s]
vt = terminal velocity [m/s]
a = acceleration [m/s²].
5.5 Bernoulli equation

One of the most valuable equations in hydraulics is known as the Bernoulli equation. His theory
states that, with calm, frictionless flow, the sum of the velocity state, the pressure state and static
remains constant. Or differently expressed, the sum of the velocity pressure, the inherent pressure
and the static pressure remains constant. So, for any incompressible liquid we have respectively
that:
v2 p
h Constant (6.9)
2g Ug
U v2
p Ugh Constant (6.10)
2
where U = density (1 000 kg/m³)

v = flow velocity [m/s]
g = gravitational acceleration (10 m/s²)
p = water pressure head [m]
h = static difference in elevation [m].
The first part of the equation, namely v²/2g, is the velocity head.
The Bernoulli equation can be used to describe conditions at any point in a pipeline. Where liquid
(e.g. water) flows in pipes, an energy or friction loss occurs, because pipes are not frictionless.
Pipe Hydraulics 6.11
Consider the following pipe in general:
Figure 6.9: Bernoulli's equation
Between sections 1 and 2 Bernoulli's equation may be used as follows:
v 12 p1 v 22 p2
h1 h2 hf (6.11)
2g Ug 2g Ug
where hf = frictional loss between section 1 and section 2 [m water depth].
With pipelines, one of the pressures, p1 or p2 is usually unknown. The remaining variables, except
hf are usually known. Numerous equations have already been compiled for the determination of
the friction loss.
5.6 Pip friction equations

With designs where the friction loss component only represents a small percentage of the total
required pressure head, the accuracy of these pressure loss calculations is not a priority. Where,
however, in totality, low pressure heads occur, the friction aspect is more important and requires a
more accurate approach. A high level of accuracy is required with the design of especially emitter
lines, as well as branches which simultaneously supply multiple emitter lines, especially where
topographical differences play an important role. It is therefore sound practice to generally strive
for a high level of accuracy.
Contributions to the development of a pipe flow theory started as early as 1839 and still continue.
Various equations were subsequently developed for the solution of pipe friction problems. The
four most commonly used are:
5.6.1 Darcy-Weisbach equation
f l v2
hf = (6.12)
2 g di
where hf = friction [m water]

l = length of pipe [m]
di = internal diameter of pipe [m]
v = average flow velocity in pipe [m/s]
g = gravitational acceleration (10 m/s²)
f = frictional factor.
5.6.1.1 Laminar flow conditions (Re < 2 000)
64
f (6.13)
Re
5.6.1.2 Turbulent flow conditions (Re > 4 000)
1 § k 2,51 ·
2 log ¨¨ ¸
¸ (6.14)
f © 3,7 d i Re f ¹
where f = frictional factor

k = equivalent pipe roughness factor [mm] (Values as per Table 6.3.)
di = internal diameter of pipe [m]
Re = Reynolds number.
Table 6.3: Recommended equivalent pipe roughness, k [mm]
Values of k [mm]
Classification of pipes
Good Normal Poor
Smooth pipes
Extruded non-ferrous pipes, e.g. aluminium, brass, 0,003
copper, lead, and non-metal pipes of Alkathene, glass, – to –
Perspex, plastics, fibre glass. 0,015
–
Fibre cement – 0,015 –
Metal
Spun iron, bitumen coated – 0,03 –
Malleable iron 0,03 0,06 0,15
Coated steel 0,03 0,06 0,15
Galvanised iron/steel 0,06 0,15 0,30
Coated cast iron 0,06 0,15 0,30
Concrete
Monolithic construction in oiled steel moulds, with
smooth surface and precast smooth walled pipe 0,06 0,15 –
without shoulders or hollows at joints.
Precast, smooth wall pipes in lengths exceeding 1,8 m,
with spigot and socket or "ogee" joints, smoothed – 0,15 0,30
internally.
5.6.2 Hazen-Williams equation
1,852
hf = l ( 3,59 Q
)
C H d i2,63
(6.15)
where hf = friction [m water pressure]

l = pipe length [m]
Q = flow rate [m³/s]
CH = Hazen-Williams coefficient (Table 6.4 below).
This equation is generally freely used in the turbulent flow region (Re > 4 000) for pipes
with diameters larger than 100 mm.
Table 6.4: Hazen-Williams coefficients, CH values for flow rates of 0,9 m/s
CH values for pipes of the following diameters

Type of pipe
25 mm 80 mm 152 mm 305 mm 610 mm 1 220 mm
Galvanised iron:
120 129 133 – – –
Smooth and new
Malleable iron: –
129 137 142 – –
Smooth and new
Coated steel:
129 137 142 145 148 148
Smooth and new
Uncoated steel:
134 142 145 147 150 150
Smooth and new
Coated fibre cement:

– 147 149 150 152 –
Clean
Uncoated fibre cement:

– 142 145 147 150 –
Clean
Spun concrete pipe with

cement or bitumen lining: – 147 149 150 152 153
Clean
Smooth pipes (incl. lead,

copper, brass, polyethylene, 140 147 149 150 152 153
smooth uPVC, etc.): Clean
uPVC (corrugated):
134 142 145 147 150 150
Clean
Table 6.5: Correction factors for Table 6.4 for velocities other than 0,9 m/s
For velocities < 0,9 m/s: For each For velocities > 0,9 m/s: For each
Values for CH at 0,9 m/s halving, rehalving, etc. of velocity doubling, redoubling, etc. of
relative to 0,9 m/s velocity relative to 0,9 m/s
Lower than 100 Add 5% to CH Subtract 5% from CH
100 – 130 Add 3% to CH Subtract 3% from CH
130 – 140 Add 1% to CH Subtract 1% from CH
Above 140 Subtract 1% from CH Add 1% to CH
5.6.3 Lamont equation
5.6.3.1 Hydraulically smooth pipes with general flow velocities
§ di 5 ·
¨ 200; 4 000 Re 3 u 10 ; water temperature 16qC ¸
© k ¹
(9,2 × 10 4 ) l Q 1, 772
hf = (6.16)
d i4, 773
where hf = friction [m water pressure]

l = length [m]
Q = flow rate [m³/h]
di = internal diameter [mm]
Re = Reynolds number.
5.6.3.2 Pipes with medium roughness and general flow velocities
§ d 6 ·
¨ 200 i 20 000; 4 000 Re 10 thus 0,5 v 10 m / s ¸
© k ¹
hf
3,2312 u 10 " k
5 0 ,1291
Q1,8868
(6.17)
d 5i, 0186
where k = pipe roughness [mm].
5.6.3.3 Pipes with medium roughness and high flow velocities

§ d 6 ·
¨ 200 i 20 000; Re ! 5 u 10 ; water temperatur e 16qC ¸
© k ¹
hf
5,9417 u 10 " k
5 0 , 22
Q2
(6.18)
d 5i, 22
5.6.4 General exponential equation
The previous three equations are all reasonably complex, each with its own complications
and field of application. This therefore led to resistance to their general use. In the
meantime continued development has produced a much simpler product in the form of a
general exponential equation which provides reasonably acceptable results under normal
conditions.
Although the degree of accuracy to which friction losses are to be determined should at all
times be defining, this equation may be used under general conditions to a reasonable degree
of accuracy, without the use of sophisticate equipment.
b " Qp
hf (6.19)
d ir
where di = internal diameter of pipe [m]

p, r and b = constants as per Table 6.6 hereafter.
Table 6.6: Constants p, r and b for general friction equation 6.19
b b
p r Field of application
(Q in m³/s) (Q in m³/h)
Small diameter smooth plastic
Blasius 1,75 4,75 0,000 76 5,319 u 10-10
pipes as used in micro systems.
Smooth pipes in general

Lamont 1,77 4,77 0,000 89 4,516 u 10-10
(e.g. uPVC and Polyethylene)
Scimeni 1,79 4,79 0,000 97 4,178 u 10-10 Fibre cement pipes
Hazen-Williams 1,85 4,87 0,001 06 2,793 u 10-10 Aluminum pipes
Manning 2,00 5,33 0,001 40 3,690 u 10-10 Concrete pipes
Example 6.3
For interest sake, the results of calculations done with four equations are compared to each other in
Table 6.7 below (data as for uPVC pipe).
Table 6.7: Friction calculations
Lamont
Darcy-Weisbach Hazen-Williams General exponential
(equa. 6.16)
hf
f " v2 § 3,59 Q ·
" ¨¨ ¸
1 ,852
9 ,2 u 10 " Q
4 1 ,772
b "Qp
2 ,63 ¸
2 g di © CH d i ¹ d i4 ,773 d ir
k 0,015 (Table 6.3) NA NA b = 4,516 u 10-10
f 0,018 (equa. 6.14) NA NA p = 1,77
CH NA 148 (Table 6.4) NA r = 4,77
di 0,10 m 0,10 m 0,10 m 0,10 m
" 100 m 100 m 100 m 100 m
Q 100 m³/h 100 m³/h 100 m³/h 100 m³/h
hf 9,8% 9,7% 9,2% 9,2%
Q 30 m³/h 30 m³/h 30 m³/h 30 m³/h
hf 1,1% 1,1% 1,1% 1,1%
5.6.5 Pipe friction loss curves
With time most pipe manufacturers have compiled reasonably reliable graphic solutions for
friction losses in pipes. Although careful note should be taken of the units used in the
different versions, these curves may be used with confidence where absolute accuracy is not
a necessity.
5.7 Secondary pressure losses

Although so far a variety of equations and methods have been discussed, by means of which
pressure losses in pipes can be calculated or determined, no provision was made for losses which
can occur due to inevitable equipment on the pipeline.
These losses are usually expressed in terms of equivalent length of straight pipe of the relevant
diameter, or alternatively as k in the velocity component kv²/2g.
In practice these losses often make up such a small percentage of the total friction that they
become negligible or are nominally allowed for as an estimated percentage of the pipe losses.
Table 6.8: Secondary friction loss factors
Equivalent length of pipe

Velocity loss factor
Fittings (expressed in number of
(k)
diameters)
Bends: 90q short radius 45 0,90
90q standard 34 0,75
90q long radius 18 0,40
45q short radius 18 –

45q standard 14 0,30
45q long radius 9 –
22q short radius 9 –

22q standard 7 0,15
22q long radius 5 –
Tee piece: Flow through 16 0,35

90q branch out 54 1,20
Sluice valve: Open 13 0,20

½ open 160 – 270 5,60 – 6,00
Ball valve: Open 340 10,00
Reducer: Flow to large end

d/D: 0,8 7 0,03 – 0,16
d/D: 0,2 45 0,13 – 0,92
Flow to small end
D/d: 1,25 7 0,05 – 0,18
D/d: 5 22 0,08 – 0,49
Reflux valve 80 2,50
Foot valve with screen 115 –

Example 6.4
Determine the secondary loss factors for a standard 90q bend with internal diameter of 105 mm.
Solution:
From Table 6.8: Equivalent length of pipe = 34 u 105/1 000 = 3,6 m pipe of 105 mm diameter
k = 0,75
5.8 The hydraulic gradient (HG) and the energy line

Distinction must be made between the hydraulic gradient (also known as water pressure gradient)
and the energy line (which represents total energy or pressure head).
From Bernoulli (equation 6.11):
v 12 p1 v 22 p2
h1 h2 Losses
2g Ug 2g Ug
Figure 6.10: Hydraulic gradient and energy line
Consequently:
x The hydraulic gradient and the energy line are parallel.

x They differ in height by v²/2 g, which is the velocity head in the equation.
x It is also clear that this component is a function of the flow velocity. Therefore, the lower the
flow velocity, the smaller this component will become. Mostly, in practice it is negligibly
small in terms of total losses and only the hydraulic gradient is indicated on diagrams to
simplify sketches.
The hydraulic gradient is in effect an imaginary line connecting initial pressure with end pressure
in any pipe section and in practice indicates the available pressure at any point in the pipeline. It
therefore represents the free water level at any point on the pipeline. A few practical examples
follow for explanation.
Example 6.5
Static and dynamic: The principle
Figure 6.11: Hydraulic gradient: Static and dynamic
Figure 6.11 indicates a water source A, situated on a hill with a pipeline and a valve at B. The hydraulic
gradient always connects the initial pressure with the end pressure and therefore represents the free water
level at any given position on the pipeline.
Consider the static condition
With valve B closed, there is no water movement and everything in the system is in a static condition. It then
follows that:
x The hydraulic gradient is horizontal.

x The pressure at valve B is the total static or topographic a height difference, in this case 30 m or
300 kPa.
x The pressure at any point in the pipeline is the height difference between the topographical position of
the pipe (point C) and the hydraulic gradient (static).
Consider the dynamic condition:
With valve B fully open (i.e. without restriction), the water begins to flow until all forces are in equilibrium.
Therefore, the following applies:
x The hydraulic gradient again connects the initial pressure with the end pressure, which is zero in this
case, seeing that the water just beyond the valve is exposed to atmospheric pressure.
x At point C, the pressure is again the height difference between the pipe and the hydraulic gradient
(dynamic).
x The initial (static) potential energy at B (30 m or 300 kPa) is now expended in the form of pipe friction.
Therefore 30 m pressure is lost over the horizontal distance of 1000, or
30 u 100
3%
1 000
x Various alternatives with regard to pipe choice can now be investigated from this result:
o Maximum discharge (open end): If it is the main consideration of the system, the maximum pipe
diameter may be selected, the only limitation being the economical aspect.
o Pre-determined discharge (pen end): The smallest suitable pipe diameter may then be selected so
that only the required Q is obtained from the system.
o Irrigation system requirements: If an irrigation system at B must be fed directly by gravitational
pressure, the problem should be approached as described in example 6.6.
Example 6.6
Gravity irrigation system
Figure 6.12: Hydraulic gradient: System pressure
In this case, the same set of circumstances applies as in example 6.5, except that the height difference is
now 40 m and an irrigation system is fed from valve B. This system requires an inlet pressure of 30 m
(300 kPa). Therefore:
x The hydraulic gradient (dynamic) now connects the initial pressure (40 m) to the end pressure at
the valve, which in this case is the operating pressure of the system (30 m).
x The total permissible friction loss through the pipe is therefore now limited to the remaining 10 m.
hf = htot - hsystem (6.20)
x Over the 1 000 m distance between points A and B, the allowable friction is now limited to:
10
u 100 1,0%
1 000
x With the minimum system flow (Q system = 30 m³/h) given, the smallest diameter which meets these
requirements can now be selected.
Deduced from equation 6.19:
1
§b "Qp ·r
di ¨
¨ hf
¸
¸
(6.21)
© ¹
1
§ 4 ,516 u 10 10 u 100 u 30 1 ,77 · 4 ,77
Accordingly d i ¨¨ ¸¸
© 1,0 ¹
= 0,102 m
= 102 mm
Obviously, di as calculated, is a theoretical figure and it now becomes necessary to select a (say) uPVC
pipe from available standard dimension information. In this case, a 110 mm class 4 (110/4) pipe with
an inside diameter of 105,4 mm is the correct choice. Pipe classes are mentioned here only to obtain
practical diameters – they are covered in detail in Section 6.
NB: It is always advisable to maintain a reasonable safety margin with the selection. If the theoretical
figure tends towards the next larger practical diameter, a combination of two different pipe diameters
may be used, once again according to economic considerations.
Example 6.7
Pumping main to elevated dam
Figure 6.13: Hydraulic gradient: Pumping main
In this example water is pumped from a low-lying source to a higher lying destination, a dam without
valve, with the only restriction being the full water level. A pump unit which can supply a specific
discharge (Q = 35 m³/h) through an existing 110/6 (d = 103,3 mm) uPVC pipeline must be chosen. The
topographical height difference between the two water levels, hstat is 40 m.
x Therefore, the minimum pressure head to be supplied by the pump:
Hpump = hstat + hf (hf, equation 6.19)

= 40 m + 12 m
= 52 m
x The hydraulic gradient joins the initial pressure, relative height (RH) 52 m, to the end pressure
RH 40 m.
Example 6.8
Pumping main to elevated irrigation system
Figure 6.14: Hydraulic gradient: Pumping main to elevated irrigation system

This example is almost identical to the previous example 6.7, except that the higher situated dam is
replaced with an irrigation system which requires a minimum operating pressure of 40 m and that the
existing 100 mm uPVC pipe in this case consists of class 12 pipes (110/12) having an internal diameter
of 96,8 mm. The required delivery to the system is 27 m³/h. The pipe does not necessarily have to be
class 12 in its full length – refer to section 6 for more information.
x The minimum pressure head to be supplied by this pump is:
Hpump = hstat + hsystem + hf (hf, equation 6.12)

= 50 + 40 + 10
= 100 m
x Again the hydraulic gradient joins the initial pressure, i.e. the pump delivery (RH 100 m) with the
end pressure of the pipeline, which in this case is the inlet pressure of the irrigation system
(RH 90 m).
x The pressure at any specific point in the pipeline is once again the topographical difference
between the HG and the pipeline itself.
Example 6.9
Normally non-permissible situations
Figure 6.15: Hydraulic gradient: Normally non-permissible situations
x According to definition, the pressure at any specific position in a pipeline is the vertical distance
between the relative height of the HG (hHG) and the relative height of the pipeline (hTOP).
h = hHG – hTOP
x It follows that, when the RH of the HG is lower than the RH of the pipe, a negative pressure
originates at that point.
As mentioned earlier, this type of situation brings about that normal air inlet and outlet equipment
cannot be used. The negative effect hereof is so serious that such conditions should be avoided at all
cost. Ideally, the vertical height of the HG above the pipeline should never be less than approximately
6 m. Although it will often be impractical or even impossible in practice, the aim should be to keep this
distance as large as possible.
5.9 Rising mainlines

The design of a pipeline with which water is pumped from a lower lying point to a delivery point,
as in Examples 6.7 and 6.8, can be done according to SABI design norms for permissible friction
in mainlines.
The norms suggest that for rising main lines with a diameter of 200 mm or smaller, a maximum of
1,5 m friction for each 100 m pipe length (1,5%) is allowed. The directive is used to calculate a
theoretical pipe diameter, after which a practical (actual) pipe diameter, approximately equal to the
theoretical value, is selected. The practical pipe diameter is then used to calculate the friction in
the pipe for the given flow tempo and this value must also be less than 1,5% of the pipe length.
The friction loss and system pressure is to determine the pressure in the pipe, according to which
the suitable pipe class is then selected.
An example of this design method is shown at the end of this chapter.
In the case of larger pipelines, or if the results with the 1,5% friction loss method is doubtful,
optimizing calculations must be executed to determine what the most suitable pipe diameter for the
system will be, by comparing capital costs and annual pump costs for different pipe diameters.
The theory for the calculation for the economic pipe diameter method, as well as an example of
how it can be applied, is described in Chapter 19: Economy.
The SABI norms also suggest that in the case of larger pipe diameters (> 200 mm), possible water-
hammer problems should be investigated. Water-hammer is discussed in paragraph 8: Water-
hammer of this Chapter.
5.10 Gravitation pipelines

If the water pressure required at the outlet of a gravitation pipeline is less than the amount of
pressure available, resulting from the static height difference between the water level at the starting
point and the outlet, the “excess” pressure can be used to counteract friction loss in the pipeline
and thus the pipe diameter can be calculated.
The SABI norms, however, require that a maximum flow speed of 3 m/s should be allowed in
gravitation pipelines and the selected pipe diameter must be chosen accordingly.
For the case as in Example 6.6, where the suitable pipe diameter is calculated as 110/4 pipe with an
internal diameter of 105,4 mm on the basis of the 30 m³/h flow rate and 10 m permissible friction loss (the
“excess” pressure), the test for the maximum permissible speed will be done as follows:
Q=Av
A = S (d/2)²
= S (0,1 054 / 2)²
= 8,72 u 10-³ m²
v = Q/A
= (30/3 600) / 8,72 u 10-³
= 0,955 m/s < 3 m/s
The selected pipe diameter is therefore suitable.

5.11 Steady uneven flow

This form of flow develops where outlets at constant intervals occur on pipelines:
x Sprinkler irrigation laterals

x Micro sprayer laterals
x Drip lines
x Branches for micro irrigation systems
Pipe friction may be determined by:
hf F h ft (6.22)
where hf = pipe friction for pipe with outlets [m]

hft = friction for pipe without outlets [m]
F = Jensen and Fratini factor as per Table 6.9.
Figure 6.16: Steady uneven flow
If hft is obtained from equation 6.19, equation 6.22 will appear as follows:
F b l Qp
hf = (6.23)
d ir
Therefore, di [m] can be derived as:
di = ( F b l Qp
hf
) r
(6.24)
where hf = friction for pipe with outlets [m]

F = Jensen and Fratini factor
l = length [m]
Q = flow rate [m³/h]
p, r, b = constants according to Table 6.6.
Table 6.9: Friction reducing factor, F (p = constant in equation 6.19, as per Table 6.6)
Number of outlets p = 1,75 p = 1,90 p = 2,0

1 1 1 1
2 0,523 0,512 0,500
3 0,455 0,434 0,422
4 0,426 0,405 0,393
5 0,410 0,390 0,378
6 0,401 0,381 0,369
7 0,395 0,375 0,363
8 0,390 0,370 0,358
9 0,387 0,367 0,355
10 0,384 0,365 0,353
11 0,382 0,363 0,351
12 0,380 0,361 0,349
13 0,379 0,360 0,348
14 0,378 0,358 0,347
15 0,377 0,357 0,346
16 0,376 0,357 0,345
17 0,375 0,356 0,344
18 0,374 0,355 0,343
19 0,374 0,355 0,343
20 0,373 0,354 0,342
22 0,372 0,353 0,341
24 0,372 0,352 0,341
26 0,372 0,351 0,340
28 0,370 0,351 0,340
30 0,370 0,350 0,339
35 0,369 0,350 0,338
40 0,368 0,349 0,338
50 0,367 0,348 0,337
100 0,365 0,347 0,335
Example 6.10
Determine di for the following conditions:
x Q = 30 m³/h
x hf = 10% of operating pressure, 100 kPa (10 m)
x l = 100 m
x Outlet spacing = 5 m
Solution:
From equation 6.24:
(F bhl Q )
p r
di =
f
Then from Table 6.6 (Lamont):
x b = 4,516 u 10-10 (data for Q in m³/h)

x p = 1,77
x r = 4,77
x according to information above:

hf = 1,0 m (10% of 10 m operating pressure)
x and according Table 6.9, column 1 (p = 1,77 | 1,75):
F = 0,373 (100 m pipe with outlets every 5 m = 20 outlets)
1
§ 0 ,373 ( 4 ,516 u 10 10 ) 100 u 30 1,77 · 4 ,77
Then d i ¨¨ ¸¸
© 1,0 ¹
= 0,083 mm
= 83 mm inside diameter (theoretical)
A practical pipe diameter, larger than the theoretical figure determined above, must now be selected.
In uPVC, a nominal 90 mm pipe (inside diameter 86,15 mm) will be chosen and the effective pressure
drop over the total length of 100 m will therefore be 0,81 m.
It will, however, often be necessary, due to practical and/or economic considerations, to make use
of more than one pipe size to obtain an exact predetermined pressure drop.
The different methods for solution of such cases are discussed in more detail in the chapters which
deal with design of the different types of systems.
Figure 6.17: HG for steady, uneven flow through multi-diameter pipes
Example 6.10 (continued):

The example above will then be adapted by replacing a section of the larger pipe (d1 = 86,15 mm) with
a pipe one diameter smaller (d2 = 71,85 mm), with "1 and "2 in such a proportion that the total pressure
drop (hf1 + hf2) will not exceed the maximum pressure drop (hf1 + hf2 d hf).
6 Pipe classes
All pipes normally used in irrigation are purpose-made to withstand specific working pressures. The
consideration is naturally material and therefore cost-reducing.
Operating pressure-related codes are used for identification purposes and they vary between the
different products according to the raw materials of manufacture.
x Manufacturers of uPVC and polyethylene products as well as glass reinforced pipes maintain the
method by which the nominal diameter and operating pressure are indicated together by a
combined code: diameter/operating pressure. Therefore, a 110 mm diameter class 6 pipe is
identified by the code 110/6.
The operating pressure class indicates the maximum permissible (or recommended) continuous
operating pressure in bar. Class 3 indicates bar (30 m or 300 kPa).
x Fibre cement pipe manufacturers maintain the policy of test pressure indication, which is normally
twice the operating pressure. Here, the standard format (e.g. 100/12) is also used.
A pressure class of "class 12" indicates a test pressure of 12 bar, and therefore a permissible
continuous operating pressure of 6 bar (60 m or 600 kPa).
x Concrete pipes: Codes T2, T4, etc. indicate the test pressures in bar (T2 is therefore tested at 2 bar
or 200 kPa). It is recommended to consult manufacturers on designs where concrete pipes are to be
used.
Exceeding these recommended pressures can lead to material failure in the form of pipe collapse
or at least a decrease in the expected pipe lifetime.
Therefore, sensible selection of pipe classes, to suit the worst possible operating conditions, is an
unavoidable necessity and can be done according to the following practical examples, all based on the
class division convention of uPVC pipes.
Example 6.11
Gravity system (uncontrolled)
Figure 6.18: Pipe classes for gravity systems (dynamic)

In this example water flows from source A through a pipeline AB and flows free to atmosphere at B,
without the possibility of being checked.
x Once again the hydraulic gradient connects the initial pressure at A to the end pressure at B and
the water pressure in the pipe is always equal to the difference in the relative heights of the HG
and the pipe.
x It follows that, if a line is drawn at a distance of 40 metres vertically below the HG and parallel to
it, all points above this line will be subjected to 40 m pressure or less. Pipe sections AC and FB
fall within these limits and will therefore be class 4 pipes.
x In the same way more lines can be drawn parallel to the HG at distances which will indicate the
other pipe classes.
Therefore pipe sections CD and EF will be subjected to pressures of more than 40 m but less than 60 m
and will be a class 6 pipe. The pipe section DE will therefore have to be class 9 pipe.
Example 6.12
Gravity systems (controlled)
Figure 6.19: Pipe classes for gravity systems (static)
The above example is basically the same as example 6.11, except that a valve is provided at B which
will be closed at any time.
x With the valve open, the HG (dynamic) will connect the source A with the valve B. If a parallel line
is drawn 40 m below the HG, it will include the whole pipeline, therefore everything can be class 4
pipes.
x However, with the valve closed, everything is static and the HG (static) is horizontal. By drawing
more pipe class lines parallel to the HG, it is found that pipe section AC will be class 4, and so
forth up to section EB which will be class 12.
This clearly shows that both static and dynamic conditions must be considered at all times to be able to
identify the highest possible pressure in a pipeline.
Example 6.13
Uncontrolled flow in pumping main (increasing elevation)
Figure 6.20: Pipe classes for pumping main (dynamic)
With a pumping main which delivers water from a low-lying source (B) without restriction to a higher-
lying dam (A), the HG will be identical to example 6.6.
x Pipe class lines parallel to the HG will then indicate that section AC has class 4 pipes and so forth
until FB which has class 16 pipes.
Example 6.14
Controlled flow in pumping main (increasing elevation)
Figure 6.21: Pipe classes for pumping main (shut-off pressure)
When a situation identical to example 6.13 is considered, except that a valve is installed at A (which
will be closed), the pressure conditions can change drastically.
x With the valve closed while the pump is running, the pump pressure changes from the duty point to
shut-off pressure which can be substantially higher than operating pressure.
x Therefore, the HG (static) is higher than in example 6.13 (HG dynamic) and is also horizontal.
x Normal class lines indicate that substantially higher pressures can develop in the pipeline as a
whole and that pipe classes should be selected accordingly.
x NOTE that conditions as shown in example 6.13 and 6.14 also apply when pumping downhill.
This shows again that it is essential to study both static and dynamic conditions to enable sensible and
safe pipe class selections to be made.
Example 6.15
Pumping main to irrigation system
Figure 6.22: Pipe classes for pumping main (decreasing elevation)
When a booster pump (A) supplies water from a source to an irrigation system (B), dynamic conditions
will normally prevail (refer to Figure 6.22).
x Class lines parallel to the HG (dynamic) will tend to indicate a relatively low-pressure condition in
the pipe as a whole, because the pump is functioning at its duty point on the pump curve.
x If, however, the irrigation system is shut-off (or shuts off automatically) before the pump is
switched off, static conditions with the HG (static) horizontal, and at a pressure equal to the pump
shut-off, pressure will arise. This can cause substantially higher pressure conditions in the
pipeline and pipe class selection should be adjusted accordingly.
The importance of a comprehensive review of all possible conditions before final pipe class
selection is again emphasized.
7 Air and anti-vacuum valves

7.1 General
Even before the middle of the 17th century, the French engineer, Isaak de Caus wrote the
following: "Water cannot enter into a vessel, but there must come forth as much aire, except the
water be sent in by force". He added: "It follows by the contrary reason that if a vessel be full of
water, it cannot be emptied, so that the aire shall not enter therein".
It is known that the presence of free air in a water supply pipe which is in use, or in the process of
being filled, is the cause of serious problems like:
x Retarded pipe filling.

x Choking and decreasing in discharge capacity.
x Risk of water-hammer and shock bursts.
x The increasing tendency to corrode inner pipe surface.
All pipelines are initially filled with air before water is admitted. Even after a pipe has been filled
with water, air may end up inside the pipe due to various reasons. Similarly, a pipe cannot be
emptied without replacing the water with air.
Therefore, the inlet and outlet of air in pipelines are unavoidable. While valves for this purpose
can mostly perform both functions, care must be taken where large volumes of air must be
introduced at times. Automatic air valves must therefore be installed at strategic positions on
pipelines for the efficient and timely elimination of air problems.
While the term "air valves" may be considered a generalisaton, it has for decades been the known
term for air outlet valves, therefore it will be used in that context in this chapter: air valves = air
outlet valves.
Four types of air and anti-vacuum valves are normally found in practice.
7.1.1 Large orifice air valves
The function of a large orifice valve is to let air in or out during the filling or draining of
pipelines. It must be able to accommodate high air flow rates without closing.
7.1.2 Small orifice air valves
These valves must automatically get rid of accumulated air at local peaks in pressure
pipelines. Note that the design of these valves makes them unsuitable for admitting air at
high flow rates.
7.1.3 Double-purpose air valves
It is mostly necessary to perform both the above functions at the same position. A
combination of the two valves above, generally mounted in a common body, is used for this
purpose.
7.1.4 Anti-vacuum valves
Conditions often arise where air valves are not normally required for the above functions,
except for air inlet purposes. Therefore, anti-vacuum valves are available for this purpose at
much lower costs. These valves are, however, purpose-made and usually incapable of
releasing air efficiently. Consult Chapter 9: Irrigation accessories for more information on
air valve construction.
The efficient functioning of air valves is largely dependant on correct placing as well as suitable
dimensions and combinations of materials and components. Regular and efficient maintenance is
obviously very important.
7.2 Air accumulation: The problem

A pipeline, ideally designed for air outlet must:
x have a uniform ascending slope, in the flow direction; and

x be without any form of obstruction.
Few pipelines of any length and no gravity line whatsoever can meet these ideal
requirements. Peaks and continuous slope changes are normally unavoidable.
Free air can also end up in a pipeline in various ways
x Air can initially be trapped at peaks or obstructions like partially closed valves.
x Vortex action at inlets draws in air.
x Leaks at pump suction hoses admit air.
x Release of air which is in solution in the water can also occur due to pressure decreases
or temperature increases.
o Water can contain more air at high pressure. Therefore, where pressure decreases
occur, free air will escape from the water. This situation can occur whenever
pressure drops arise due to undulating pipelines and especially at the downstream
side of pressure-reducing valves, partially closed gate valves, or similar obstructions
which can cause a pressure drop.
o Similarly increase in pressure reduce the amount of free air which can be kept in
solution in the water, causing it to end up in the pipeline.
7.3 Air accumulation: The solution

7.3.1 Location of pipeline
During the route selection process, it is advisable to keep to a few principles so that air
accumulations may be eliminated at a primary level as far as possible.
x Attempt to position the entire pipeline in such a way that it is situated at least 6 to 9
metres below the hydraulic gradient.
x Avoid long distances (> approximately 500 m) of basically horizontal pipelines.
x Maintain slopes of at least 1:500.
x Avoid extremely low flow velocities.
Therefore, avoid conditions which necessitate the use of sensitive, special equipment
virtually at all costs. Attempt at all times to use standard, uncomplicated, automatic
equipment which eliminates the need for constant supervision and maintenance.
Be especially cautious where true siphonic conditions arise. While siphons of up to

approximately 4,5 metres above the steepest hydraulic gradient can physically be
accommodated, the negative pressure created, renders normal automatic air and anti-vacuum
valves useless.
7.3.2 Placing of air valves
Air valves must be installed at the following positions on a pipeline.
7.3.2.1 Peaks
Firstly, multi-purpose air valves are required at all possible positions where peaks may
arise. Peaks arise wherever the pipeline has a reversal of slope with respect to the
hydraulic gradient (which in reality represents the imaginary free water level along the
pipeline), creating low-pressure zones where air can accumulate. These peaks can
also, under specific circumstances, form peaks with the horizon. Examples of both
situations are shown in Figure 6.23.
Figure 6.23: Pipe section forming peaks i.r.o (a) both the HG and horizon, and
(b) Only the HG
In this way a peak occurs at any section of a pipeline located parallel to the hydraulic
gradient (refer to Figure 6.24). Air valves are required at least at the ends of such a
pipe section, and possibly also in between, depending on its length.
Figure 6.24: Pipe section parallel to hydraulic gradient constitutes a peak

7.3.2.2 Slope changes which do not create peaks
Air can accumulate at any point where a descending slope steepens (refer to
Figure 6.25). While a peak is not formed (as defined above in 7.3.2.1), it is advisable
to install at least a small orifice air valve at this point.
Figure 6.25: Descending pipe section with increase in descending gradient
Similarly, it is good practice to install at least a small orifice air valve at any point
where an ascending slope levels off (refer to Figure 6.26).
Figure 6.26: Ascending pipe section with decrease in ascending gradient
7.3.2.3 Long, ascending pipe sections
A multi-purpose air valve, as required above in 7.3.2.1 will in any case be provided at
the peak. Additional valves may be required, mainly to accommodate high air flow
rates during filling or draining, depending on the length of the section. These air
valves will mostly be the large orifice type spaced at approximately 400 – 800 m as
shown on Figure 6.27.
Figure 6.27: Long, ascending pipe section
7.3.2.4 Long, descending pipe sections
Such cases are basically approached in the same way as above in 7.3.2.3, except that
multi-purpose air valves will definitely be used as shown in Figure 6.28.
Figure 6.28: Long, descending pipe section
7.3.2.5 Long, horizontal pipe sections (slopes < 1:500)
As previously mentioned, such circumstances must be avoided as far as possible. If,

however, they are unavoidable, multi-purpose air valves must in any case be provided
at the ends of the section as well as at 400 to 800 m intervals.
7.3.2.6 Precise position where air accumulation occurs
It is important to note that, while air accumulations will occur at peaks, with regard to
the horizon, the precise position of the air accumulation is actually situated at the
point where a peak with regard to the HG can be identified as shown below in
Figure 6.29.
Figure 6.29: Actual position of air accumulation and air valve
Therefore, the precise position of the air valve should in all cases be determined
with great care.
7.2.3.7 Vacuum conditions
While the normal placing of air valves in a system mostly makes sufficient provision
for air inlet at high flow rates, a need for anti-vacuum valves (air inlet valves) arises
under circumstances where air valves would not necessarily have been provided due
to considerations discussed in 7.3.2.
Vacuum forming can take place due to:
x Burst pipes
x Defective couplings
x Closing of automatic valves
x Valves being closed
x Opening of scour valves
Relatively low-cost, purpose-made valves are commercially available and should be

placed especially at the downstream side of irrigation system valves.
Note that class 4 uPVC pipes can only withstand 4 to 5 m vacuum before collapse.
Low-density polyethylene, especially smaller diameter class 3 pipes, are also not
designed to resist any vacuum conditions at all.
7.3.3 The pipeline as a whole
When provision is made for air valves (inlet and outlet) at all positions as individually
considered, it is advisable to investigate the pipeline as a whole to ensure that a sufficient
number of air valves have been provided in the total design.
Generally more air valves are provided in the first section of a pipeline than the last section.
While precise rules cannot be made, air valves can generally be placed as close as 150 m
apart at the beginning of a pipeline and as far as 800 m and even 1 000 m apart over the last
section.
It is generally good practice to ensure that as much air as possible is removed from high
pressure sections so that less remains in low-pressure zones to expand and result in closures
or shock loads.
8 Waterhammer
Waterhammer or pressure waves are possibly the most damaging factors which can lead to pipe
failure.
The purpose of this chapter is, however, not to present a course on the somewhat complicated study of
waterhammer but only to place the existence of the problem into perspective so that potential danger
areas may be identified for further expert analysis and action.
Heavy pressure fluctuations, known as waterhammer, can arise in a pipeline when a valve is rapidly
opened or closed or even when a pump comes to a standstill. These pressures can add hundreds of
metres to the pressure head in the case of steel or fibre reinforced cement pipes. uPVC and glass fibre
have a large advantage over other pipe types due to the elasticity of the pipe material – the
waterhammer pressures are much less serious.
Waterhammer is caused by the rapid changes in water velocity in the pipeline. The moving water
column "collides" against the closed end and the excess pressure due to waterhammer (over-pressure)
is proportional to the velocity change of the water. Joukowsky showed that the increase in pressure
head can be determined by the following equation:
a 'v
'h = (6.25)
g
where 'h = the increase in pressure height above normal operating or static pressure
[m]
g = gravitational force acceleration (10 m/s²)
'v = change in velocity of flow [m/s]
a = wave celerity, i.e. the velocity at which an elastic wave moves along the
pipe. The magnitude depends on the compressibility of the water (very
low) and the elasticity of the pipe wall [m/s]
The wave celerity can be calculated as follows:
1
a (6.26)
§1 di ·
U ¨¨ ¸
©K e E ¸¹
where a = elastic wave celerity in pipe [m/s]

U = density of water (1 000 kg/m³)
K = compressibility modulus of water (2 100 u 106 N/m²)
di = internal diameter of pipe [mm]
e = wall thickness of pipe [mm]
E = elasticity modulus of pipe material (fibre cement = 25 000 u 106 N/m², and
uPVC (SABS 966) = 3 300 u 106 N/m²).
Due to the fact that the modulus of elasticity of thermo-plastic and glass-fibre pipes is so much lower
than that of other pipe materials, the wave celerity is also much lower.
An approximate determination of wave celerity and the estimated required uPVC pipe classes may be
done, using the nomogram in Figure 6.30.
x As a starting point, the uPVC pipe classes are indicated in the top right hand quadrant. Equivalent
wall thickness to pipe diameter ratios for other pipe materials (fibre cement and steel) can
naturally be compared to those for uPVC.
x The process can be started at any point on the horizontal (+X) axis as shown in the following
example 6.16. The initial result will clearly indicate in which direction to move, by means of
iteration, until a satisfactory solution is reached.
Example 6.16
Determine the wave celerity, waterhammer, design pressure and minimum required pipe class for a
uPVC pipe under the following conditions:
x Flow velocity = 1,5 m/s

x Immediate flow cut-off by butterfly valve.
x Static height difference = 40 m
Solution:
x Start at the top right hand quadrant of the nomogram on Figure 6.30 and select a class 12 pipe
(with wall thickness: Diameter ratio of 0,056) as a first approach.
x Follow the vertical dotted line upwards to the uPVC curve (SABS 966).
x Follow the horizontal dotted line to the left, where the wave celerity is indicated on the vertical
(+Y) axis as 410 m/s.
x Follow the same line further to the left in the upper left quadrant to the curve for a flow velocity of
1,5 m/s.
x Then follow the dotted line vertically down to where it cuts the horizontal (-X) axis at a water
hammer of 62 m.
x Follow it further downwards (in the lower left quadrant) to the curve for a static height of 40 m.
x Then move to the right until the dotted line cuts the vertical (-Y) axis at a design pressure of
1 020 kPa.
x Then follow that line up diagonally to the right until it cuts the starting axis at a wall thickness:
diameter ratio of 0,051 which appears to be lower than the initial selection and therefore
acceptable.
x Then test, by repeating the process at a pressure class one step lower than the previous effort
(incidentally, it does not work in this case) and repeat until the correct solution is found, where the
final selection will fall at a position just to the left of the starting point. Therefore in this case, the
initial selection of pressure class was correct.
Note that this process can only give an indication of conditions and should not be used by
designers with limited knowledge of this section. It is essential to obtain expert assistance where
any doubt whatsoever arises about selection of pipe class where waterhammer can have an
effect.
A number of factors may also suppress the waterhammer pressures. It is especially important to note
that it is normally assumed that the water column is brought to a standstill virtually instantly. Most
valves take minutes to be closed, during which time pressure increases in the pipeline return and are
destroyed. Pipe friction can also reduce waterhammer pressures by damping. In cases of valve
closure at the downstream end of pipelines with large energy losses, however, the waterhammer
pressure must be added to the static head (operating head plus friction head) to obtain the maximum
design pressure head.
Pump switching off is somewhat different to valve closure. When the power is cut, the water column
is stretched, reducing pressure. The waterhammer wave may be reflected as a positive wave which
causes the over-pressure. Alternatively, the water column in the pipeline may be torn apart, causing
vacuums in the pipeline. When the water column returns, these vacuums collapse, causing
waterhammer over-pressures or even cavitation and eventually failure of the pipe walls.
It may be necessary to take measures to reduce pressures. Some of the measures taken under different
circumstances are:
x Surge tanks
x Air chambers or collectors
x Pressure release valves
x Non-return valves (additional)
x Pump fly-wheels
In most cases, however, conditions are of such a complex nature that systems ought to be
analysed by experts, graphically or by computer, to determine the highest pressures which
might occur.
Figure 6.30: Solution of the waterhammer equation

9 Example
An example of the development of a hydraulic gradient follows.
Example 6.17: Simple multi-outlet rising main

A uPVC pipeline must be designed for irrigation purposes between the following points:
x Point 1:
Hydrant located at relative height (RH) 150 m. Required operating pressure 43 m. Required
discharge 103 m³/h.
x Point 2:
Hydrant located at RH 154 m, 200 m from point 1 with required discharge 123 m³/h.
x Point 3:
Hydrant located at RH 120 m, 125 m from point 2; Q = 50 m³/h.
x Point 4:
Pump at river with free water surface at RH 95 m, 200 m from point 3.
Solution:
x As starting point, assume that the "economic friction loss gradient" (hg) of 1 m/100 m will be used.
x Furthermore, make use of the exponential equation.
bl Q p
hf ( equation 6.19 ) deduced :
d ir
1
§bl Qp ·
di ¨ ¸ r
¨ hf ¸
© ¹
Where, according to Table 6.6:
b = 4,516 u 10-10
p = 1,77
and r = 4,77 for uPVC pipes
(a) At point 1
RHHG1 = RH1 + Operating pressure

= 156 + 43
= 199 m
(b) Pipe section 1 – 2
Q = 103 m³/h
For hg = 1 m/100 m:
1
§ 4,516 u 10 10 u 100 u 103 1,77 · 4,77
di ¨
¨
¸
¸
© 1 ¹
0,1606 m
? 160,6 mm
Figure 6.31: Hydraulic gradient

i) Check pipe class
h f 1 2 hf u 11 2
1
u 200
100
2m
? RHHG2 = RHHG1 + hf1-2
= 199 + 2
= 201 m
? Pressure at take-off 2 (h2) = RHHG2 – RH2

= 201 – 154
= 47 m
A class 6 uPVC pipe should be used.
ii) Selection of pipe size
x For a 160 mm class 6 pipe (160/6), the internal diameter is 150,6 mm.
4,516 u 10 10 u 100 u 1031,77

hf
0,1506 4,77
1,38 m per 100 m length, which exceeds the " economical norm".
x The next larger pipe diameter should therefore be used, i.e. 200/6. The internal diameter of a
200/6 uPVC pipe is 188,2 mm.
According to equation 6.19, hf = 0,476 m per 100 m length of pipe.
A 200/6 uPVC pipe should therefore be used.
iii) Now calculate the actual values for the HG
RHHG 2 RHHG1 h f 1 2
§ 200 ·
199 ¨ 0 ,476 u ¸
© 100 ¹
199 0 ,95
199 ,95 m
Pr essure h2 RHHG2 RH 2
199 ,95 154
45 ,95 m
(c) Pipe section 2 – 3 (l = 125 m)
Q2-3 = Q1 + Q2
= 226 m³/h
for hg = 1 m/100 m
di = 215,0 mm
i) Check pipe class
for hg = 1 m/100 m is hf2-3 = 1,25 m
? h3 = RHHG2 + hf2-3 – RH3

= 199,95 + 1,25 – 120
= 81,20 m
A class 9 pipe should therefore be used.
ii) Selection of pipe size
A 250/9 pipe should be used (internal diameter = 228,4 mm)
Calculations:
hf = 0,76 m per 100 m length of pipe (equation 6.19)
125
? h f 23 0 ,76 u
100
0 ,95 m
and RHHG3 = RHHG2 – hf2-3

= 199,95 + 0,95
= 200,90 m
and h3 = RHHG3 – RH3

= 200,90 – 120
= 80,90 m
(d) Pipe section 3 – 4 (l = 200 m)
Q3-4 = Q1 + Q2 + Q3
= 276 m³/h
For hg = 1 m/100 m, di = 231,6 mm.
i) Check pipe class
hf3-4 = 0,01 u 200

= 2m
Therefore, RHHG4 = hf3-4

= 200,90 + 2
= 202,90 m
and h4 = RHHG4 – RH4

= 202,90 – 95
= 107,90 m
A class 12 pipe should therefore be used in this instance.

ii) Selection of pipe
The closest suitable uPVC pipe is a 250/12 pipe with internal diameter of 221,6 mm.
Calculations for actual values:
hf = 1,25 m per 100 m length of pipe (equation 6.19)
200
h f 34 1,25 u
100
2 ,50 m
RHHG4 = RHHG3 + Hf3-4

= 200,90 + 2,50
= 203,40 m
Pressure H4 = RHHG4 – RH4

= 203,40 – 95,00
= 108, 40 m
To determine pump pressure, valve losses must be taken into account. Assume 2,5 m valve
losses in this case.
Pump pressure = 108,40 + 2,5 = 110,90 m, say 112,00 m.
Pump duty point: H = 112 m

Q = 276 m³/h
Remarks:
1. When a pump has been selected, pipe classes must be checked against pump shut-off pressure.
2. Designers, familiar with the above procedure, can do rapid calculations by making use of the
hydraulic calculation sheet in Table 6.10.
Table 6.10: Calculation sheet for pipeline hydraulics
Flow Pipe details Losses

rate Length Size di hf hf RHHG RH Pressure
Point (Q) (l) at point
Class
[m per
[m3/h] [m] [mm] [mm] 100 m] [m] [m] [m] [m]
4 207,00 95,00 112,00
276 200 12 250 221,6 1,25 2,50
3 204,50 120,00 84,50
226 125 9 250 228,4 0,76 0,95
2 203,55 154,00 49,55
103 200 6 200 188,2 0,47 0,95
1 202,60 156,00 46,60
10 References
1. Chadwick, A and Morfett, J. 1993. Hydraulics in civil and environmental engineering.
Chapman and Hall. 2nd edition.
2. Everite Pipe Division. Hidrouliese Ontwerp (tegniese dokument 7A 2/92). Klipriver, RSA.
3. Jensen, M. E. (ed.) 1981. Design and operation of farm irrigation systems. ASAE Manograph.
4. Main Industries. uPVC Manual. Johannesburg, RSA.
5. Urquhart, L. C. Civil Engineering Handbook. New York, USA.

Irrigation Design Pipe Hydraulics

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Irrigation Design Pipe Hydraulics

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CONTENTS

1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 6.1

2 The SI system in irrigation .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 6.1

3 General definitions .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6.2

4 Hydrostatics ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6.4

6 Pipe classes ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6.26

7 Air and anti-vacuum valves ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 6.30

9 Example ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6.40

10 References ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6.45

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2 The SI system in irrigation

Table 6.1: Applicable basic units in the SI system

Dimension Unit Symbol

Table 6.2: Applicable deduced SI units

Volume cubic meters m³ –

Density kilograms per cubic meter kg/m³ –

Velocity meters per second m/s –

Acceleration meters per second squared m/s² –

Force Newton N kg.m/s²

Energy Joule J N.m

Power Watt W J/s

Figure 6.1: Water pressure

3.6 Atmospheric pressure

Figure 6.2: Atmospheric pressure/elevation above sea level ratio

3.7 Vapour pressure

Figure 6.3: Vapour pressure/temperature ratio of water

4.2 Static pressure

Figure 6.4: Static pressure

5.1 Flow through pressure conduits

Figure 6.5: Velocity vectors

5.1.2 Shear tension

5.2 The Reynolds number

where Re = Reynolds number

5.2.1 Laminar flow

5.2.2 Turbulent flow

Figure 6.6: The Reynolds number

5.3 Flow types

5.3.1 Steady and unsteady flow

5.3.2 Even and uneven flow

where Q = flow rate [m³/s]

Figure 6.7: Steady, uneven flow

5.3.3 Average flow velocity

Figure 6.8: Average flow velocity

5.4 General laws and equations

Where F = force [N]

where vo = initial velocity [m/s]

5.4.2 Movement equations

where Sa = distance [m]

5.5 Bernoulli equation

where U = density (1 000 kg/m³)

Consider the following pipe in general:

Figure 6.9: Bernoulli's equation

Between sections 1 and 2 Bernoulli's equation may be used as follows:

where hf = frictional loss between section 1 and section 2 [m water depth].

5.6 Pip friction equations

5.6.1 Darcy-Weisbach equation

where hf = friction [m water]

5.6.1.1 Laminar flow conditions (Re < 2 000)

5.6.1.2 Turbulent flow conditions (Re > 4 000)

where f = frictional factor

Table 6.3: Recommended equivalent pipe roughness, k [mm]

5.6.2 Hazen-Williams equation

where hf = friction [m water pressure]

CH values for pipes of the following diameters