M O D U L A R S Y S T E M

ZOOLOGY

Bayram KENCÝ
Mustafa DOÐAN
Osman ARPACI

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 Biology is a rapidly developing branch of science. The major advances that are
made, continuously affect our life on earth. Some of these important advances are
included here.
The results of a recent survey on the attitudes to existing literature available to
high school students showed that many were unhappy with the material used in
teaching and learning. Those questioned identified a lack of the following; accom-
panying supplementary material to main text books, current information on new
developments, clear figures and diagrams and insufficient attention to design and
planning of experiments.
This book aims to improve the level of understanding of modern biology by
inclusion of the following; main texts, figures and illustrations, extensive questions,
articles and experiments.
Each topic is well illustrated with figures and graphs to ease understanding.
Supplementary material in the form of posters, transparencies and cassettes will
shortly be available.
It is the intention and hope of the authors that the contents of this book will
help to bridge the current gap in the field of biology at this level.

We are grateful to all the people who have helped with this book.
We thank’s to:
Musa ÖZET, Ahmet KALALI and Duran KALA for their support and co operation.
Erkan CENGÝZ, Gökhan BENDAÞ, Zeki DENGÝZ, Arif YAVUZ and Cengiz ARAS
for their grate ideas.

The authors
Chapter 1: Multicellular Organisation
And Animal Physiology . . .6
1. Atoms - Molecules - Compounds . . . . 6
2. Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
3. Tissues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
a. Animal tissues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4. Organ and Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
a. Regulatory System . . . . . . . . . . .11
b. Sensory Reception . . . . . . . . . . .17
c. Circulatory System . . . . . . . . . . .23
d. Respiratory System . . . . . . . . . .24
e. Digestive System . . . . . . . . . . . .25
f. Excretory System . . . . . . . . . . . .26
g. Locomotion In Animals . . . . . . . .27
Chapter 2: Animal
Classification System . . 32
1. General Characteristics
Of Animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
2. Animal Anatomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
a. Cellular Organization . . . . . . . . . .35
b. Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
c. Embryonic Layers . . . . . . . . . . . .36
d. Body Cavity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
e. Analogous Organs . . . . . . . . . . .37
f. Homologous Organs . . . . . . . . . .38
g. Segmentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38
h. Body Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38
Chapter 3: Animal Systematic . . . . . .40
1. Phylum Porifera . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
2. Cnidaria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
a. Hydrozoa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
b. Scyphozoa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46
c. Anthozoa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47
3. Ctenophora . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
4. Platyhelminthes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50
a. Turbellaria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51
b. Trematoda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52
c. Cestoda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53
5. Phylum Nemertea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54
6. Phylum Nematoda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55
7. Phylum Rotifera . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58
8. Phylum Mollusca . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59
a. Class Polyplacophora . . . . . . . . . .61
b. Gastropoda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62
c. Bivalvia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62
d. Cepholapoda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62
9. Phylum Annelida . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64
a. Polychaeta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66
b. Oligochaeta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66
c. Hirudinea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66
10. Phylum Arthropoda . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
a. Crustacea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71
b. Arachnida . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72
c. Chilopoda - Diplopoda . . . . . . . . .73
d. Insecta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
11. Phylum Echinodermata . . . . . . . . . .79
a. Crinodiea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80
b. Asteroidea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80
c. Phiuroidea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
d. Echinoidea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
e. Holothuroidea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
12. Phylum Chordata . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
a. Subphylum Urochordata . . . . . . .85
b. Subphylum Cephalochordata . . . .85
c. Subphylum Vertebrata . . . . . . . . .86
1. Agnatha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87
2. Chondrichthytes . . . . . . . . . . .88
3. Osteichthyes . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89
4. Amphibia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91
5. Reptilia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .94
6. Aves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102
7. Mammalia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109
zoology

chapter 1

Figure: Atom and Molecule
Multicellular Organization
and Animal Physiology
There are several levels of organization in the animal body. Atoms and mole-
cules are organized into cells, cells are organized into tissues, tissues are organ-
ized into organs, and organs are organized into organ systems. Four basic types
of tissue make up the organs. The complex animal body has many systems which
are closely related to each other for the survival of the organism
A complex organism includes six groups of components. In order of size, these
are atoms, molecules, cells, tissues, organs and systems.
1. Atoms - Molecules - Compounds
Atoms are the simplest structural elements of living things, and more than 100
elements have been identified in the world. Each element has a unique atomic
structure. The elements most frequently found in living things are carbon, hydro-
gen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur.
Two atoms of the same element generally associate to form a molecule. For
instance, two hydrogen atoms associate to form a hydrogen molecule.
Compounds differ from molecules in that their formation results from the com-
bination of two or more atoms from different elements. The most well-known
compound is water, formed from the association of two hydrogen atoms and one
oxygen atom. Carbon dioxide is formed from the association of two oxygen atoms
and a carbon atom.

2. Cells
Cells are the building blocks of all living things, either unicellular or multicellu-
lar. All metabolic activities are performed within cells. Metabolism, excretion,
reproduction, respiration, irritability and growth are the basic functions that cells
must perform.Cells have vital roles in the survival of an organism despite their dif-
ferences in structure and function. All are involved in different functions such as
movement, support, energy, etc. Thus, the unity of an organism is maintained by
differentiated cells. Although cells differ in function and shape, they all pos-
sess an almost identical structure. All are composed of a plasma mem-
brane, cytoplasm and nucleus. The plasma membrane is involved in the
protection of the cell, providing shape, transport of materials and
communication. The cytoplasm is the liquid portion of the
cell located between the plasma membrane and
the nucleus. It is composed of organelles, organ-
ic and inorganic mole-
cules. The organic mole-
cules of the cytoplasm are
carbohydrates, proteins,
ZOOLOGY

fats and nucleic acids. The

inorganic molecules are
minerals, water, etc.
Figure: Multicellular organisation.

6
 The organelles of the cytoplasm are ribosome, perox-
isome, Golgi body, endoplasmic reticulum, lysosome,
mitochondrion, vacuole, and centrosome. The nucleus is
the most vital component of the cell. It contains coded
genetic information within its chromosomes. DNA and
RNA store the genetic information. The cell can not sur-
vive if the nucleus is removed.
A cytoskeleton provides support and maintains cell
shape. Flagellum and cilia provide movement of cells.

Figure: Animal cell

Typical Components of Animal Cells

Cell components Description Function
Lipid bilayers in which proteins are embed- Control of substances moving into and out of the
Cell membrane ded. It has a small amount of carbohy- cell. Cell regionization. Glycocalyx is the carbohy-
drates. drate layer on the outer surface of animal cells.
Cell shape, internal organization, basis of cell
Cytoskeleton Network of protein flaments
motion
Flagellum and
Cellular extensions Cellular movement
Cilia
Spherical structures bounded by double
Nucleus Physical separation and organization of DNA
membrane

Multicellular Organisation and Animal Physology

Nucleolus Small dense structures in nucleus Assembly of ribosomal subunits
Chromosomes Long threads of DNA associated with protein Encoding hereditary information
Small, made up of protein and ribosomal
Ribosome Protein synthesis
RNA, generally bounded to E.R
Endoplasmic Initial modification of many newly forming proteins;
Network of internal membranes
Reticulum lipid synthesis
Membranous sacs containing peroxide
Peroxisome Destroy harmful substances
enzymes.
Final modification of proteins, lipids; sorting and
Golgy Body Stacks of flattened vesicles.
packaging them for use inside the cell or for export
Membranous sacs containing digestive
Lysosome Intracellular digestion
enzymes.
Double membranous organelle containing
Mitochondrion ATP formation
DNA, RNA, and enzymes.
Membranous sacs containing organic and
Vacuole Increasing cell surface area, storage
inorganic molecules.
Centrosome Made up of proteins (microtubules) Help cell division

7
 3. Tissues
A tissue is a group of cells specialized for a common purpose.
Tissues are composed of cells and interstitial fluid involved in mate-
rial exchange with the environment. Tissues are classified according
to their location and structure.

a. Animal tissues

Epithelial tissues; They are involved in secretion, protection

and absorption and cover the body of most vertebrates.
Additionally, they cover the inner surface of those organisms
that possess a body cavity. Epithelial tissue also encapsulates
the blood and lymph vessels and is classified according to its
functions.

Connective tissue; It is generated from the mesoderm layer

of the embryo. It is involved in the connection of all tissues and
also supports the body. Connective tissue is composed of 6
main types;
Loose connective tissue Cartilage tissue
Bone tissue Blood tissue
Fibrous connective tissue Adipose tissue

Muscle tissue: The body as a whole, as well as individual

internal organs, moves by means of muscle tissue.
It is classified as skeletal, smooth or cardiac according to its
structure. The skeletal muscles work in conjunction with bones
to provide movement of the body. The smooth muscles partic-
ipate mostly in the structure of internal organs and in the move-
ment of blood in the vessels. The cardiac muscles are respon-
ZOOLOGY

sible for the function of the heart.

8
 Nervous tissue: It consists of neuron and glial cells and is involved in the
transmission of impulses in the body.
A nerve cell known as a neuron consists of the following components :
dendrites: They receive information from other neurons.
cell body: It contains all cell organelles and all metabolic reactions
occur in the cell body.
axon: It transfers information to other neurons.

Figure: A typical neuron

READ ME cardiac muscle and heart

The heart (Latin, cor) is a hollow, muscular organ that pumps blood
through the blood vessels by repeated, rhythmic contractions. The term
cardiac means "related to the heart", from the Greek cardia for "heart".

Multicellular Organisation and Animal Physology

Cardiac muscle is a type of striated muscle found within the heart.
Its function is to "pump" blood through the circulatory system; contrac-
tion. Cardiac muscle generally operates "involuntarily" and rhythmically,
without receiving nerve stimulation.
Cardiac muscle is myogenic, which means that it is self-exciting. This
is in contrast with skeletal muscle, which requires either conscious or
reflex nervous stimuli. The rate of cardiac contractions is generally deter-
mined by pacemaker cells. However, each individual cell will contract
without input. When individual cells are in close proximity they can share
their signal and will contract in unison, their frequency being determined
by the cell with the shortest interval. Individual cardiac cells are joined by
intercalated discs.
Structure: Mammals and birds have four-chambered hearts.
Amphibians and reptilians have three-chambered hearts. Fish have a sin-
gle circulation system and a heart with two chambers. In mammals,
birds, amphibians and reptiles, the heart’s left upper chamber contains
oxygen-rich blood. The hearts of arthropods and mollusks have a single
chamber.
Heartbeat: Smaller animals have a faster heartbeat. This is evident within a species as well, as the young have a faster heartbeat
than the adults. A gray whale’s heart beats 9 times per minute, a harbour seal’s 10 when diving and 140 when on land, an elephant’s
25, human’s 70, sparrow’s 500, shrew’s 600, and a hummingbird’s 1,200 when hovering. The earthworm has a series of multiple,
primitive hearts.

9
 TYPES OF VERTEBRATE TISSUE
Characteristic
Tissue Typical Location Function
Cell Types
Simple
Lining of lungs, capillary walls, and
Squamous allows material exchange by diffusion Epithelial cells
blood vessels
Epithelium
E
P Lining of some glands and kidney
I Cuboidal Secretion and absorption Gland cells
tubules; covering of ovaries.
T
H Surface lining of stomach, intes-
Columnar Protection, secretion and absorption. Epithelial cells
E tines, and parts of respiratory tract
L Stratified
I Squamous Outer layer of skin; lining of mouth Tough layer of cells, provides protection Epithelial cells
A Epithelium
L
Pseudo-strat- Gland cells; cili-
Secretes mucus; movement of mucus;
ified colum- Lining of parts of respiratory tract ated epithelial
protection
nar cells
Fibroblasts, mac-
Provides support, insulation, food stor-
C Loose Beneath skin, between organs
age, nourishment for epithelium
rophages, mast
O cells, fat cells
N Tendons; sheath around muscles;
Dense Provides flexible, strong connections Fibroblasts
N kidney; liver; dermis of skin.
E
Spinal disks; knees and other joints; Provides flexible support, shock absorp-
C Cartilage Chondrocytes
ear; nose; tracheal rings tion,
T
I Protests internal organs, provides rigid
Bone Most of skeleton Osteocytes
V support for muscle attachment
E Erythrocytes,
Blood Circulatory System Immunity, transport
leukocytes
Involuntary contractions of internal
M Smooth Walls of blood vessels, stomach and Smooth muscle
organs commanded by central nervous
U intestines cells
system
S
Powers walking, lifting, talking, and all Skeletal muscle
C Skeletal Voluntary muscles
other voluntary movement cells
L
E Cardiac Cardiac muscle
Walls of heart Heart contraction and relaxation
cells
Rods and cones;
Sensory Receive information about body's con-
N neurons Eyes, ears; surface of skin muscle stretch
dition and external environment
E receptors
ZOOLOGY

R Motor
V neurons Brain and spinal cord Stimulate muscles and glands Motor neurons
E Association
Brain and spinal cord Integrate information Interneurons
neurons

10
 4. Organ and Systems
An organ is the association of two or
more tissues to perform a specific func-
tion. For instance, the lungs, liver, stom-
ach, kidney and heart are organs that
perform a unique function.
When body organization in multicel-
lular organisms was discussed, it was
mentioned that there is a perfect division
of labour between body parts in such
organisms, meaning each part of the body
has a specific function to do. It was also
mentioned that organisms are formed of many
organ systems.
Among multicellular organisms, the bodies of
animals are extremely complex structures dependent
on the synchronization of the following systems:
Regulatory System (nervous and endocrine)
Sensory Reception (sense organs)
Circulatory System
Respiratory System
Digestive System
Excretory System
Locomotion in Animals

Multicellular Organisation and Animal Physology

a. Regulatory System
It was already explained that there are systems in the body
working in harmony, but how is this balance (homeostasis) main-
tained?
This section will explain that the endocrine and nervous system
provide organization and cooperation between organs, and regu-
late important functions in complex organisms, such as animals.

Figure: Interaction of body systems

11
 Nervous system
The nervous system of an animal coordinates the activity of the muscles, mon-
itors the organs, constructs and processes input from the senses and initiates
actions.
In animals with brains, the nervous system also generates and conducts
thoughts and emotions. Thus it is the system that animates "animals" (sponges
are an exception). Chemicals that target the activity of nerves generally are the
most rapidly acting toxins, typically causing paralysis and/or death.
The nervous system consists basically of two types of cells:
Neurons are the primary cells of the nervous system
Glia are secondary cells involved in nourishment and structural support.

Nervous system invertebrate

The nervous system varies greatly among living animals. Cnidarians, such as
sea anemones and jellyfish, have a nerve net, in which the activation of any one
neuron triggers a wave of activation across the entire network. These waves are
both afferent and efferent, representing both the sensation of chemicals or touch
as well as the stimulus of the animals' reflexive mechanical response.The worms
and flukes of the phylum platyhelminthes possess a network of nerves that oper-
ates like a more conventional nervous system, but lack a brain. Annelid worms
mollusks and arthropods and tunicates have a primitive brain called a ganglionic
mass, which is a bundle of several nerves.
Figure: Organization of the nervous
structures in hydra, Planarian, insects. Vertebrate nervous systems
For heuristic and other purposes, the nervous systems of vertebrate animals
are often divided into a central (CNS) and a peripheral nervous systems (PNS). The
CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord. The PNS consists of sensory pathways
and motor pathways, the latter being divided into the somatic (voluntary) nervous
system and the autonomic nervous system.
The somatic nervous system is the voluntary part of the system, where move-
ment, such as posture and walking, are coordinated. The autonomic nervous sys-
tem is the involuntary part of the nervous system where all of the internal mainte-
nance is taken care of.

Vertebrate Brain
The brain is the most complex organ of all vertebrates and consist of 3 divi-
sions: hindbrain, midbrain and forebrain.
The hindbrain is composed of the cerebellum, pons and medulla oblongata.
The cerebellum is involved in the coordination of muscular movements and bal-
ZOOLOGY

ance. In developed vertebrates, it is correspondingly larger than it is in fishes. The

pons controls certain respiratory functions. The medulla oblongata regulates such
vital activities as heart rate, respiration, blood pressure, swallowing, etc.
The midbrain is involved in control of reflexes originating from the eye and ear.

12
 Figure:: Comparison of brain structure
The forebrain is the largest portion of the brain and is composed of two main among vertebrates
divisions: the cerebrum and the diencephelon. The cerebellum controls voluntary
movements and coordinates mental activity. The diencephelon includes the thal-
amus and hypothalamus. The pituitary gland is connected to the hypothalamus.
The thalamus functions as a central relay station for all sensory reception. The
hypothalamus maintains homeostasis, controls water balance, blood pressure,
body temperature, emotions etc.

Spinal Cord
The central nervous system is the main part of the nervous system, but it must
be connected to all other parts of the body. The nerves that provide this connec-
tion form the peripheral nervous system.
The spinal cord, the second part of the central nervous system, is the center of
reflexes. A reflex is the transmission of impulses generated by receptors, to the tar-
get, where a sudden response is generated. The brain and spinal cord form the

Multicellular Organisation and Animal Physology

central nervous system. The spinal cord is located in and protected by the verte-
brae.
The Endocrine System
The nervous system sends electrical messages to control and coordinate the
body. The endocrine system has a similar job, but uses chemicals to "communi-
cate". These chemicals are known as hormones. Hormones regulate metabolism,
growth and sexual development.
Glands release hormones directly into the bloodstream, where they are trans-
ported to organs and tissues throughout the entire body. When a hormone is
received by the target organ, it causes changes in its function; it responds to the
hormone. The production of hormones is controlled by a feedback mechanism
that acts much like a thermostat in a house.
Pheromones
Pheromones are also communication chemicals, but they are used to send sig-
nals to other members of the same species. Pheromones are widely studied in
insects and are the basis for some kinds of Japanese beetle and gypsy moth traps.
Common uses for pheromones are as attractants in mating, marking the territory,
or indicating social status in the population.

13

Figure: The regulation of growth and
metamorphosis is controlled by juvenile
hormone and ecdysone. Level of secre-
tion of juvenile hormone decreases
ZOOLOGY
gradually from the egg to the adult
stage. The level of ecdysone secretion
remains constant. Metamorphosis is
triggered by a high concentration of
ecdysone in relation to the concentra-
tion of juvenile hormone.
14
The Endocrine Glands In Invertebrates
It is known that many hormones, such as adrena-
line or acetylcholine (a neurotransmitter) and similar
hormones which regulate body temperature, secreted
by vertebrates, are also produced by invertebrates.
A low concentration of hormones is needed to
accelerate development and growth in unicellular
organisms whereas a high concentration of hormones
inhibits these processes.
Development, metamorphosis and molting are reg-
ulated by the aging hormone ecdysone, as well as
other hormones.
The Endocrine Glands In Vertebrates
Endocrine glands in vertebrates are more devel-
oped than those in invertebrates.
Generally all vertebrates have the same hormones
as humans.
The hypothalamus is the control center of the ver-
tebrate endocrine system because it affects the pitu-
itary gland.
It secretes releasing and inhibiting hormone to con-
trol the pituitary gland. The pituitary gland is the mas-
ter gland which controls most of the other endocrine
glands.
The anterior pituitary secretes many hormones,
especially three, known as tropic hormones, that con-
trol the secretion of other glands.
First, melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH)
determines the color of the skin of vertebrates.
Second, prolactin (PRL), also known as luteotrophic
hormone (LTH), triggers milk production in mammary
glands in mammals and initiates the mothering
instinct in many vertebrates. Third, growth hormone
(GH) controls body growth.
Fourth, thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) acti-
vates the thyroid gland to produce hormones. Fifth,
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) stimulates the
adrenal glands above the kidney to secrete hormones.
Sixth, follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteiniz-
ing hormone (LH) are two gonadotrophic hormones
that promote the production and secretion of repro-
ductive hormones in both males and females.
 Multicellular Organisation and Animal Physology
Figure: Interaction of endocrine gland.

Posterior pituitary hormones are produced in the neurosecretary cells of the

hypothalamus. Two posterior pituitary hormones are found in all vertebrates. First,
antidiuretic hormone (ADH) or vasopressin, regulates the water balance by con-
trolling reabsorption of water in the kidneys of mammals. Similarly, vasotectin (a
derivative of vasopressin) is found in other vertebrates and has the same function.
Second, oxytocin stimulates contraction of uterine muscles and milk secretion.
Derivatives of oxytocin are found in other vertebrates.

15
 The thyroid gland, which is found in all verte-
brates, accelerates metabolism and heart rate and
regulates the normal absorption of glucose and
fats.
In mammals and birds, calcitonin, the second
hormone, reduces the concentration of calcium.
The function of the thyroid gland in cold-blooded
(poikilathermic) vertebrates is not known overall.
Thyroid hormones take a role in amphibian meta-
morphosis and are necessary for skin molting in
amphibians and reptiles.
Parathyroid glands secrete parathyroid hormone
(PTH) which increases the concentration of calcium
in the blood in mammals .
The pancreas contains both endocrine and
exocrine glands. The islets secrete insulin and
glucagons. Insulin decreases the blood glucose
Figure: Thyroid and parathyroid gland
level by promoting the penetration of glucose into
tissue cells, especially liver and muscles. Glucagon increases blood glucose level
by converting glycogen in the liver into glucose. Exocrine glands produce secre-
tions for digestion.
The adrenal glands of mammals are located on top of the kidneys and consist
of two distinct regions. The outer region is known as the adrenal cortex and the
inner is known as the adrenal medulla. The hormones secreted from the cortex are
known as corticoids, and are steroidal in structure. Adrenal cortex hormones are
divided into three groups according to their functions: glucocorticoids, mineral-
corticoids, and sex hormones.
Glucocorticoids affect carbohydrate, lipid and protein metabolism. Aldosterone
is the most important mineralcorticoid. Mineralocorticoids regulate the mineral
balance of the body. The third group of adrenal cortex hormones is sex hormones.
Sex hormones are secreted in both males and females.
Small amounts of estrogen and testosterone are secreted from the adrenal cor-
tex in both sexes. In fishes, the adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla are complete-
ly distinct. In other vertebrates, the cortex and medulla are partially associated, and
finally, in birds and mammals they are completely associated.
Two hormones are secreted by the adrenal medulla: Epinephrine (adrenaline)
and norepinephrine. Norepinephrine is found in all vertebrates, whereas epineph-
rine is found in mammals and is more powerful. They increase blood pressure,
glucose level and flow rate.
They are secreted in stressful situations. Epinephrine forms about 80% of adre-
ZOOLOGY

nal medulla hormones. However norepinephrine has long lasting effects in the
blood. These hormones can increase metabolic activity 100%.
The main function of the male and female gonads is in the development of the
Figure: Adrenal gland
reproductive system.

16
 b. Sensory Reception (The Sense Organs)
Sensory receptors enable sensory organs to detect variation
within an animal's internal and external environment. The eyes,
ears, nose, taste buds, and skin are all sensory organs that con-
sist of sensory receptors that permit animals to see, hear, smell,
taste, feel, and maintain balance.
The five different kinds of sensory receptors, classified
according to the energy that they transduce, enable animals to
survive in their environment through the use of many different
senses.

Mechanoreceptors
Mechanoreceptors respond to being mechanically pushed
and pulled through touch, pressure, gravity, stretch, and move-
ment.
As their contour changes, mechanoreceptors supply infor-
mation to the animal about shape, texture, weight, and the land-
scape of objects in the external environment. Through the use
of mechanoreceptors, organisms can feel, maintain balance,
and even hear.
Feeling occurs when mechanoreceptors detect touch, pres-
Figure.: The structure of skin
sure, and pain as objects come in contact with the skin. Another
kind of mechanoreceptor is responsible for balance, which
enables an animal to know the position of its body.
Mechanoreceptors also facilitate hearing. The cochlear nerve

Multicellular Organisation and Animal Physology

then transmits these impulses to the brain.

The Ears
Animals can detect certain vibrations over a limited wave-
length. The cricket is an example of a type of organism which
has a tympanic organ in order to detect sounds.
Vertebrates have well developed ears to detect sounds. Fish,
however, lack an eardrum, malleus, incus and cochlea.
Conversely, the ears of reptiles, amphibian and birds are located
within bony structures.
These bony structures, termed cholumella, are located
between the eardrum and the oval window. Amphibians lack a
cochlea while the cochlea of reptiles and birds is short.
Mammalian ears, in contrast, are more developed than in other
organisms. The ears are responsible for both hearing and main-
taining equilibrium of balance, and are composed of the outer
ear, middle ear and inner ear. They are extremely sensitive to
variations in sound and gravity. Furthermore, they are closely
connected to the brain.

17
 The Lateral Line System
In fishes, the lateral line system detects water movement.
Arranged along a line down the length of the body are two water-
filled canals, just under the skin. The canals are open to the out-
side, and water movements cause water to move in the canals.
Nerve endings detect the movements. A system of sense organs in
fishes and larval amphibians (tadpoles) that detects water move-
ment, it usually consists of a row of interconnected pores on either
side of the body that divide into a system of canals across the head.

Chemoreceptors
Chemoreceptors respond to chemical stimuli. Two very impor-
tant chemoreceptive activities are the senses of taste (gustation)
and smell (olfaction).

Taste
The taste bud, located on the tongue of animals, is the func-
tional unit that permits us to discriminate between the tastes of
sweet, sour, salty, and bitter. Each taste bud contains many taste
receptor cells. One of the important senses used by animals to find
and sample food is taste. Animals detect tastes by gustatory recep-
tors. In arthropods, these receptors are located on the mouthparts,
feet and some other regions of the body. Many fishes and larval
amphibians have taste buds distributed on the body surface and
supplied by the facial nerve.
Smell
Figure: Lateral line system
Most vertebrates can get informa-
tion about their surroundings and
neighbors by odor because they have
an advanced ability to smell. For exam-
ple, polar bears can detect their prey
from 10 km away. In most terrestrial
vertebrates olfactory receptors are
located in a specific region from the
rest of the nasal cavity. This region is
known as the vomeronasal organ.
Generally this organ is connected to
the mouth cavity by a pair of passages.

Insect Pheromones are specific substances secret-

ed by animals. They are a means of chemical
ZOOLOGY

Insects may have

about 100,000 hairs communication. These chemicals are usually
on each antena. Each hair is detected by the vomeronasal organs of most
one olfactory organ (nose). terrestrial vertebrates.
Figure: Tongue

18
 Figure.: Eye structures in different
Photoreceptors organisms
Photoreceptors specialize in detecting light by using pigments to absorb light
energy. Most animals have photoreceptors. Rudimentary eyes, called eyespots,
detect only light. Image formation needs a complex eye that is usually equipped
with a lens (structure that focuses light onto a group of photoreceptors). Scorpions can
detect air moving at
There are two complex eyes in animals: the camera eye of vertebrates and only 0.072 km/hr
some mollusks (squids and octopods), and the compound eye of arthropods. In with special hairs on
vertebrates, the light-sensitive structure is the retina. Photoreceptor cells in the their pincers. They can have
retina are called rods and cones, based on their shapes. Rods function in dim light, as many as 12 eyes.
enabling us to see shapes and environment.
Cones are responsible for sight and for color vision. Binocular vision, crucial to
distance and depth perception, enables both eyes to focus on the same thing. The
specific placement of the eyes can provide a variety of benefits for the animal. For
example, zebra eyes are positioned to let the animal see in two directions, while
the location of the eyes within the orbits of the hippopotamus is elevated, enabling

Multicellular Organisation and Animal Physology

the animal to see even when most of its body is immersed in water. Starfish arms are
The Vertebrate Eye covered with light
sensitive cells.
Different organisms have different types of eyes for detecting light. The eyes of Light that projects on
vertebrates are similar to each other in structure and function, resembling a sim- an “eyespot” on each arm
ple camera. The eyeball and accessory structures are parts of the vertebrate eye. causes the arm to move.
The eyeball is made of three parts:
Sclera Choroid Retina
The eye is like a camera. The external object is seen like the camera takes the
picture of any object. Light enters the eye through a small hole called the pupil
and is focused on the retina, which is like camera film.
The eye also has a focusing lens, which focuses images from different dis-
tances on the retina. The colored ring of the eye, the iris, controls the amount of Chameleon
light entering the eye. It closes when light is bright and opens when light is dim. The eyes of the
chameleon can
A tough white sheet called the sclera covers the outside of the eye. The front move independently.
of this sheet (sclera) is transparent in order to allow the light to enter the eye, the Therefore, it can see in two
cornea. Ciliary muscles in ciliary bodies control the focusing of the lens automat- different directions at the
ically. same time.

19
 The choroid forms the vascular layer of the eye supplying nutrition to the eye
Keenest vision
structures. Images are formed on the retina. Stimuli arriving here are transmitted
Falcons can see a
by the optic nerve to the CNS, and vision is produced. The image is finally per-
10 cm. object from
a distance of 1.5 km.
ceived by the brain. A jelly-like substance called vitreous humour fills the space
between the lens and retina.
Visual acuity is 2.6 times
better than humans, who The lens, iris and cornea are nourished by a clear fluid, aqueous humour,
can see sharp images even formed by the ciliary body and filling the space between lens and cornea. This
when diving at 100 space is known as the anterior chamber. The fluid flows from the ciliary body to
miles/hr. the pupil and is absorbed through the channels in the angle of the anterior cham-
ber. The delicate balance of aqueous production and absorption controls pressure
within the eye.
ZOOLOGY

Figure: The structure of vertebrate eye

20
READ ME Compound eye
All compound eyes have a geometric pattern. Most crustacea and
insects possess this type of eye, which is a highly functional organ of obser-
vation since the insect can perceive objects in its field of vision from slight-
ly different angles.
Compound eyes differ from those of vertebrate eyes both morphologi-
cally and functionally.
The focusing of an object and the formation of an image in a com-
pound eye, for example, is completely different. The ability to collect light is
poor in a compound eye.
However, the field of vision is wider than that of vertebrates, since each
unit of a compound eye scans only a marginal area. A scorpion for exam-
ple, can observe its environment through an angle of 200°. The compound
eye is composed of many repeating units ranging from only a few to thirty-
thousand.
Each unit has its own optical system. The outermost layer is a hexago-
nal cornea. Directly beneath the cornea are four conical cells known as the
iris. The retina, consisting of light cells, forms the basal layer.
The number of cells in each optical unit varies according to the type of
organism. Since each unit is separated from the others by pigment cells,
each unit is optically isolated. Insects do not focus light and can use UV
light to find food or mates.

Multicellular Organisation and Animal Physology

Figure.: The compound eye of an insect, with longitudinal detail of one optical unit

21
 Pit vipers
Pit vipers are poi-
sonous snake with
long, hollow, erectile fangs
that are folded back
against the roof of the
mouth except when the
snake is striking. In addi-
tion, the pit vipers have
developed special organs
of heat reception that help
them to sense warm-blood-
ed animals, an ability that
is especially useful at night,
when many of them hunt.
These organs consist of
pits, for which the group is
named, located just behind
the nostrils and covered
with a temperature-sensi-
tive membrane. Some pit
vipers may also use these
organs to find cool refuges
from inhospitable daytime
temperatures.
Electroreceptors
are also found in
some nonelectric
fishes and in some
amphibians. Even the
duckbill platypus, a mam-
mal, has electroreceptors
(located in its bill). With
these it can detect the
weak currents created by
the muscle activity of its
prey (e.g., small crus-
taceans) as it noses
around in the muddy bot-
tom where it feeds.
ZOOLOGY
22
Thermoreceptors
Thermoreceptors detect changes in temperature. Specific nerve endings that
feel heat are present within specialized cells and free nerve endings in the skin and
tongues of animals.
The Pit Organ
The pit organ is located between the nostril and the eye on each side of the
head. It is supplied with nerves and blood vessels. The pit has a thermoreceptor
function and is sensitive to infrared radiation. It is capable of responding to
changes in temperature of only fractions of a degree. Thus pit vipers can detect
the presence of animals with body temperatures only slightly different from that of
the environment.
Figure.: Pit viper
Electroreceptors
Electroreceptors respond to electrical stimuli. Muscle activity can emit electri-
cal fields that certain fish, such as sharks, make use of in locating prey. Many kinds
of fish have electric organs, which are specific muscle or nerve cells that generate
external electrical fields. Electric organs may help an animal determine orientation,
particularly in muddy waters,
Figure: Electric eel.
where visibility and olfaction
are decreased. Electro-
receptors also can help
certain animals commu-
nicate.
For example, electrore-
ceptors can aid in locating a
mate. In certain species of fish,
males discharge a different fre-
quency from females. Some
other fish, such as electric
eels, have electric organs
that can deliver strong
shocks capable of
stunning prey or
attackers.
 c. Circulatory System
The simplest meaning of “being alive” is having the ability of energy produc-
tion. In order to produce energy, body cells need food and oxygen. In complex
multicellular organisms, there is a specialized transport system which carries oxy-
gen and food to the cells.
When energy is produced as a result of metabolic activities, some unnecessary
(waste) products are also produced. To keep the body in homeostasis these
unwanted substances must be removed.
The transport system is also responsible for carrying off these substances to
the organs which remove wastes. For instance, digested food (nutrients) is
absorbed from the intestines and carried to all cells of the body by means of the
circulatory system.
When these nutrients are used, some wastes, including CO2 and urea, are pro- Figure: The grasshopper has an open
circulatory system. Its blood flows
duce. They are then carried to either lungs or to the kidneys to be removed from throughout the body cavity as well as in
the body. the blood vessels.

Open circulatory system (OCS)

OCS consists of a pump (heart), veins and arteries. Arteries are blood vessels that Blood is not
take blood from the heart to all parts of the body, while veins are blood vessels that always red. Some
bring blood back to the heart from all parts of the body. animals have blue
or green blood.
In organisms with an OCS, such as arthropods and mollusks, blood is pumped
into an artery, from the artery to the body cavity, then to veins (after material
exchange between the blood and body cells), and back to the heart.

Closed circulatory system (CCS)

Multicellular Organisation and Animal Physology

Organisms with closed circulatory systems (segmented worms, cephalopods
and all vertebrates), have capillaries between arteries and veins. Very tiny blood
vessels, capillaries are the site of material exchange. Blood never leaves the blood
vessels.
A true circulatory system includes a heart, blood and blood vessels.
Blood is fluid containing special cells and plasma. Blood cells are erythrocytes
(red blood cells), that give blood its red color and are responsible for carrying
gases, leukocytes (white blood cells), which protect the body from infection, and
thrombocytes, responsible for blood clotting.
The heart is the most important part of the circulatory system. It is the pump- Figure: Earthworms are the most primi-
ing organ which pumps the blood to the body cells. Its structure is different in dif- tive organisms with a closed circulatory
system.
ferent organisims.
d. Respiratory System
Under the topic of the circulatory system, it was mentioned that nutrients and
oxygen are needed for energy production. When these two react with each other
in special parts of the cells, energy and wastes, including CO2, are produced.

23
 Respiration is the exchange of gases between an organism and its environment
(taking in oxygen and releasing CO2).

There are different organs used as respiratory organs by different organisms,

including body surfaces, gills, trachea and lungs.
Trachea is a system of pipes. Branches of these pipes penetrate all tissues to
facilitate the diffusion of gases into all regions of the body.
Mollusks, echinoderms, crustaceans, fish and amphibians respire with gills.
The most important feature of gills is that they absorb oxygen dissolved in water.
Adult amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals respire through lungs. The
lungs and complementary structures of these organisms have some unique fea-
tures. Mammals have two lungs, located in the chest cavity. The respiratory path-
way includes the nose, nasal cavity, pharynx, bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli. The
sites of gas exchange, alveoli, are covered with millions of capillaries. Oxygen
absorbed from the alveoli is transported to the body via the circulatory system, and
carbon dioxide is brought to the lungs to be exhaled.

Figure.: Oxygen and carbon dioxide are

exchanged at alveoli and tissues.
ZOOLOGY

Figure.: Respiratory organs of different

organisms

24
 e. Digestive System
Organisms obtain the energy required for all their metabolic
functions, growth, and the repair of their damaged tissues, from
food. There are five major categories of food, according to its com-
position.
Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins
Minerals Water
In digestion, food is ingested from the medium, then hydrolyzed
into its sub-units and absorbed from the digestive canal into the
bloodstream. In all animals, vitamins and water pass directly into
the bloodstream without any digestion. Carbohydrates, lipids and
proteins need to be digested into their components.

The digestion process takes place in certain steps, as follows:

Figure: Comparsion of carnivore and
1. Ingestion of food: Food is taken from the external medium into the body. herbivore digestive system.

2. Mechanical digestion: Food is physically ground or chewed into smaller

pieces by teeth, in the mouth.
3. Chemical digestion: A series of chemical reactions in which food is
hydrolyzed by water and enzymes.
4. Absorption: The final stage of digestion. The subunits of food pass into the
bloodstream.

Multicellular Organisation and Animal Physology

Digestion can take place inside cells. In intracellular digestion, food is taken
into food vacuoles and digested. Extracellular digestion occurs when cells secrete
enzymes to digest the food outside the body. The digested food then enters the
cell through the cell membrane, by diffusion.
Extracellular digestion is seen in invertebrates and in all vertebrates.
Figure: The simple digestive system of
In invertebrates: In lower animals there is no particular digestive system, but a planarian.
some specialized cells (primitive organs) carry out this function inside a digestive tract.
In vertebrates: Among vertebrates, primitive as well as well-developed diges-
tive systems and organs are observed.
Vertebrates have a mouth, teeth, tongue, esophagus, stomach, and intestines
as digestive organs. Birds have a beak instead of teeth, and a gizzard to soften and
grind the food. Mammals have the best developed digestive structures among the
animals.
Organisms can be classified according to their diet. Carnivores eat meat, her-
bivores eat plants, and omnivores eat both meat and plants. Digestion of plant
matter is difficult so herbivores have long digestive tracts. Scavengers feed on
dead animals and decomposers provide material recycling. Figure: The digestive system of an
earthworm

25
 f. Excretory System
Digestion of food and uptake of oxygen were already mentioned in previous
sections. Digested food and oxygen are transported to the cells by the circulatory
system. The cells utilize these molecules in their metabolism to produce energy.
In addition to energy, some other, unnecessary metabolic wastes are produced,
e.g., CO2, urine, excess water. In this section, the methods of excreting waste
products from the animal body will be examined. In brief, excretion is the elimina-
tion of metabolic wastes from the body.

Excretion In Invertebrates
Excretion in lower animals, such as planarian, is carried out by protonephridia,
which consist of tubules and interconnected flame cells. In earthworms and mol-
lusks, the excretion organs are nepridia that eliminate NH3 and CO2 directly from the
body via anal openings. Insects excrete CO2 by means of tracheal vessels, and
nitrogenous wastes by way of the Malpighian tubules branched throughout the body.

Excretion In Vertebrates
The kidneys are the main excretory organ of vertebrates.
There are three types of vertebrate kidney:
Pronephros kidney: This type of kidney is found in the embryonic stage
of all vertebrates and in adult sharks.
Figure: The excretory system of a pla-
naria Mesonephros kidney: This type of kidney is found
in the embryonic stage of reptiles, birds and mam-
mals and in the adult form of fish and amphibian.
Metanephros kidney: This type of kidney is found
in adult reptiles, birds and mammals including
humans. Metanephros kidneys are found in pairs
and are located in the abdomen of the body. Each
kidney contains millions of nephrons.
ZOOLOGY

Figure: Kidney Figure: The excretory structures of an arthropod.

26
 Urogenital system
The excretory and reproductive systems of vertebrates are interrelated and this All vertebrates
complex is known as the urogenital system. The first excretory channel, or Muller except mammals have
channel, splits into two and is also known as a wolf channel. It is blind-ended in a cloaca through
which urine and undigest-
males but develops into the reproductive channel in females. This channel and its
ed nutrients are removed. The
associated structures originate from the Muller channel during embryonic devel- same organ also forms part of
opment. the reproductive system. In
In fish and amphibians, it functions as part of both the excretory and repro- mammals however, a separate
organ exists for the expulsion of
ductive systems. In birds and reptiles its function is limited to that of reproduction.
urine and for reproduction.
The wolf channel is lost in females during postnatal development. In males
however, it contributes to the reproductive system.
All vertebrates excluding mammals have a single channel through which all
waste is excreted. The same channel also forms part of the reproductive system.
In mammals however, a separate channel exists for the expulsion of waste and for
reproduction.

g. Locomotion In Animals
Like all multicellular organisms, animals also need support struc-
tures: the skeletal and muscular systems.
The skeletal and muscular systems of animals enable locomotion and
support, with the help of the nervous and endocrine systems. The loco-
motion system carries out the following functions:
Support the animal body
Contribute to locomotion

Multicellular Organisation and Animal Physology

Provide body shape
Protect internal organs
Store some minerals
Produce blood cells

Skeletal System

Two skeleton types are observed among animals:

Exoskeleton
Endoskeleton

27
 Figure: Exoskeleton in some animals.
Exoskeleton gives
power
The strongest ani-
mal, relative to body
size, is the Rhinoceros
Beetle. It can support 850
times its own body weight
on its back. Consider that,
in human terms, it would
be as if an 80 kg man
could carry 68,000 kg.
....bet his back is sore in
the morning!!!
ZOOLOGY
28
Exoskeleton:
An exoskeleton forms the complete outer covering around the animal’s body.
Structurally it is composed of organic and inorganic substances. It is made of
compounds secreted by cells, and contains no living structures.
Snails, oysters, and clams have calcium carbonate shells. When these animals
grow, they change their exoskeleton by secreting a larger one. The exoskeleton is
a hard structure, very useful for protecting animals from enemies, but external
skeletons restrict the growth of organisms.
An exoskeleton is a characteristic of some invertebrates. Crustaceans, such as
lobsters and many insects, have an exoskeleton made of chitin, a complex sugar.
Chitin is a nitrogenous polysaccharide and has a unique quality in that its light and
hard structure imposes no limit on the movement of an organism.
The shells of middies and snails are composed of calcium carbonate. The
heavy weight of this exoskeleton restricts the ability of the organism to move.
The exoskeleton limits the growth capacity of organisms. During development,
some organisms shed their exoskeleton and generate a larger one. This process is
known as ecdysis, and only occurs during development from a juvenile to an adult
form. Conversely, middies and snails continue to grow by adding new sections to
their shell. Scorpions soften the exoskeleton at the back of their body by excreting
excess salt. The animal leaves its exoskeleton through the softened region. It then
grows rapidly and generates a larger one. This process is hazardous since the
organism has no protection against its enemies until its new exoskeleton has hard-
ened.
 Endoskeleton :
All vertebrates, starfish, and sponges have an internal skeleton. The internal
skeleton does not limit the growth of the organism. In most vertebrates, the skele-
ton is cartilaginous during embryonic development, but later is ossified. However,
it persists as cartilage throughout life in sharks and rays.

Vertebrate Skeleton
During embryonic development, the skeleton of fish
and higher organisms is cartilaginous in structure. This
structure is then ossified by the deposition of minerals.
The cartilaginous skeleton of sharks however, persists
throughout their life span.
Fish Skeleton
The fish skeleton can be examined in detail in dogfish (a kind of
small shark). The axial skeleton is composed of several parts. The verte-
bral column consists of vertebrae. Intervertebral discs fill the space between
vertebrae. These discs distribute force equally from one vertebra to the other.
Short ribs are attached to the vertebrae. The skull involves the brain, eyes, nose
and inner ear. No sternum is present. The dogfish has a simple appendicular
skeleton. A pectoral girdle, U-shaped cartilage, supports the pectoral fins.
Similarly, a pelvic girdle supports the pelvic fins.

Tetrapod Skeleton
Terrestrial vertebrates have skeletons with a high
capacity for movement and support.

Multicellular Organisation and Animal Physology

The vertebrate skeleton can be classified into
axial skeleton (composed of vertebral column, ribs,
sternum and skull) and appendicular skeleton (gir-
dles, limbs)
The vertebral column is the most important sup-
porting structure in the tetrapod skeleton and is
composed of repeating units of vertebrae.
The skull is composed of cranial bones and facial
bones. Cranial bones protect the brain, whereas
facial bones surround the eye sphere, nasal cavity
and mouth.
The appendicular skeleton of tetrapods is com-
posed of upper and lower extremities. The bones of
the skeletal system are covered with muscles which,
by contracting and relaxing, provide for movement
Figure: A dog is good example of an
of the skeleton. There are three main types of mus- organism that has an endoskeleton.
cle in animals.

29
 The Muscular System Of Vertebrates
Vertebrates have both smooth and striated muscle in their body structures.
Striated muscle articulates with the skeletal system to provide movement, where-
as smooth muscle is involved in the activities of internal organs.
1. Smooth muscle: Involuntary muscles found in the internal organs, like the
stomach and intestines.
2. Striated muscle: Voluntary skeletal muscles, attached to bones. They are
necessary for locomotion.
3. Cardiac muscle: Involuntary muscles that form the heart structure.
Stronger and more branched than other muscles.

THE MAJOR VERTEBRATE ORGAN SYSTEMS

SYSTEM FUNCTIONS COMPONENTS

Transports cells and chemical compounds through- Heart, blood vessels, blood, lymph, and lymph struc-
Circulatory
out the body tures

Mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, and

Digestive Breaks down food molecules into diffusable form
pancreas

Endocrine Coordinates and integrates the activities of the body Pituitary, adrenal, thyroid, and other glands

Removes foreign bodies from the bloodstream;

Immune Lymphocytes, macrophages, and antibodies
maintains homeostasis of the blood
Integumentary Covers and protects the body Skin, hair, nails, and sweat glands

Muscular Provides body movement Skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth mucle

Receives stimuli, integrates information and directs

Nervous Nerves, sense organs, brain and spinal cord
the body

Testes, ovaries, and associated reproductive

Reproductive Carries out reproduction
structures

Respiratory Exchanges of gases Lung, trachea, and other air passageways

Protects the body and provides support for locomo-

ZOOLOGY

Skeletal Bones, cartilage, and ligaments

tion and movement

Kidney, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra

Urinary Removes metabolic wastes from the body
and associated organs

30
zoology

chapter 2
 Animal Classification System
There are lots of different types of organisms out there. The science of nam-
ing and classifying organisms is called taxonomy. Taxonomy attempts to organize
all of these organisms into increasingly smaller and smaller groups until you are
left with a group of all the same type of organism (namely, a species).
The founder of modern systematics was Carl von Linnaeus. He applied his
binominal nomenclature method to plants (in 1753) and to animals (1758) in his
book Systema Naturae.
Phylogenetic systematics used today depends on Linnaean systematics and
homology. Homology is used in determining the level of relatedness, e.g. bats and
cats are in the group mammalia.
The basis of modern systematics is the grouping of organisms according to
similarities. In the classification of organisms, the following criteria are used:
Figure: Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778). ™ origins, ™ relatedness, ™ developmental stages.
In the binomial system created by Linnaeus, species is the basic unit of nomen-
clature. A species is a group of organisms from the same population sharing the
same embryological, morphological, and physiological features, and are capable
of giving birth to fertile offspring when mated under natural conditions
There are two points in Linnaeus' hypothesis:
™ There is an ideal type for each species. This ideal type represents the stan-
dard features of every single individual of the species.
™ The number of species and their types is constant and unchangeable.
According to Linnaean systematics, a species is named with two names. First
is the genus name with the first letter capitalized. Second is the specific epithet
(species name) and the first letter is not capitalized. Both are written in italics and
in Latin. The reason for this is to have a single name in the scientific world, thus
simplifying the study of species. For example, Canis familiaris is the name for
dogs, whereas Canis lupus is the wolf. The first name (Canis) shows that these two
species are in the same genus.
KINGDOM ANIMALIA
Phylum Chordata
Figure: Systema Naturae.
Subphylum Vertebrata
Class Mammalia
Order Carnivore
Family Canidae
Genus Canis
ZOOLOGY

Species Canis lupus (wolf)

Species Canis familiaris (dog)
Figure: Classification of canis

32
 A group of species
similar in some charac-
teristics forms a genus,
similar genera form a
family, similar families
form an order, similar
orders form a class and
similar classes form a
phylum. Similar phyla
form a kingdom.
In this system,
species level has the
Figure: Members of genus Canis:
largest number of common features and the least number of individuals com- Canis lupus and Canis familiaris
pared to the higher levels. As you go up, common features decrease while the
number of individuals increases. So the fewest common characteristics and the
highest number of individuals are found in the kingdoms. The table below shows
the classification of several species.

Figure: Organisms first get classified into one of five KINGDOMS.

Animal Classification System

Each kingdom has certain defining characteristics. The kingdoms,
which are a large and varied group of organisms, then get divided
up into smaller subgroups (called phyla), which in tern get subdi-
vided, and so on ...
A kingdom then, is the largest group. Within a kingdom you have
organisms that share certain characteristics. At the same time,
organisms in the same kingdom can be very different from one
another. For example cats, frogs, eagles, salmon, hydra, earth-
worms, grasshoppers, and clams are all animals, and yet they are
all quite different from each other. So we take the wide variety of
organisms in a kingdom and subdivide them into other groups. The
subgroups (from largest to smallest) are: KINGDOM, PHYLUM,
CLASS, ORDER, FAMILY, GENUS, SPECIES
Classification units. As you go from species to kingdom the number
of organisms and variety increases while from kingdom to species
the number of organisms and variety decreases. Organisms with
common features form a species.

33
 1. General Characteristics Of Animals
Animals are some of the most common organisms found from the oceans to
the high mountains. Except for some animals like sponges, most animals are eas-
ily differentiated from other groups (e.g. plants or fungi).
For definite separation, the characteristics used are these:
™ All animals are eukaryotes and metazoan (multicellular).
™ All animals are heterotrophs. Most digest their food internally.
™ Most animals are motile during at least a certain period of their life.
™ Many animals have a well-developed nervous system and sensory organs.
™ Most animals reproduce sexually. The organism develops from a zygote
through embryonic stages.
™ Animals possess organs for respiration, excretion, and circulation, except
for primitive phyla which use diffusion for these functions.
Over one million species are already known to science, and millions more are
ZOOLOGY

expected to be discovered in the future. A minority (5%) of all animals are verte-
brates. Vertebrates are animals that have a backbone. Those without a backbone
are called invertebrates. Examples of the latter, much larger group are sponges,
jellyfish, insects, snails, etc.

34
 2. Animal Anatomy

a. Cellular Organization
All animals are made up of cells. Organized groups
of cells form tissues, organs and systems. The diversity
and organization level of cells become more complex in
higher groups. Different functions, e.g. respiration,
reproduction, feeding and protection, are performed by
different cell groups. Organ systems form the organism
and work in harmony. Diversity and organization of cells
is a factor in the classification of animals.

b. Symmetry
Except for a few groups, the majority of animals
exhibit bilateral symmetry and can be divided into parts
Figure: Terms used for determination of symmetry in animals
e.g. head, torso and limbs. For identifying various fea-
tures of such animals, the terms anterior, posterior, dor-
sal and ventral are used. In the same way, for under-
standing the inner structures, vertical, transversal, and
horizontal planes (sections) are defined.
Symmetry is the presence of one or more planes
that divide an organism into identical sections.
Parazoans (sponges) are asymmetrical (no equal parts).
In metazoans, radial (cnidaria) and bilateral (many
groups) symmetry is seen. Organisms with radial sym-
metry can be divided into equal pieces by any number
of planes passing through the main body axis.
Bilaterally symmetric animals can be divided into
two pieces by a single longitudinal medial plane.
Generally, slow or sessile animals have radial sym-
metry, whereas faster animals have bilateral symmetry. Figure: (Hydra) Animals exhibiting radial symmetry can be divided by any num-
Examples of the former are jellyfish, hydra and some ber of planes passing though the body axis. (Fish) In bilateral symmetry, an
animal can be divided by only one longitudinal plane passing through the axis.
sponges. All higher organisms including mammals are

Animal Classification System

bilaterally symmetric.

35
 c. Embryonic Layers
At the beginning of embryonic development, cells are
arranged in two or three embryonic tissue layers, called germ
layers, from which organs and systems will be produced. Two
layers (ectoderm and endoderm) are seen in sponges and
cnidarians. All higher animals have an additional intermediate
layer (mesoderm) that is present in the embryo. The outer
germ layer, called the ectoderm, gives rise to the outer cover-
ing of the body and to the nervous system (if the animal has
one). The inner layer, or endoderm, forms the lining of the
digestive tract. Mesoderm, the middle layer, gives rise to most
of the other body structures, including the muscles, bones,
and circulatory system

d. Body Cavity
Animals can be classified based on the presence (or
absence) and type of body cavity. The body cavity is a fluid-
filled space between the outer body wall and the digestive
tube.
The flatworms have three germ layers and a solid body with
a single opening to the outside used as mouth and anus.
These animals have no body cavity and are called acoelo-
mates (without coelom or body cavity)
ZOOLOGY

Figure: In the classification of animals, body cavites are one of the most basic
criteria. In earthworms and simpler organisms, the only body cavity is the
digestive tract. In higher groups, including mollusks, there is an additional
Figure: Embryonic development cavity called the coelom.

36
 Other, more complex animals generally have a
tube-within-a-tube body plan. The outer tube is the
body wall. It is covered with tissue that develops from
ectoderm. Tissue developed from endoderm lines the
inner tube (the digestive tract, or gut) which has two
openings, the mouth and the anus.
Beneath the ectoderm, the outer tube often con-
sists of tissue developed from mesoderm. The space
between the two tubes is the body cavity. If the body
cavity is not completely lined with mesoderm it is
called a pseudocoelom ("false coelom"). Animals with
a pseudocoelom are called pseudocoelomates, such
as roundworms and rotifers.
In more complex animals, the body cavity is com-
pletely lined with mesoderm. Such a body cavity is a
true coelom. Only animals with true coeloms are
referred to as coelomates.
Based on their pattern of early development, ani-
mals can be classified as protostomes or deuteros-
tomes.
During embryonic development, the embryo con-
sists of a little ball of cells known as a blastula. A group
of cells move inward to form an opening called the
blastopore.
In most of the mollusks, annelids, and arthropods,
this opening develops into the mouth. These animals
are protostomes (from Greek words meaning "first,
the mouth").
In deuterostomes ("second, the mouth") the
blastopore does not give rise to the mouth. It develops
into the anus. The opening that develops into the
mouth forms later in development.
These animals are echinoderms (for example, sea

Animal Classification System

stars and sea urchins) and chordates (the phylum that
includes the vertebrates),

e. Analogous Organs
These are organs generally similar in shape and
function. For instance, wings in butterflies or birds
provide flight, whereas legs in flies and cats function in
walking. But these organs are embryologically differ-
ent. Therefore we say that butterflies and birds aren't Figure: Body cavities of organisms
related.

37
 f. Homologous Organs
Some similarities may be seen in structures seemingly unrelated in appear-
ance. For instance, a monkey's arm seems quite different from a bat's wing. But
these are seen to be similar both anatomically and embryological. Organs sharing
the same origin and similar embryological stages are called homologous organs.
Functions of homologous organs may be the same or different. Homologous
organs are the basis of modern classification.

g. Segmentation
Some animals are segmented (annelids, etc.) while some lack segments (ver-
tebrates). Segments may be identical, although different in size.

h. Body Systems
Animals can be classified according to their body systems.
Skeleton: Many animals have hard tissues functioning as support structures.
These structures differ in their chemical composition, e.g. bone, cartilage, or
structures made of silica, calcium carbonate, keratin or chitin. Chemical compo-
sition of the skeleton is important in classification.
Bony or cartilaginous skeletons are found in vertebrates, whereas invertebrates
have other skeletal forms. Animals intermediate to invertebrates and vertebrates
are called primitive chordates and their vertebrae (backbone) are called noto-
chords.
Circulatory System: The circulatory system of animals may be one of two
types: open or closed. In a closed circulatory system, blood flows inside vessels.
Hemoglobin carries O2 and CO2 in the blood and is found in the plasma (in
annelids) or inside erythrocytes (in all vertebrates).
Nervous System: Primitive invertebrates (sponges) have no nervous system.
In coelenterates there is a nerve net (diffuse ganglions). The simplest, "ladder-type"
nervous system is first seen in the flatworms. The nervous system lies along the
ventral surface in invertebrates and along the dorsal surface in vertebrates.
Respiration: Respiration mechanisms vary among animal groups. Gas
exchange occurs through the body surface in sponges, cnidarians, and flatworms.
Fishes and larval amphibian have gills. Trachea are the respiratory organ of many
arthropods. Mature amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals breathe with lungs.
Excretory System: According to the level of organization, animals have differ-
ent excretory systems. Poriferans and Cnidarians have no excretory system and
their wastes pass by diffusion. Protonephridia (flatworms), nephridia (annelids),
and Malpighian tubules (arthropods) are common excretory organs.
Kidneys are the excretory organs of vertebrates, but they differ in various ver-
ZOOLOGY

tebrate groups. A mesonephros system is present in the embryos of all birds, rep-
tiles, and mammals, and in mature fishes and amphibia, while a metanephros type
is found only in mature reptiles, birds and mammals.

38
zoology

chapter 3
 Animal Systematics
There are millions of different animal species around the
world. Because of this diversity, all groups have to be studied sep-
arately. In this chapter, kingdom Animalia will be divided into the
sections porifera, coelenterata, platyhelminthes, nemertea, nema-
toda, rotifera, mollusca, annelida, arthropoda, echinodermata and
chordata.
We will now explore the great diversity of animals according to
their similarities and differences.
Biologists have identified more than a million species of
animals. Several million more remain to be discovered and
classified. Most biologist divide kingdom Animalia into 35
different phyla.
Actually the Animal Kingdom consists of two subking-
doms.
1. Subkingdom Parazoa: Animals that lack a definite
symmetry and have no tissue nor organs. The sub-
kingdom Parazoa includes phylum porifera.
2. Subkingdom Eumetazoa: Animals that have
a definite shape and symmetry. Mostly they
have true tissue and organs. It includes all ani-
mal phyla except porifera.

KINGDOM ANIMALIA
Name of Phylum Body Symmetry Body Cavity Embryonic Development
Parazoa Phylum Porifera Asymmetry Acoelomate
Phylum Cnidaria Radial Symmetry Acoelomate
Phylum Ctenophora Radial Symmetry Acoelomate
NOT
Phylum Platyhelminthes Bilateral Symmetry Acoelomate
APPLICABLE
Phylum Nemertea Bilateral Symmetry Acoelomate
Phylum Nematoda Bilateral Symmetry Pseudocoelomate
Eumetazoa Phylum Rotifera Bilateral Symmetry Pseudocoelomate
Phylum Mollusca Bilateral Symmetry Coelomate Prostomata
ZOOLOGY

Phylum Annelida Bilateral Symmetry Coelomate Prostomata

Phylum Arthropoda Bilateral Symmetry Coelomate Prostomata
Phylum Echinodermata Bilateral Symmetry Coelomate Deuterostamate
Phylum Chordata Bilateral Symmetry Coelomate Deuterostamate

40
 1. Phylum Porifera (Sponges)

For a long time people thouth that sponges were plants because they don’t
look or act like most animals you know. Like plants, adult sponges are immobile,
but all other features qualify them as members in the animal kingdom.
Habitat: They are mainly marine animals with the exception of a few freshwa-
ter groups. Today there are about 10,000 species alive. Only about 1% of the
species live in freshwater. They are sessile and mostly attach themselves to hard
surfaces like rocks and shells. They may be flat, ball or vase-shaped. Their size
varies from a milimeter to 200 cm in length. They may be yellow, grey, red, blue
or even black in color.

Animal Systematic
Body structure: Sponges are the simplest animals. In Latin, porifera means
"having pores". Actually this indicates their body structure. They have a lot of pores
How fast
on the body through which water is taken to the body cavity. Sponges belong to
the subkingdom parazoa. Parazoans are asymmetrical animals so sponges do not Some sponges are
have symmetry. But a few species have radial symmetry. One of the other charac- able to move about
4 mm per day.
teristics of parazoans is that they are diploblastic animals. They have only two
germ layers: ectoderm and endoderm.

41

Figure: Structure of sponges. Pores
connect the inner cavity to the outer
surface. A section from the body wall
shows spicules, choanocytes and epi-
dermal cells with pores.
Figure: The reproduction of sponge
ZOOLOGY
42
They don't have any specific type of tissue, system or organ. The
body wall is covered by ephithelial cells. Lining the inside cavity of the
sponge are specialized, flagellated cells called choanocytes or collar
cells. Choanocytes are also responsible for food transport and function
in digestion, respiration and excretion. Moreover, they help keep the
water moving by beating their flagella. Between the two layers is a gelat-
inous intermediate layer called mesohyl. The mesohyl includes special
ameboid cells which secrete hard spicule and spongin. Ameboid cells
are also resbonsible for reproduction.
Supporting the body: Sponges have an endoskeleton
and differ on the basis of the type of skeleton they
secrete. Some species secrete a skeleton of calcium
carbonate, some have a skeleton made of spicules
containing silicon, and some others have skeletons
of a protein known as spongin. These spicules sup-
port the organism.
Getting food and oxygen: Moving water car-
ries food and removes wastes. It is the key to the
sponge's survival.They are filter feeders that filter
the water passing through the pores to trap particles
or plankton. Collar cells trap these food particles and
digest them. A sponge gets its O2 from water too. O2
moves from the water into the sponge’s cells by difussion. Difussion also
removes waste from the sponge.
Reproduction in Sponges: In Porifers, reproduction is sexual or asex-
ual.
Asexual Reproduction in Sponge: Budding or regeneration are asex-
ual forms of reproduction. In budding, small new sponges grow from the
sides of adult sponges. Eventually these tiny sponges detach and form a
new sponge on or near the parent sponge. Sponges have a remarkable
ability for regeneration. When injured they can repair themselves and
regenerate lost parts. When the cells of sponges are separated from one
another in the lab they regenerate, forming a complete sponge again.
Sexual Reproduction in Sponge: Most sponges are hermaphroditic:
male and female gametes are produced by the same sponge. But some
others may be monoic. That is, the gametes are produced by different
individuals. In the sponge body, some Amoebocytes develop into sperm
cells and others into egg cells. However, hermaphrodite sponges usually
produce egg and sperm at different times, and they cross fertilize with
other sponges.
Mature sperm are released into the water and taken in by other
sponges. Fertilization (internal) and early development take place within
the jelly-like mesohyl. The embryo eventually moves into the spongocoel
and leaves the parent along with the stream of out-flowing water. After
swimming about for a while, the larva finds a solid object, attaches to it
and settles down to a sessile life.
 2. Cnidaria (Coelenterates)
These animals get their name from their stinging cells, called cnidocytes (from
a Greek word meaning "sea nettles"). Coelenterate means "hollow (animal)" in
Greek.
Life style: There are over 10,000 species in this group. Most are marine but
there are a few freshwater representatives. They live solitarily or in colonies.
Body structure: Like sponges, Cnidarians are diploblastic (have two cell lay-
ers). However, cnidarians are more complex than sponges because their two cell
layers form tissues.

Animal Systematic
There are two dermal layers in hydra: ectoderm and endoderm.
The outer epidermis is a protective layer which has a nerve net and muscle Largest Creature
fibers that control or coordinate body movements. Another type of cell is cnido- The jellyfish
cytes, which contain stinging nematocysts and function in feeding and protection. Cyanea may be
more than two
There is an intermediate gelatinous layer, mesoglea, which is the common prod-
meters in diameter and
uct of the two layers. have 30 meter tentacles.

43

Figure: The simple structure of a
cnidarian eye.
Endodermal cells, which form the gastrodermis, coat the gastrointestinal cav-
ity. Some endodermal cells secrete mucus and digestive enzymes into the cavity.
Flagellated cells lining the body cavity circulate water inside the cavity and func-
tion in digestion and absorption of food. Cnidarians have radial symmetry and they
have a hollow body with one opening, the mouth. Surrounding the mouth are
arm-like structure called tentacles.
In general they have two body forms, polyp and medusa.
Polyp: These are sessile (immobile) forms.
Their bodies are tubular, one opening function-
ing as mouth and anus. Around the opening
there are many stinging tentacles.
Medusa: These swim freely in the water.
They have a flat umbrella and jelly-like body.
Some groups have both forms (medusa and
polyp) in their lives. But others have one of the
stages, polyp or medusa, their entire life. Figure: Medusa form of cnidaria.

How Cnidarians move: The contractile cells in the epidermis and endodermis
provide movment. The cells, together with the water-filled gastrovascular cavity,
form a hydrostatic skeleton that supports the body and allows movement by con-
tracting and relaxing. So the cnidarian can shorten, lengthen, or bend its body.
Getting food and performing body functions: Digestion occurs in the gas-
trovascular cavity. They use cnidocytes to capture animals for food.
Figure: Polyp form of cnidaria.
They inject venom, a poisonus
substance that paralyzes fish and
other prey. Then the cnidarians’ tenta-
cles pull the prey animal to its mouth.
They have a digestive cavity with one
opening, so undigested food is
expelled through the mouth.
Cnidarians are simple animals with
no special body systems. However,
the first nerve cells in the animal king-
dom are found in this group. They
have a nerve net that coordinates
body functions. Also, cnidarians have
a simple photoreceptor (simple eye).
They have no special respiratory nor
excretory systems. These functions
are carried out by simple diffusion.
Reproduction in Cnidarians:
ZOOLOGY

They can reproduce either asexually

or sexually. In sexual reproduction, a
larval stage (planula) is present.

44
 There are 3 classes in the phylum Cnidaria (Coelenterata): Portuguese man-
™ Hydrozoa ™ Scyphozoa ™ Anthozoa of-war anemones
can grow up to 61
meters long.
a. Hydrozoa (Hydra)
Nearly 2700 mainly marine
species, but some freshwater;
both polyp and medusa stages in
many species, some form
colonies. This class includes
hydra, obelia and the Portuguese
man-of-war.
Hydra is the typical representa-
tive of this group. Hydra have only
polyp body form (appr. 5-6 mm in
length), and live in streams, ponds
and lakes. Aboral side is attached
to the substrate. The mouth is
positioned on the upper tip.
Around the mouth there are 6-8
tentacles active in movement and
feeding.
Reproduction in Hydrozoa:
They reproduce asexually by bud- Figure:
ding or regeneration, but they can Hydra anatomy
also reproduce sexually. Sexual
organs can be seen as small buds on the tube-
shaped body. They may be hermaphroditic or
monoic.
Some hydrozoans, such as Obelia sp., can
form colonies. There is a remarkable organization
in these animals. Some individuals of the colony
are specialized for feeding, while some others lack
tentacles and even a mouth, serving only in repro-
duction.
Obelia reproduce by metagenesis in their alter-
nation between asexual and sexual reproduction.
In the sexual stage, polyps for reproduction pro-
duce male and female medusae by budding.

Animal Systematic
Free-swimming medusae reproduce sexually and
form zygotes. Zygotes develop into swimming lar-
vae called planula. Larvae attach to some solid
object and devolop into a polyp which may form
a new colony.

Figure: Life cycle of obelia

45
 b. Scyphozoa (jellyfish)
They have nearly 200 species and all are umbrella-shaped,
mostly pelagic, marine organisms. Their polyp forms are usu-
ally reduced. The jellyfish (Aurelia aurita) is an example of this
group.
They may attain large sizes. Coloration is translucent
bluish or even pinkish. They are jell-like: 96% water by weight.
They have photoreceptors and organs for balance and
chemical reception. In Aurelia, the umbrella has 8 lobes.
Lobes carry peripheral tentacles. In the center, there is a
mouth and reproductive organs arranged around it.
Scyphozoans have separate sexes. They include the largest
invertebrates.

Figure: Photographs and schematic view of jelly fish.

The sea wasp has the most potent venom of

any creature on earth. It can kill a full grown
man in three minutes with only one sting.
ZOOLOGY

Figure: Jelly Fish.

46
 c. Anthozoa (Sea Anemones and Corals)
Nearly 200 species, sea anemones and the colonial coral
groups are anthozoans. This group is remarkable for lacking
a medusa generation. Radial symmetry is seen in some
members (sea anemones). Most are colonial and sessile.
Tentacles encircling the mouth are present in general and
they capture small plankton, and even fish and sea inverte-
brates. They usually reproduce sexually. A planula larva
attaches itself to a hard surface, and a colony develops by
budding (in colonial species).
Calcium carbonate in the skeletal structure provides a
hard covering in coral colonies. The accumulation of the
skeletons of dead colonies creates coral reefs and atolls espe-
cially in the Pacific Ocean. Red coral is used in jewelry.
Photosynhetic symbionts of corals and algae play an
important role in the development of coral reefs.

Figure.:A photograph and schematic view of a sea anemone.

CLASS OF PHYLUM CNIDARIA Figure.: Coral reef.

Representave
Class Characteristic
Animals

Mainly marine, but some fresh-

Hydra, Obelia,
water; both polyp and medusa
Hydrozoa Portuguese
stages in many species, some
man-of-war.
form colonies.

Animal Systematic
Marine, live mainly in coastal
Scyphozoa Jelly fish, water; free-swimming medu-
sae most dominant forms.

Marine, sessile, solitary or

Sea anemone, colonial polyps; no medusa
Anthozoa
Corals stage; large gastrovascular
cavity for digestion.

47
 READ ME coral reef
Coral reefs are among the most diverse and
productive communities on Earth. They are
found in the warm, clear, shallow waters of trop-
ical oceans worldwide. Reefs are important land
builders in tropical areas, forming islands and
altering continental shorelines.
Reefs have functions ranging from providing
food and shelter to fish and invertebrates to pro-
tecting the shore from erosion. Through symbio-
sis with unicellular algae (zooxanthellae), reef-
building corals are the source of primary produc-
tion in reef communities. Biologically active
compounds produced by reef-dwelling organ-
isms possess antimicrobial and antiviral activity .
These compounds may be important sources for
natural-product-based drugs and medicines.
Reefs are formed by calcium carbonate pro-
duced by tiny coral polyps. While corals are the
chief architects of reef structure, they are not the
only builders. Coralline algae cement various
corals together with compounds of calcium, and
other organisms such as tube worms and mol-
luscs donate their hard skeletons.
Because many coral reef organisms can tolerate only a narrow range of environmental conditions, reefs are sensitive to damage
from environmental changes. Corals are susceptible to diseases and bleaching. Also, dramatic natural events such as hurricanes can
damage coral reefs. In addition, many problems to reefs are anthropogenic (human caused). Because of the important ecological
and economic roles coral reef communities fulfill, an understanding of the stresses and dangers to the reefs is necessary. Fortunately,
many of the human induced hazards to coral reefs can be remedied.

Why conserve coral reefs?

Coral reefs are beautiful, diverse and important habitats on earth.
The world needs its coral reefs.
™ They provide homes for more than a third of all known fish species and a myriad of other sea creatures.
™ They are nature's own front-line sea defense, protecting 100,000 km of coastline from storms and floods.
™ They provide the main source of animal protein for 1 billion people in Asia alone.
™ They are a source of medical compounds for treating leukemia, skin cancer and cardio-vascular diseases.
™ They provide a crucial source of fishing, tourism and other income to some of the world's poorest nations.

Coral reefs are threatened by:

™ Commercial overfishing which is forcing many subsistence fishing communities to resort to poison, dynamite and other
destructive methods;
™ Smothering run-off from rainforest clearance;
ZOOLOGY

™ Pollution from factories, mines, agriculture and tourist developments;

™ Dredging, oil dumping and coral mining;
™ Irresponsible boating, diving and other recreational activities;
™ Climate change leading to rising seawater temperatures, lethal to corals.

48
 3. Ctenophora (Comb jellies)
There are about 100 marine species. All are very delicate and often lumines-
cent organisms. They acquire their name from their apperarence, with eight plates
of fused cilia that resemble long combs.They are the largest animal using cillia for
movement. They capture prey with either a long, sticky tentacle or entire mucus-
covered sticky body . There is a thick mesoglea between the endoderm and ecto-
derm. Some have a pair of tentacles. Their sensory organs provide balance. They
are more complex than cnidarins. They have an anal pore so that water and other
substances pass completly through the animal’s body.

Animal Systematic
The largest animal
using cilia for
movement.

49

Tapeworm
The adult tapeworm
lives in the human
intestine. Its body consists of
scolex (head) and proglot-
tids. Tapeworm causes
ZOOLOGY
weight loss, weakness and
some other symptoms in
humans.
50
4. Platyhelminthes (Flatworms)
These are flattened, soft-bodied organisms, and are the first animals with bilat-
eral symmetry and capalization. They are more complex than sponges and cnidar-
ians. They have 3 tissue layers (triploblastic): ectoderm, endoderm and meso-
derm. The mesoderm is found between the ectoderm and endoderm, from which
some body systems develop, such as muscle, respiratory and excretory systems.
There are 20,000 known species. They are mostly aquatic (marine or freshwater),
but there are some terrestrial species of moist soil, and many parasitic species are
found in various organisms. Parasitic species often lack digestive organs. They are
mainly hermaphroditic.
Flatworms possess parallel nerve nets extending along both sides of the body.
These nets function as a primitive spinal column since they connect each segment
of the body. In addition, the nerves from groups of nerve cells or ganglia at the
head of the organism form a primitive brain. They don’t have special respiratory
system. Gas exchange is provided by simple diffusion.
Waste is excreted by means of protonephridia which consist of tubules and
connected flame cells. The cilia of these flame cells is constantly in motion and
elongates into tubules. The motion of the cilia resembles flames, hence the name.
Waste and excess water is excreted by means of these ciliary movements, and the
 Figure: Planaria body structures
water balance of the body is regulated by these flame-like protonephridia. NH3 and
CO2 diffuse directly from the body.

There are 3 main classes: Planaria

They are free-liv-
™ Turbellaria-Turbellarians ™ Trematoda-Flukes ™ Cestoda-Tapeworms
ing, flat bodied,
freshwater creatures that
a. Turbellaria (Turbellarians, Planarians) exhibit the remarkable abil-
One of the best represented groups, Planaria are found under stones in ity to regenerate their lost
body parts. They can be
streams. They feed on plant material and small animals. They are so flat that there
conditioned to respond to
is no need for a respiratory system, and gas exchange is by diffusion. Their size stimuli, display the ability
varies between 0.5-3 cm. Their outer surface is covered with ciliated epithelium. to master a two-choice
They move by means of cilia. There are two eyes on the head. There is a single, maze, and can transfer the

Animal Systematic
ventral opening in the center of the body functioning as mouth and anus. There memory of training from
are two nerve cords in a ladder system. Protonephridia (urinary organ) with flame one individual to another.
cells constitute the excretory system. They may reproduce sexually or asexually.
The ability of planaria to regenerate is relatively high. Every cut part of a planarian
is able to turn into a complete animal.
Planaria are hermaphroditic. In sexual reproduction, cross-fertilization occurs
during copulation.

51

Figure: Fluke anatomy
Fluke
The adult fluke is
generally hermaphro-
ditic. Male and female
remain permanentaly paired
for life. Male produce sperm.
Fertilization occurs in the
veins of human intestines.
ZOOLOGY
52
b. Trematoda (Flukes)
Flukes are found as parasites of vertebrates and they are usually named for the
type of vertebrate organ they inhabit, such as blood fluke, liver fluke and lung
fluke. Their body tends to be oval or elongate.
At the anterior end they have oral and ventral suckers for attachment to the
host. Their digestive system and nervous system are reduced, but they have
extremly complex and efficient reproductive organs. They are either hermaphro-
ditic or have separate sexes. Their excretory system has excretory canals.
The life cycle of blood flukes
The adult fluke is generally hermaphroditic. Males and females remain perma-
nentaly paired for life. Male produce sperm. Fertilization occurs in the veins of
human intestines. Eggs pass into the intestine or urinary bladder (not shown in
figure).
During elimination or urination, egg-containing embryos leave the body with-
in the feces or urine. If they find their way to fresh water, the embryos develop into
free-swimming larvae called miracidia.
To survive, the larvae must be ingested by another host, such as a snail. In snail
tissue they develop into adults. Adults reproduce asexually and produce larvae
(cercariae). Larvae leave the snail. When they contact a human host, they enter
into the body, completing the cycle.
 c. Cestoda (Tapeworms) CLASS OF PHYLUM
About 1000 species are exclusively endoparasites of vertebrates or humans. PLATYHELMINTHES
Their body is flat, slender and ribbon-like. These are all hermaphroditic animals . Representav
The tapeworm has an anterior ragion containing hooks and suckers for attach- Class Characteristic
e
ment to the intestinal wall of the host. Behaind the head region, called a scolex, Free-living flat-
there is a short neck and tten a long series of proglottids. Proglottids are body part worms; mainly
which has full set of both male and female reproductive organs.They have excre- marine; carniv-
Turbellaria Planarians
orous prey on
tory canals but no digestive system and only rudiments of nerves.. Examples are tiny inverte-
pork tapeworm,, beef tapeworm, dog tapeworm and fish tapeworm. brates.

Life Cycle of Tapeworm All parasites in

vertebrate or
The adult tapeworm lives in the human intestine its body consist of scolex invertebrate
Turbellaria Flukes hosts. Have
(head) and proglottids (Body part which has male and female reproductive
suckers for
organs.) Proglottids produce sperm and eggs. The eggs are fertilized and stored attachment to
in the proglottid. A single proglottid may contain nearly 80.000 - 100.000 fertilized host.
eggs. The fertilized egg stored proglottid called ripe proglottid may break away Parasites of
from the tapeworm and pass out of the host body in feces. The fertilized egg may vertebrate;
be deposited on the ground and on grass. So if pigs eat this grass, fertilized eggs scolex with
hooks and
can pass into new host body. In the pigs' intestine, eggs develop into structures. Cestoda Tapeworms suckers. Egg
They cross the intestine enter the blood and lodge in the tissues (usually brain and produced with-
muscle tissue) where they form capsule around themselves. At this stage new in proglottids,
organisms called bladder worm (8-12 mm long). Beef containing bladder worms no digestive
system.
may be eaten by humans. If the pig meat is not fully cooked, bladder worms will
not be killed. When bladder worms enter into human intestine they grow into adult
tapeworms and complete their life cycle. Tapeworm causes weight loss, weakness
and some other symptoms in the host.

Tapeworms are
able to release up
to 1.000.000 eggs
into the host’s body
every day. Also, they can
live up to 25 years with in
a host.

Animal Systematic

53
 5. Phylum Nemertea (Ribbon worms)
This small phylum consists of nearly
800-900 species. Except for a few
species living in moist soil or freshwater,
they are mostly marine. They are usual-
ly round, cylindrical, flat or ribbon-like.
They range in size from 5 to 200 cen-
timeters. They are free-living animals.
Coloration may be bright, even red or
green, with black spots or lines. A char-
Proboscis. acteristic organ, the proboscis, is used
A characteristic to capture prey. They are the first in the
organ, the pro- animal kingdom to have complete
boscis, is used to capture digestive system (separate anus and
ZOOLOGY

prey. mouth) and the simplest animal with a

circulatory system in which blood flows
in vessels, but no heart. Blood is
pumped by the muscles.

54
 6. Phylum Nematoda (Roundworms)
Nematodes have cylindrical, smooth bodies and bilateral symmetry. Their bod-
ies are long, thin and pointed at both tips. Sense organs are not well-developed.
There are about 12,000 species. They usually have separate sexes and internal
fertilization is seen. Mostly they inhabit sediment layers in water (both marine and
freshwater), and are abundant in soil. Ecologicaly they are very important. Their
importance comes from their major role as decomposers. They provide material
recycling.
Although there are many free-living species, some species are plant or animal
parasites. Parasitic roundworms obtain nutrients and oxygen from their host.

Animal Systematic
Examples of parasitic nematodes (in humans) are pinworm, hookworm, ascaid
worms, trichinae worms, and whipworm.
Caenorhabitis ele-
A complete digestive system is seen in roundworms. They have a pseudo- gans is the most
coelom that serves as a hydrostatic skeleton and provides a space for internal important round-
organs. Roundworms also have a waterproof, flexible body covering called a cuti- worm used in biologi-
cle. cal research.

55
 Ascaris lumbricoides
Ascariasis is an infection caused by a parasitic
roundworm, Ascaris lumbricoides. This is the most
common intestinal worm infection.
It is found in association with poor personal
hygiene, poor sanitation, and in places where
human feces are used as fertilizer. Intake of food or
drink contaminated with roundworm eggs causes
infection.
The eggs hatch and release larvae within the
intestines. The larvae then move through the blood-
stream to the lungs, exit up through the large air-
ways of the lungs, and are swallowed back into the
stomach and intestines.

Figure: The structure of

During movement through the lungs the larvae
round worms. may produce an uncommon form of pneumonia
called eosinophilic pneumonia. Once back in the
intestines, they mature into adult roundworms.
Adult worms live in the intestines where they lay
eggs that are present in feces

Filariasis (Wuchereria bancrofti)

Lymphatic filariasis (LF) is caused by microscop-
ic worms introduced into the body through the bites
of mosquitoes.
Worms in the body can cause kidney damage, or
damage to the lymphatic system (the system that
regulates fluids in the body). This damage may
cause Elephantiasis, which is abnormal swelling of
the tissues.

SOME NEMATODE PARASITES OF HUMANS

AND DOMESTIC ANIMALS
Figure: Elephantiasis. Worm (Common Host Mode of infection
Ascaris lumbricoides
Eating eggs in contami-
Lymphatic filariasis (Giant human intestinal Humans only
nated food
currently affects round worms)
120 million people Eating encysted larvae in
worldwide, and 40 Trichinella spiralis Humans, pigs, dogs,
ZOOLOGY

undercooked meat; can

million of these people (Trichina worm) cats, rats
have a serious disease. be fatal
Wuchereria bancrofti Mosquito bite; can
Humans
(Filarial worm) cause elephantiasis

56
READ ME Trichinella spiralis
Trichinosis is a disease caused by a roundworm (nematode) called Trichinella spiralis. Trichinae can be readily avoid-
ed by proper handling and cooking of certain meats, particularly pork products.
If the meat ingested has only a few cysts, then the human host's load of parasites (worm burden) will be small. The
initial symptoms will be caused by the presence of the adult worms in the intestine. These symptoms usually include
fever, diarrhea, abdominal pain, and perhaps vomiting. The symptoms begin about one to two days after eating the con-
taminated meat, and may last for a week or so. The adult trichinae reproduce in human intestines and produce larvae.
Larvae enter the bloodstream.
When the larvae begin their migration through the blood vessels, the host will begin to experience symptoms affect-
ing the whole body (systemic symptoms), such as fever, swelling of the face and the area around the eyes, rash, bleed-
ing into the nail beds, retina, and whites of the eyes, and cough. In very severe cases of trichinosis, inflammation of the
heart muscle (myocarditis), lungs (pneumonitis), or brain (encephalitis) may occur. These symptoms can lead to the few
deaths caused by trichinosis.
The larvae begin to burrow into the host's muscles and form cysts within two to three weeks of the initial infection.
This encysting produces signs of muscle inflammation (myositis) including swelling of the affected muscle groups, pain,
and weakness.
The most frequently affected muscles are the muscles outside the eye that control eye movements, the muscles of
the jaw, neck, and upper arm (biceps muscle), the muscles of the lower back (lumbar region), and the diaphragm, which
is the muscle that separates the abdominal and chest cavities and aids in breathing.
The symptoms of trichinosis are at their most severe at about three weeks after infection, and decrease very slowly
in their severity. Recovery is extremely gradual, and symptoms may last for as long as three months. Fatigue and mus-
cle pain (myalgia) may take several more months to subside.

Trichinosis
It is a disease
caused by a round-

Animal Systematic
worm (nematode) called
Trichinella spiralis.
Trichinae can be readily
avoided by proper handling
and cooking of certain
meats, particularly pork
products.

57

Figure: Rotifer
Rotifer
Rotifers have con-
stant number of
cell. That means a species
is composed of exactly the
same number of cells. Cell
ZOOLOGY
diffusion does not take
place after embryonic
development so there is no
mitosis, no growth and no
repair.
58
7. Phylum Rotifera
(Wheel animals)
Rotifers are microscopic, multicellu-
lar organisms that live in water. They
are named for a crown of cilia (corona)
that resembles a rotating wheel. These
cilia have a role in the feeding and loco-
motion of the organism. Rotifers have a
developed digestive cavity but they are
pseudocoelemates. Nervous system
consists of a simple brain and some
sensory organs (eye spot). There are
protonephridia for the excretion of
excess water and wastes. Most live in
freshwater. Sexes are separate. In many
species parthenogenesis is the rule,
males do not occur. There are around
1500-2000 species.
 8. Phylum Mollusca (Mollusks)
Mollusks are soft bodied, bilaterally symmetrical animals. About 50,000 living
and 35,000 fossil species of mollusks are known. Examples of the group include
mussels, octopuses, snails, slugs, oysters and squid. Many species are marine but
there are some freshwater mussels and snails, and many terrestrial slugs and
snails.
Their body region containing internal organs is called a visceral mass. The phy-
lum name comes from the Latin word mollusc, meaning soft, which refers to the
visceral mass. Their soft bodies are usually covered dorsally with a hard shell man- Molluscs
tle made of CaCO3. Both mantle and mantle cavity carry shell-producing glands.
They have eyes sim-
A flat broad, muscular foot is used for locomotion.

Animal Systematic
ilar to vertebrates
Mollusks have a complete digestive system. Food is ground in the mouth by both structurally and func-
specialized structures known as radula. It is similar to a tongue with hard teeth. tionally. The eyes of a mol-
After mechanical digestion the food material forms a cord-like structure and is lusc are composed of a
transported down the esophagus into the stomach. cornea, a compartmented
lens and an iris. Lens move-
The final products of digestion are absorbed by the stomach and intestine. ment is regulated by ciliated
muscle cells.

59
 Figure: Flame Scallop
Molluscs are coelemates. This true coelom is an advantage for large animals
because internal organs are protected against external hazards. When a coelom is
present the digestive system and body wall can move independently.
The excretory organs of mollusks are metanephridia. They respire by means of
gills. Actually gills are the respiratory organs of aquatic animals, but also terrestri-
al mollusks have this adaptation.
Molluscs have an open circulatory sys-
tem. It consists of a heart, arteries, veins
and blood. There are no capilaries between
arteries and veins so blood flow rate is slow.
Blood is first pumped to sinuses (cavities)
by arteries and then collected by veins and
conducted to gills where it is oxygenated.
Finally, oxygenated blood returns to the
heart. In cephalopods (squids and octo-
puses), a closed circulatory system is seen.
In mollusks generally the sexes are sep-
ZOOLOGY

arate and external fertilization is seen.

Figure: The transport system of snails
consists of a two-chambered heart and
a short artery which transports blood to
the organs.
Fertilized eggs first develop to larvae known
as trochophore larvae. They are ciliated
and free-swimming larvae.

60
 Molluscs have eyes similar to vertebrates both structurally and functionally. The
eyes of a mollusc are composed of a cornea, a compartmented lens and an iris.
Lens movement is regulated by ciliated muscle cells. The nervous system has
great diversity. In molluscs such as clams there is a brain characterized by 6 gan-
glia. Some snails have chemoreceptors used to detect chemicals in the air or
water.
The octopus has the most complicated brain of all the invertebrates. An octo-
pus has a "good" memory and can also learn. The eye of the octopus is very sim-
ilar to that of vertebrates in that it has a cornea, lens, iris and retina. It can also
focus and form images. Molluscs are classified into 4 classes.

a. Polyplacophora (Chitones)
Figure: Trochophore larva.
They are primitive marine animals
with segmented shells. The shell consists
of eight separate transverse plates, and
enables chitones to roll up into a ball.
This is a kind of defense mechanisms.
They have a reduced head with no eye
and also a broad foot for movement.
Example: Chitons
b. Gastropoda
They are the largest and most diverse group of molluscs.They are marine,
freshwater and terrestrial molluscs. In some species body and shell are coiled.
They have a well-developed head with tentacles and eyes. Gastropods are charac-
terized by "torsion," a process that results in the rotation of the visceral mass and
mantle on the foot. Gastropods have a muscular foot which is used for "creeping"
locomotion in most species. In some, it is modified for swimming or burrowing Figure: Chiton

Example: Snails, slugs.

Animal Systematic

Figure: Snail Figure: Seaslug

61
 Figure: Oysters
A scallop has 100
eyes around the
edge of the shell.
These eyes are prob-
ably used to detect shad-
ows of predators such as
starfish.
ZOOLOGY
Figure: Squid
62
Figure: Bivale anatomy
c. Bivalvia
They are marine and freshwater molluscs. Their body is laterally compressed
into two parts. The shell is hinged dorsally. They have a hatchet-shaped foot. Most
bivalves are filter feeders, but some are scavengers or even predators. A bivalve
uses its muscular foot either to attach itself to a substrate or to burrow. Scallops
propel themselves through the water by jet propulsion: rapid closing of the valves
squirts water out of the mantle cavity, and the animal "swims" in the opposite
direction. The edges of the mantle are fused to form tube-like siphons. They have
two: one siphon carries water to the mantle cavity and other removes it. Many
bivalves (such as clams or oysters) are used as food.
Example: Clams, oysters, scalops
d. Cephalopoda
They are marine predators. Their foot is divided into tentacles usually bearing
suckers. They have well-developed eyes and a closed circulatory system.
Example: Squid, octopods.
Figure: Octopus
 Squid
Squid are molluscs like clams and oysters but they have no shells on
the outside of their bodies! They have a shell inside their bodies called a
pen. There are about 375 species of squid. Squid have 10 arms.
Two of their arms are longer than the other eight and are called tenta-
cles. Squid range in size from under an inch to more than 60 feet in length.
They have long, tubular bodies and little heads. Squid are very fast swim-
mers and use a kind of jet propulsion to move.
They suck water into a long tube called a siphon and then push it back
out. They can aim the water in any direction. Squid have very good eye-
sight and may even be able to see in color. The squids' two tentacles are
specially adapted for feeding and they use them to grab their prey.
They have a sharp beak on their mouths that they use to break open shells.
Squid have some unique adaptations. Some can change color, some use biolu-
minescence to create light, and some shoot ink to cloud the water and escape The largest octo-
pus is the Pacific
predators. Squid usually travel in groups and can be found in the sunlit zone and
Giant Octopus with
the twilight zone. an average arm span
of 2.5 meter.
Octopus
Octopus are molluscs like squid. There are about 200 species of octo-
pus. Octopus have no shell at all, not even an inner one. They have eight
tentacles. The tentacles have suction cups on them and are used to hold
onto prey.
The tentacles also have taste sensors that let the octopus know if what
it grabbed is worth eating. The octopus' mouth is in the center of its tenta-
cles. It has a sharp beak on its mouth that it uses to crack shells. Some
species may also inject their prey with a toxic substance.
Most species live in shallow water in caves or crevices. Because it has
no shell, an octopus can squeeze into very small spaces. Octopus live alone
and, like the squid, some species can shoot ink and change colors.

MAIN CLASSES OF PHYLUM MOLLUSCA

Class Example Animal Characteristic
Small head without eye or tentacles, large flat adhesive foot for move-
Polyplacophora Chitones
ment. Has segmented shells composed of 8 dorsal plate. Marine.

Animal Systematic
Marine, fresh water or terrestrial; well developed head with tentacles and
Snail, slugs,
Gastropoda eye. Large flat foot for creeping. Coiled one-part shell is often present
nudibranchs
(univalve).
Marine or fresh water; compressed body; no head; a two-part hinged
Bivalvia Clams, oysters, mussels
shell covers the body (bivalve).
Squid, octopods, Head with eyes. Foot is divided into arms or tentacles. Marine and preda-
Cephalopoda
cuttlefish tory.

63
 9. Phylum Annelida (Segmented worms)
There are about 15,000 species in this group. Typical examples are the medic-
inal leech and earthworm. They have segments that make up their body.
Segments are divided internally by septa and each segment has setae that aid the
annelids in moving. Digestive tract and nerve fibers are continuous throughout the
segments but other structures are repeated, such as nephridia.
The segmented body provides agility, and elasticity results from the separate
coelom and muscles of each segment. These coelom and muscles function as a
hydrostatic skeleton. Body movement is provided by circular smooth muscle.

Earthworms Segmented worms have a closed circulatory system consisting of a vein in the
dorsal region of the body. In the artery on the ventral side of the body in the frontal
In addition to break- region are five pairs of contractile tubes which function as a primitive heart.
ing down organic
Capillaries connect the artery and vein and the heart is filled with blood when the
materials and adding nutri-
muscle tubes relax. Aided by the contraction of the heart, blood passes through
ZOOLOGY

ents to the soil, earthworms

also help loosen the soil so the artery in the ventral region and is pumped towards the abdomen. The blood is
air can circulate. This helps then carried into the capillaries under the skin and other internal organs where
plants grow. material exchange occurs. Carbon dioxide in the blood diffuses from capillaries
below the skin into the body wall while oxygen diffuses in the opposite direction.

64
Consequently, oxygen passes into the blood and is transported to the cells. The
deoxygenated blood flows towards the frontal region.
The complete digestive tract of annelids is notably more developed. Ingested
food is moistened and softened by the contractions of the pharynx. It is then trans-
ported into the digestive tract and is stored there for a period of time. In annelids,
food is ground, aided by grit in the gizzard. It is then digested chemically by
enzymes within the intestine. The end products of digestion diffuse finally into the
capillaries which form a network around the whole body. Indigestible waste is
excreted through the anus.
A pair of nephridia, which function as excretory
organs, are located in each segment. The canals of
each nephridium are surrounded by capillaries. Figure: Earthworms are the most primi-
Waste, such as CO2, is removed through the body tive organisms to have a closed circula-
tory system.
wall.
Annelids have simple eyes similar to cnidarians.
They don’t have a special respiratory system. Gas
exchange take place by diffusion across the cuticle-
layered skin.
They have a ladder-like nervous system which is
composed of nerve cord and ganglia (sing. gan- An earthworm’s
glion). A nerve cord is a bundle of extensions of entire body is cov-
neurons. In each segment, the nerve cord enlarges ered with chemore-
Figure: The digestive system of an and forms a ganglion. A ganglion is a cluster of ceptors (taste recep-
earthworm. tors).
nerve cells. It controls local activity. They are either
hermaphroditic (earthworm) or have separate
sexes. Mostly cross-fertilisation is seen and some
have larval stage (plychaeta).

Earthworms derive
their nutrition from
many forms of
organic matter in soil,
things like decaying roots
and leaves, and living
organisms such as nema-
todes, protozoans, rotifers,
bacteria, fungi.
They will also feed on the

Animal Systematic
Figure: The excretory system of an earthworm. decomposing remains of
other animals. They can
consume, in just one day,
up to one third of their
own body weight.
Figure: Gas exchange in earthworms occurs
by simple diffusion in and out of capillaries
under the moist epidermis.

65
 If you find a leech
on your skin, do
not pull it off. The
leech’s mouth parts
could be left in your skin
and cause an infection.
Infection is more danger-
ous than the loss of blood.

Annelida are classified into 3 classes.

a. Polychaeta
The term poly-chaeta means “many bristles”. They are marine worms. Each
segment bears a pair of parapodia with many setae that are used in locomotion
and gas exchange. They have a well-developed head. Sexes are separate and
external fertilization is seen. Many of them feed on small invertebrates, some feed
on algae and some others are seavengers.
Example: Sandworms, tubeworms

b. Oligochaeta
The name oligo-chaeta means “few bristles”. They are mainly aquatic but
some live in moist terrestrial habitats. These worms have few setae per segment.
They are hermaphroditic. Cross-fertilization is seen. During fertilization, sperm
exchange occurs. They lack a well-developed head. They are mainly scavengers.
Example: Earthworms

c. Hirudinea
They inhabit aquatic habitats as well as moist habitats on land. They don’t have
setae or appendages. Most are blood-sucking parasites. They secrete an antico-
agulant, called hirudin, from glands in the crop. In about 30 minutes, a leech can
suck out about as much as ten times its blood content. In medicine, they can be
ZOOLOGY

used to remove “bad blood” within body tissues caused by injury, disease or sur-
gery
Figure: Earthworms (Annelids) increase
soil productivity in cultivated areas. Example: Leeches

66
READ ME The Value of a Leech
The small leech Hirudo medicinalis is particularly valuable for
plastic and reconstructive surgery. This leech produces several
important substances that make its bite very special, including an
anticoagulant (hirudin), a local vasodilator, and a local anaes-
thetic. These substances allow continued bleeding that mimics
venous circulation for up to 10 hours after the leech has
detached (and the anaesthetic makes the bite painless).
The leech can also remove any congested blood to allow nor-
mal circulation to return to the tissues and prevent gangrene
from setting in.
Leeches may also be used to treat black eyes. And hirudin,
the anticoagulant, may be used in the treatment of inflammation
of the middle ear.
Hirudin may also eventually be used in invitro blood sam-
pling. Researchers have found that the anticoagulant and clot-digesting properties of substances in leech saliva make
them potentially useful for the treatment of heart attacks and strokes. No leeches have to be harmed in the making of
these drugs! The leeches can be "milked" for their secretions without being harmed. Plus, researchers are looking into
the possibility of synthetically engineering leech saliva to be used for all these purposes.

READ ME Earth to Earth

There are over 1,800
species of earthworms. They
are hermaphroditic, which
means they have both male and
female organs.
Earthworms need moist
environments to survive. If they
dry out, they have trouble bur-
rowing into the soil and they will
die.
Earthworms eat dead plants and animals. When
they eat, they also take in soil and tiny pebbles. They
take in nutrients from microorganisms in the material

Animal Systematic
they ingest. Earthworms then excrete wastes in the form
of casts. Casts are rich in nutrients like nitrogen, phos-
phorus, and potash.
In addition to breaking down organic materials and
adding nutrients to the soil, earthworms also help
loosen the soil so air can circulate. This helps plants
grow.

67
 10. Phylum Arthropoda
There are about 1,000,000 species of arthropods found in all habitats. Arthro
means joint, pod means foot. All arthropods are bilaterally symmetrical, and their
bodies are covered with a tough exoskeleton.
The arthropod body, like that of the annelid, is segmented. In contrast to most
annelids, each arthropod has a fixed number of segments, which remains the
same throughout life.
Segments are usually arranged in groups to form a head, thorax and abdomen.
The skin is covered by a cuticle made of chitin polysaccharides, or CaCO3 is a
component. This hard covering protects the animal, and provides points of attach-
ment for muscle cells, but also presents a unique problem for the animal during
Arthropods are the growth: because it is not living, it cannot grow with the organism.
largest phylum of
the animal kingdom, Once the arthropod has grown too large for its exoskeleton, it is shed and a
ZOOLOGY

containing more than new skeleton is grown. This entire process is known as molting.
one millon species.
An arthropod nervous system is similar to an annelid’s with a dorsal brain and
two ventral cords.

68
 They have very effective sensory organs. Many have organs of hearing and
antenna sensitive to touch and chemicals. Many crustaceans and insects have a
compound eye composed of many independent visual units called ommatidia.
Arthropods have special respiratory systems. Aquatic forms have gills for gas
exchange and terrestrial groups have trachea made up of many internal tubules
which carry air to the body cells.
Arthropods have an open circulatory system. A dorsal, tubular heart pumps
blood into a dorsal artery which may branch into many smaller arteries. From the
artery, blood flow into the body cavity makes up the hemocoel. There, blood and
body cells contact directly and material exchanges occur. After material
exchanges, blood is carried back to the heart in veins.
Arthropods have special systems for execration of metabolic wastes from their
body. In aquatic groups, green glands (antennal glands) removes wastes, and in
terrestrial athropods, Malpighian tubules are used for excretion. Arthropods have
complex digestive systems. Mouth structures differ according to diet. There are
separate sexes. Direct development or metamorphosis are seen.
Figure: The position of the primitive
nervous system of an insect.

Animal Systematic
Figure: The grasshopper has an open
circulatory system. Its blood flows
throughout the body cavity as well as Figure: The excretory system of an arthropod,
in the blood vessels. including Malpighian tubules.

69
 READ ME metamorphosis
Insect reproduce sexually. Males produce sperm and deposit it into a sac in the female insect body.
The females produce eggs. As the eggs leave the female’s body, they are fertilized by the stored sperm cells. Insects go through
a series of changes as they develop from egg to adult.
This series of changes, or growth stages, is called metamorphosis. There are two types of metamorphosis.
a. Complete metamorphosis
b. Incomplete metamorphosis
In complete metamorphosis, the zygote develops into
the adult form in 4 stages:
1. The zygote
2. The larva
3. The pupa
4. The adult
An egg is fertilized and a zygote forms. The zygote
develops into a larva. Larvae spend most of their time eat-
ing and growing.The larva then forms a cocoon and enters
a resting or pupa stage. In the cocoon, the pupa develops
into a complete adult. The cocoon splits and the adult
emerges.
Complete metamorphosis is seen in most insects, like
bees, wasps, butterflies, and moths.
Incomplete metamorphosis
In incomplete metamorphosis there 3 stages, no pupa stage, and the zygote develops into a nymph. The nymph develops into
young adult and adult. Incomplete metamorphosis is seen in dragonflies and grasshoppers.
ZOOLOGY

Development, metamorphosis and molting are regulated by the aging hormone ecdysone, as well as by other hormones.

70
 There are 5 classes of arthropods: Scorpions can The biggest crus-
™ Crustacea (crustaceans) detect air moving at tacean in the world
only 0.072 km/hr, is a crab which
™ Arachnida (spider and scorpion) with special hairs on lives on Japanese
its pincers, and can have as coasts. Its leg span is
™ Insecta (Insects)
many as 12 eyes. about 3.6 meters.
™ Chilopoda (Centipedes)
™ Diplopoda (Millipedes)

a. Crustacea
They are marine, freshwater and terrestrial arthropods. Examples are crab,
shrimp, lobster and Daphnia.
Their soft bodies are usually covered dorsally with a hard shell made of CaCO3.

The crayfish is a common crustacean. Its head and thorax are fused to form
one body region called the cephalothorax. The abdomen is divided into many seg-
ments. On the thorax they have antennae, which are sensitive to taste, smell and
touch.
The mouth parts of the crayfish hold, tear, grind and move food. The chewing
jaws are called mandibles. Mandibles are the mouth parts that tear and grind food.
Crustaceans have compound eyes attached to the cephalothorax.
Figure: Crayfish
They have ten pairs of legs. The first pair on the cephalothorax are adapted as
claws. Another 2-5 pairs are used as walking legs, and 6-10 pairs are located on
the abdomen and used for swimming.
They have gills as respiratory organs and a green gland as an excretory organ.
They reproduce sexually and external fertilization is seen.

Figure: Some crustaceans.

Animal Systematic

71
 Figure: Scorpion and spider
b. Arachnida

Scorpions use spe-

cial pincers to grasp
their prey. The scor-
pion injects venom
into its prey to paralyze or
kill it, using the sharp
stinger at the end of its
body. Scorpions then use
various mouthparts to cut
up the prey and eat it
Body consists of a cephalothorax and abdomen as in the crustaceans. In some
groups the cephalothorax and abdomen are fused together. All are terrestrial.
Examples are scorpion, spider, tick and scabies mite. All arachnids have four pairs
of walking legs, chelicerae, pedipalps, and no antenna on the cephalothorax. The
spider is a common arachnid which has a cephalothrorax and abdomen. On the
cephalothorax are 8 simple eyes that can sense light, dark and movement. Spiders
also have a poison organ. They inject their poison into their prey. Poison paralyzes
the prey. Most spiders live on land. They have a book-like trachial system for gas
exchange, and Malpighian tubules for excretion. Spiders produce silk to make
webs, using special organs.

READ ME Black Widow Spider

Black widow spiders are tiny, eight-eyed spiders that are black and red.
But they're more than they're made out to be, because their venom can
sometimes be fatal. They are one of the most poisonous creatures in the
world. They only inject a small amount of venom in each bite, so if you
were bitten by one you'd be safe for about ten minutes. You'd better use
those few minutes to find a hospital! Black widow spiders prefer to live in
deserts under debris, plants, rocks, and ledges. Their webs are stronger
than most spiders’ webs. These spiders live in British Columbia, the
deserts of U.S.A, and parts of Mexico. You'd think that black widows
would be too small to eat large insects, but they can capture, then suck
out the insides of bugs as big as cockroaches.
Black widows and other spiders lay their eggs in sacs made from web,
also known as silk. There are about 200 - 750 eggs in each sac. The eggs are laid in the summer, and when they hatch
ZOOLOGY

only 1 - 12 spiderlings survive.

Males and females mate in the spring and the female eats the male a few weeks after mating. No wonder they're called
black widows! The biggest and probably only enemy of the black widow is the mud dauber wasp.

72
 Figure: Centipede and Millipede
c. Chilopoda – Diplopoda
All are terrestrial, but restricted to moist places. The centipede
Centipede means “hundred feet”, but most centipedes have only about 60 in southern
legs. They have one pair of legs on each body segment. Europe has
Centipedes have flat bodies and long antennae. They are quick-moving 177 PAIRS of legs.
hunters. They capture insects and kill them with their poison claws. ....that's a lot of shoes and
socks!!!
Millpede means “thousand feet”, but most millipedes have about 26-400 legs.
They have two pairs of legs on each body segment. They have antennae on their
head. They feed mainly on dead plant matter.

READ ME tarantula
The tarantula is 7.6cm long, and with legs extended is 25.4cm long.
A tarantula is hairy on its arms and legs. The colors of tarantu-
las are brown, pink, tan, black, orange and red. Tarantulas
live in dry places and they do not live with other tarantu-
las.
They also don't live in webs. These are large,
hairy spiders found in the southwestern United
States, Central America, South America, and
other New World tropical regions.

Animal Systematic
The large hairy tarantulas have also been called ‘bird-eating spiders’, but
this Victorian term is somewhat misleading. The diet of the average tarantu-
la consists of insects ranging from ants to large crickets and cockroaches, and
small vertebrates such as lizards, frogs, mice and occasionally small snakes. Only
rarely do they eat birds.
The tarantula's enemies are big lizards, snakes, spider-eating birds and tarantula
hawks.

73
 Figure: General structure of insects
Ant
Ants are social ani-
mals and live in
colonies. Sometimes these
colonies may contain only
50 or so individuals, but,
one supercolony of Formica
yessensis on the coast of
Japan is reported to have
had 1,080,000 queens
and 306,000,000 workers
in 45,000 interconnected
nests.
READ ME
ZOOLOGY
74
d. Insecta
Insects, the largest terrestrial animal group, are common throughout the
world. More than a million species have been classified. Insects are the only inver-
tebrates that can fly. Their ability to fly has carried them to all parts of Earth: desert,
mountain, lakes, ocean and in the air. The insect body is divided into head, thorax
and abdomen, plus a pair of antennae to feel and smell. They also have com-
pound eyes which detect movement and color.
Mouth structures differ according to their diet, but all insects have mandibles
to crush, cut and tear food.
On the thorax they have 3 pairs of legs. Some insects have wings attached to
thorax. On the abdomen, air tubes receive air into the body cells for gas exchange.
They have a trachial system for gas exchange and Malpighian tubules for excre-
tion.
INSECt ADAPDATIONS
FOR FEEDING
Insecst are very succesful animals
because they are adapted to many dif-
ferent ways of life.
One of their adaptations is the
mouth structures. The mouthparts of
insects are designed for different meth-
ods of feeding.
In figure ..... the mouthparts of dif-
ferent insects are seen. Grasshoppers
have chewing mouthpart for chewing
grass. The butterfly has a tubelike
mouth for sucking in the sweet juices
from flowers.
The mousquito has piercing mouth-
parts to make a tiny hole in a human
and suck blood into its mouth.
 SOME ORDERS OF INSECTS
Order
Representative Member Representative Member Some Characteristics
Examples

Insects with No Metamorphosis

Thysanura No wings; biting-chewing mouth;

Silverfish 2-3 “tails” extend from posterior
Bristletails tip of obdomen; inhabit dead
leaves; eat starch in books.

Insects with Incomplete Metamorphosis

Odonata Two pairs of long, membranous

Dragonflies wings; chewing mouth parts;
Damselfies large, compound eyes; active
predators.

Orthoptera Forewings leathery, hindwings

Grasshoppers membranous; chewing mouth
Crickets parts; most herbivorous, some
cause crop damage; some preda-
tory.

Blattodea When wings present, forewings

Cockroaches leathery, hindwings membranous;
chewing mouth parts; legs adapt-
ed for running.

Isoptera 2 pairs wings, or none; chewing

Termites mouth parts; social insects; form
large colonies; eat wood.

Animal Systematic
Anoplura No wings; piercing-sucking
Sucking lice mouth parts; ectoparasites of
mammals; head louse and crab
louse are human parasites.

75
 Hemiptera
Hindwings membranous; fore-
Bugs
wings smaller; piercing-sucking
Water striders
mouth parts form beak; most her-
bivorous; some parasitic.

Hemoptera
Aphids 2 pairs membranous wings; pierc-
Cicadas ing-sucking mouth parts form
beak; some infect plants.

Insects with Complete Metamorphosis

Lepidoptera Usually 2 pairs of membranous,

Moths colorful, scaled wings; sucking
Butterflies mouth parts; larvae caterpillars
that eat plants; adults suck flower
nectar; important pollinators.

Diptera
Only forewings functional in fly-
Houseflies
ing; hindwings small, knoblike
Mosquitos
halters; mouth parts usually
adapted for sucking; adults may
transmit disease such as sleeping
sickness or yellow fever.

Siphonaptera
No wings; piercing-sucking
Fleas
mouth parts; legs adapted for
clinging and jumping; ectopara-
sites on birds and mammals;

Coleoptera Forewings modified as protective

Beetles covering for membranous hind-
Weevils wings; chewing mouth parts;
largest order of insects; most her-
bivorous; some aquatic.

Hymenoptera Usually 2 pairs of membranous

ZOOLOGY

Ants wings; mouth parts may be modi-

Wasps fied for sucking or lapping nectar;
Bees many are social insects; some
sting.

76
 ARTHROPODS AND MEDICAL EFFECTS
Arthropod Example Animal Effect on Human Health

Spider Black Widows, Violin Spider Venomous bite

Mites Chiggers, Itch mite Dermatitis

Deer Tick, Dog Tick, Bite transmits lyme disease. (Deer Tick)
Ticks
Wood Tick Bite transmits Rocky Mountain spotted fever. (Dog Tick, Wood Tick)

Scorpion Scorpions Venomous sting

Centipede Centipedes Venomous bite

Mosquito Female bite transmits disease (Encephalitis, filarial worms)

Houseflies, deerflies Female has painfull bite

Insect Houseflies and relatives Many transmit bacteria, viruses, worms to food or water.

Fleas Dermatitis; bite transmits plague, tapeworms

Bees, wasps, ants Venomous stings (not dangerous unless person is allergic)

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ARTHROPOD CLASSES

Arachnida Crustacea Insecta Chilopoda Diplopoda
(About 65,000 (About 32,000 (About 800,000 (About 3000 (About 7500
species) species) species) species) species)
Marine or fresh
Main Habitat Mainly terrestrial Mainly terrestrial Terrestrial Terrestrial
water, few on land
Cephalothorax Cephalothorax Head, throax and Head with seg- Head with seg-
Body Division
and abdomen and abdomen abdomen mented body mented body
Book lungs or
Gas Exchange Gills Tracheae Tracheae Tracheae
tracheae
Antennae None 2 pairs 1 pair 1 pair 1 pair
Mandibles, 2 pairs
Chelicerae, pedi- Mandibles, maxil- Mandibles, Mandibles, maxil-
Mouth Parts of maxillae (for
palps lae maxillae lae

Animal Systematic
food handling)
4 pairs on 1 pair per seg- 1 pair per seg- Usually 2 pairs
Legs 3 pairs on thorax
cephalothorax ment or less ment per segment
Usually larval
Direct, except Usually larval stages; most with
Development Direct Direct
mites and ticks stages (nauplius) complete meta-
morphosis

77
 READ ME honey bee
Kingdom Animalia
To produce 45 gr
Phylum Arthropoda of pure honey,
Class Insecta 17,000 honey bees
Order Hymenoptera work about 7000
Family Apiidae hours.
Genus Apis
Species Apis mellifera

Characteristics:
™ Body thick, marked with yellow and brown.
™ Eyes hairy.
™ Body length: 1/2-1 cm
Habitat: Manmade beehives or hollow trees.
Behavior: Honeybees emit a characteristic buzz and feed on the nectar of flowers such as clover and apple blossoms. Their social
order is rigid and effective; each hive has a queen, who lays eggs and is the largest bee, workers, the most abundant members of the
colony who harvest nectar, and drones, who serve the queen.
Honeybees are extremely valuable insects whose honey and beeswax provide the livelihood for thousands of people. Orchard own-
ers often introduce bees to their orchards, because the insects increase the clover and fruit tree yield and therefore the orchard's pro-
ductivity. Honeybees communicate through a language of dance, sound, and smell. A worker returning to a hive can tell the others
about a new place to gather nectar; through a dance, he indicates the direction of the place and its distance from the hive. By smelling
him, the other bees can determine the type of flower.
Honey bees are social insects, with a marked division of labor between the various types of bees in the colony. A colony of honey
bees includes a queen, drones and workers.
The Queen: The queen is the only sexually developed female in the hive. She is the largest bee in the colony.
A two-day-old larva is selected by the workers to be reared as the queen. She will emerge from her cell 11 days later to mate in
flight with approximately 18 drone (male) bees. During this mating, she receives several million sperm cells, which last her entire life
span of nearly two years.
The queen starts to lay eggs about 10 days after mating. A produc-
tive queen can lay 3,000 eggs in a single day.
The Drones: Drones are stout male bees that have no stingers.
Drones do not collect food or pollen from flowers. Their sole purpose is
to mate with the queen. If the colony is short on food, drones are often
kicked out of the hive.
The Workers: Workers, the smallest bees in the colony, are sexually
undeveloped females. A colony can have 50,000 to 60,000 workers.
The life span of a worker bee varies according to the time of year. Her
life expectancy is approximately 28 to 35 days. Workers that are reared in
September and October, however, can live through the winter.
Workers feed the queen and larvae, guard the hive entrance and help
ZOOLOGY

to keep the hive cool by fanning their wings. Worker bees also collect nec-
tar to make honey. In addition, honey bees produce wax comb. The
comb is composed of hexagonal cells which have walls that are only
2/1000 inch thick, but support 25 times their own weight.

78
 11. Phylum Echinodermata (Spiny-sskinned animals)
Echinoderms are all marine animals. There are 7000 living and
13,000 fossil species known. Their name means “spiny-skinned”. They
are covered by calcified spines, spicules or plates. Under this special
skin there is an endoskeleton.
Althought adult echinoderms are radially symmmetrical, they have
some bilateral symmetry characteristics.
These are the first deuterostomes, the most advanced group, con-
sisting of only echinoderms and chordates. They have neither head nor
segmentation. The coelom, coated with ciliated epithelia, is well-devel-
oped. The digestive system includes a mouth and anus.

Animal Systematic
Respiratory organs are small gills through which oxygen dissolved in
water is absorbed. Later, these oxygen molecules diffuse in circulation.
Although a true system of circulation is lacking in echinoderms, they do possess
a water vascular system which can be considered to be a type of circulatory system.
This system functions in movement, sensation, attachment to the substrate and in
trapping prey.

79
 They have a tube foot made up of an ampulla, a
water sac and a sucker. Water is pumped into the
tube feet by the muscles surrounding the ampulla.
Thus, the tube feet enlarge and elongate. Water is
pumped back by the contraction of vessels which
surround the water sac causing the tube feet to
shorten and shrink.They are used for walk-
ing, climbing on rocks, attaching to
rocks, and trapping their prey.
The nervous system is com-
posed of nerve rings with radiating
nerves in the center. Any stimulus is
carried to the adjacent neuron. They
don’t have a brain.
Figure.: Tube feet and water vascular sys- They have separate sexes. Asexual reproduc-
tem of echinoderms resembles the trans- Figure: Dipleurula larva
port system of higher organisms
tion is by regeneration. Metamorphosis is observed
during development.
Classification Of Echinodermata
™ Crinodiea (Feather star, sea lilies)
™ Asteroidea (Sea star)
™ Ophiuroidea (Basket stars, Brittle stars)
™ Echinoidea (Sea urchins, sand dollars)
™ Holothuroidea (Sea cucumbers)

a. Crinodiea
This class includes feather stars and sea lilies. These animals belong to the old-
est class of living echinoderms. Feather stars generally stay at the same location
for a long period but they are motile echinoderms. On the other hand, sea lilies
are sessile and generally attach to the ocean floor. In contrast to other echino-
derms, crinoids have a mouth turned upward. They are suspension feeders.

b. Asteroidea
This class includes sea stars. Their bodies are composed of a central disk and
arms. The number of arms may vary from 5 to 20. There are several hundred pairs
of tube feet on the undersurface of each arm. The mouth is located downward.
Gas exchange is carried out by skin gills.
Sea stars are generally predators and scavengers. Because they have a water
vascular system, they can not move fast. As a result they feed on slow-moving or
sessile animals.
ZOOLOGY

80
 c. Phiuroidea
This class includes basket stars and brit-
tle stars. This is the largest group of echino-
derms in terms of number of species and
number of individuals.
This group is similar to asteroids in
appearance but they have longer arms and
the arms are more sharply originated from
the central disk. They don’t have suckers at
the tube-feet and these appendages are not
used for locomotion. Instead, the tube-feet
are used to collect food and for sensory
reception.
Figure: Basket star Figure: Britle star
d. Echinoidea
This class includes sea urchins and sand
dollars. They don’t have arms. They have a
solid shell, called a test, formed by skeletal
plates. The body of sea urchins is covered
by spines.
Sea urchins use their tube feet for
movemet. They eat small animals, algae
and some protists. Sand dollars have small-
er spines. They are adapted to burrow in
sand easily with their flattened bodies. They
feed on small organic particles
Figure: Sea Urchin Figure: Sand dollars

e. Holothuroidea
This class includes sea cucumbers. They
have an elongated flexible body. Their
mouth is surrounded by tentacles.
They don’t have an endoskeleton.
Instead, they have microscopic plates for
the same function.
The circulatory system of holothuroids is

Animal Systematic
more developed than other echinoderms.
They generally live on the bottom of oceans.

Figure: Sea Cucumber

81
 COMPARISON OF SOME INVERTEBRATES
PHYLUM PORIFERA CNIDARIA PLATYHELMINTHES NEMERTEA NEMATODA

Sample organ- Hydra, Jellyfish, Coral, Planaria, Tapeworm,

Sponges Ribbonworms Roundworms
isms Sea Anemones Flukes

Organization Many loosely con-

Tissue Organ System System
level nected cells
Radial or asymmet-
Symmetry Radial Bilateral Bilateral Bilateral
ric
Gastrovascular cavity Digestive cavity Digestive cavity
Intracellular diges- with one opening, intra- Gastrovascular cavity including two including two open-
Digestion
tion cellular and extracellular with one opening openings: mouth ings: mouth and
digestion and anus anus
Two parallel ves-
sels, no heart;
Circulation Diffusion Diffusion Diffusion Diffusion
hemoglobin in
blood cells

Gas Exchange Diffusion Diffusion Diffusion Diffusion Diffusion

Two horizontal
Protonephridia and
Excretion Diffusion Diffusion excretory canals Excretory vessels
flame cells
and flame cells

A simple brain, lad- A simple brain, A simple brain, a

Nervous sys- Cytoplasmic stimu- der nerve system two nerve cords dorsal and a ventral
A simple nerve net
tem lation and simple sense and simple sense nerve cord and
organs organs simple sense organs

Sexual or asexual
Budding; Sexual Asexual by dividing
Budding; Sexual and with segmenta- Sexual (separate
Reproduction and asexual (Most into two; Sexual
asexual (separate sexes) tion (separate sexes )
hermaphorodite) (hermaphorodite)
sexes)
Support by Mesoglia, Calcium
Thick Cuticula,
spicules, which are skeleton (corals) and Tissues provide
Developed muscular Pseudocoelomic
Support and needles of calcium gastrovascular cavity support; Muscles
tissue and other tis- fluid (hydrostatic
Movement carbonate; contrac- fluid provides support and cilia provide
sues provide support skeleton); Body
tile cells provide (Hydrostatic skeleton); movement
muscles
movement Contractile cells

Aquatic (mostly Aquatic conditions, Mostly marine;

ZOOLOGY

Aquatic (mostly Land, sea and fresh-

marine); Polyp and some in humid Mostly carnivo-
Environment marine); ciliated; water; Carnivores,
Medusa; some in places; mostly carni- rous; use pro-
and lifestyle motile larva but ses- scavenger, and para-
colonies; Feed with vores, some para- boscis for feeding
sile adult sites
cnidocyst and tentacles sites and protection

82
 MOLLUSCA ANNELIDS ARTHROPODA

Squid, Octopus, Clam,

Earthworm, Leech Insects, Spiders, Crustaceans
Snail

System System System

Bilateral Bilateral Bilateral

Complete digestive sys-

Complete digestive system Complete digestive system
tem with radula

Open Circulation Closed Circulation Open Circulation

Gas exchange by diffusion In insects and spiders tra-

Gills and mantle cavity through skin, oxygen in ves- cheae, in crustaceans gills are
sels used

In every segment is a pair of

Nephridium Insects have Malpighian tubes
nephridia.

Simple sense Simple brain, a pair of nerve

Brain, a pair of nerve cords,
organs,and 3 pairs of cords, simple sense organs
developed sense organs
ganglia Cytoplasmic stimulation

Sexual, separate sexes, Sexual, hermaphroditic but

Sexual, separate sexes
mating in water mating happens.

Most have a hydrostatic Intact outer skeleton, devel-

Hydrostatic skeleton, move
skeleton, move with oped muscles and jointed
with developed muscles
feet appendages

Animal Systematic
Mostly aquatic, some Mostly aquatic, some terres- Intact outer skeleton, devel-
terrestrial; carnivores, trial; carnivores, herbivores, oped muscles and jointed
herbivores, scavengers scavengers appendages

83
 12. Phylum Chordata (Chordates)
Chordata is the animal phylum with which everyone is most intimately familiar,
since it includes mammals and other vertebrates. However, not all chordates are
vertebrates

Chordate characteristics.
™ bilateral symmetry, three germ layers and a well-developed coelom.
™ segmented body, including segmented muscles
™ single, dorsal, hollow nerve cord, usually with an enlarged anterior end
(brain), posterior spinal cord.
™ tail projecting beyond (posterior to) the anus at some stage of development
ZOOLOGY

™ pharyngeal pouches present at some stage of development

™ ventral heart, with a closed blood system, complete digestive system, bony
or cartilaginous endoskeleton usually present.

84
 Chordates are classified into three groups:

a. Subphylum Urochordata (Tunicates)

All are marine. Some
OUTLINE are solitary and free-
living but become
™ Tunic made up of mainly
sessile after a free-
cellulose
swimming larval
™ Mostly sessile stage. There are
™ Siphon colonial species, too.
Notochord and nerve
cord are found only in the caudal part of larvae. Adults
have only a small node as a remainder of the nerve
cord.
They are very simple chordates. Tunicates have a
tunic or tough outer covering mainly made up of cellu-
lose. The tunic surrounds the animal and gives the sub- Figure: Tunicate
phylum its name. In the larval stage they are mobile but in the adult stage most of
them are sessile. The larval form of a tunicate looks like a tadpole. It is only the
larva which has all chordate features. Adult tunicates take in water through the
incurrent siphon. At the gill, gas exchange takes place and CO2 rich water leaves The larval form of a
the body by the excurrent siphon. They have a simple circulatory system with heart tunicate looks like
a tadpole. It is only
and simple nervous system with ganglia.
the larva which has all
chordate features.
b. Subphylum Cephalochordata (Lancelets)
They are scaleless, fishlike marine animals.
OUTLINE Lancelets were given their English name
because of their similarity in appearance to a
™ Scaleless fishlike animals
lancet (surgical knife). They are mobile, but
™ No distinguisable head they spend most of their time partly buried in
sandy or muddy, substrates.
There is no distinguishable head or separate eyes, nose or ears, but they have
a light receptor. They feed on plankton.
In lancelets, the head is absent. Notochord is present in adults and functions
as a skeleton. An example is Amphioxus lanceolatum.
Amphioxus species are littoral, small (5-6 cm long), translucent yellow animals.
Both ends are pointed. To the anterior part of the digestive tract there are gill slits
in pairs. In the area between the nerve cord and gut is the notochord, which per-

Animal Systematic
sists in the adult.
Amphioxus (or lancelet) species resemble both invertebrates and vertebrates.
Single-layered epitheilum, absence of a heart, colorless blood, and protonephridia
as urinary organs are invertebrate characteristics, whereas presence of notochord
and nerve cord, presence of a respiratory organ anterior to the digestive tract, and Figure: Amphioxus.
pattern of blood flow are typical of vertebrates.

85
 OUTLINE c. Subphylum Vertebrata (Vertebrates)
All vertebrates have developed brains and skulls
™ Vertebral column
(crania). The notochord is observed only in the
™ Living endoskeleton embryo, in the fetus and adult being replaced
™ Closed circulatory sys- with vertebrae. Vertebrates have an endoskeletal
tem structure.
™ Paired appendages Vertebrate Characteristics
™ High degree of cephal-
ization
™ Skeleton is jointed, either cartilaginous (in
sharks and jawless fishes) or bony (all oth-
™ Efficient respiration and ers).
excretion
™ They use lung, gill and skin for gas
exchange, according to their habitats.
™ Digestive tract begins at the mouth, which opens to a stomach, followed by
intestines, and ends in the anus. There are digestive glands.
™ Circulatory system is closed. Hemoglobin is the pigment that carries CO2
and O2 in the blood. Blood is red. Heart contains 2 to 4 compartments (atria
and ventricles).
™ Birds and mammals are warm-blooded, all other vertebrates are cold-
blooded.
™ There are two pairs of extremites. These are fins in aquatic species and
limbs in terrestrial ones. Joints attaching limbs to the vertebral column are
at the scapular arch and the sacral arch. Skeletal muscles function in move-
ment.
™ Most have separate sexes. Paired gonads produce germ cells released from
an opening near the anus. Kidneys are the urinary organs. Metabolites, fil-
tered by kidneys, and germ cells are carried through a common channel.
Because of this, the system is called the urogenital system.
™ Well-developed nervous system with brain and sensory organs.

Vertebrates are classified into 2 superclasses and 7 classes:

Superclass pisces (fishes):
Class: Agnatha (Jawless fishes)
Class: Chondrichthyes
Class: Osteichthyes
Superclass tetrapoda (tetrapods):
Class: Amphibia (Amphibians)
ZOOLOGY

Class Reptilia (Reptiles)

Class Aves (Birds)
Class Mammalia (Mammals)

86
 Class 1 Agnatha (cyclostomata, jawless fishes)
OUTLINE
These have eel-like, cylindical bodies with no
™ No jaw jaw, paired fins or scales. They are the simplest ver-
™ No scale tebrates and retain a notochord throughout life.
They are parasites and scavengers. Examples are
™ Unpaired fins
lampreys and hagfish,
™ Cartilage skeleton
Lampreys are found in both fresh and salty
™ Parasites or scavengers
water. They are parasites and obtain food by
attaching themselves by their round, sucker-like
mouth to the bodies of other fish. Once attached, they use the teeth on their tongue to
gnaw a hole in the body of their victim. The lamprey then sucks the blood and body flu-
ids of fish. Adult lampreys cause great damage in fish populations. Figure: Lampreys

Hagfish are found only in salty water. They feed on dead fish, worms or other small
invertebrates which live on the ocean floor.

READ ME reproductive strategies

Some sharks lay eggs (all skates and ratfish do), but
most are ovoviviparous (all rays are). The young develop
with their yolk sacks within the mother, but without a pla-
centa or umbilical cord. Some sharks (the Great White) are
oviphagous (or oophagous); the young eat the other devel-
oping young and embryos inside their mother and only the
fiercest is born! A few sharks (hammerheads and reef
sharks) are viviparous; like mammals, the young are nour-
ished with a placenta within the mother. Because most
sharks are ovoviviparous or viviparous, they do not produce
mass numbers of young like other fish do.

Animal Systematic
Oviparity: Lay undeveloped eggs, external fertilization
(90% of bony fish), internal fertilization (some sharks and
rays).
Ovoviviparity: Internal development without direct
maternal nourishment. Advanced at birth (most sharks and
rays), Larval birth (rockfish).
Viviparity: Internal development, direct nourishment from mother, fully advanced at birth (some sharks, surf perches).

87

Figure: Manta ray
Class 2 Chondrichthytes (Cartilaginous fish)
OUTLINE Sharks, skates, and rays, make up the
™ Gill respiration; no oper- Chondrichthyes. Chondrichthyes all lack true
culum bone and have a skeleton made of cartilage.
™ Cartilage skeleton Only their teeth, and sometimes their vertebrae,
are calcified.
™ No swim bladder
™ Internal fertilization In cartilaginous fish, lungs or swim bladder-
like structures (which help to keep fish at a cer-
tain depth) are absent, and the fish must main-
tain its level in the sea by the muscular efforts of swimming. Their scales are pla-
coid (isolated structures made of dentine resembling simple teeth) that are pres-
ent all over the body surface.
Their gas exchange is provided by gills. There are 5-7 gill pairs and no oper-
culum (a flap that closes the gills). They reproduce sexually with internal fertiliza-
tion. They are generally streamlined hunters.

Rays and skates

Among the best known rays are stingrays, which have long, slim, whiplike tails
armed with serrated, venomous spines. Stingrays are bottom-dwelling, cartilagi-
nous fish with a flattened body, gill slits on the lower surface of the head, teeth
modified into two large crushing plates, and no dorsal fin. Electric rays produce
Figure: Blue spoted sting ray electricity of about 200 volts to stun their prey. Unlike stingrays, skates lack ven-
omous spines. They do however have numerous sharp spines over the lower back
and tail. This species is commonly found in shallow waters in Tasmania. A char-
acteristic of this species are thorns around the eyes.
Shark
Sharks are chiefly marine fishes found in all seas. Sharks are streamlined fish
that swim by moving their trunk and powerful tail from side to side.
Sense organs of a shark are more complex, particularly those for smell and
vibration. Most sharks are meat eaters and active hunters. However, the two
largest sharks (whale shark and basking shark) are filter feeders. They obtain food
by straining microorganisms from the water.
Figure: Shark
Few sharks attack human beings; of those that do, about one third of the
attacks result in fatalities. Among sharks that are the most dangerous for human
beings are the great white shark, the hammerhead shark, the tiger shark and the
blue shark.
Shark
Sharks have specialized electrosensing receptors with thresholds
as low as 0.005 uV/cm. These receptors may be used to locate
ZOOLOGY

Figure: Hammerhead Shark
prey. The dogfish can detect a flounder that is buried under the sand
and emitting 4 uAmp of current. Some sharks can detect fish extracts at
concentrations lower than one part in 10 billion. Some sharks sense light
directly through the skull by the pineal body. The thresher shark has an eye
up to 5 inches (12.5 cm) in diameter.

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 Class 3 Osteichthyes
OUTLINE They are the most diverse group of verte-
™ Gills with operculum brates. Eels, trouts, and mackerels are a few
™ Bony skeleton examples.They have a bony skeleton. Like Chon-
drichthytes they respire by gills, but their gills are
™ Swin bladder
closed by operculum. Like cartilaginous fish they
™ External fertilization have a single loop blood circulation from heart to
™ Lateral line system body organs. They have a 2-chambered heart
which contains only deoxygnated blood.
The nervous system of bony fish includes the brain,
spinal cord and nerves. The brain, located in the head, is
protected by the bones of the skull. The spinal cord, which
runs along the back, is enclosed in the backbone.
Sexes are separate.They reproduce sexually and exter-
nal fertilization is seen in which sperm from the male fer-
tilize eggs out of the female body. In sea horses, the
female gives its eggs to the male. The male takes care of
the eggs inside of its body and offspring are born alive.
Adults have mesonephros and lack urinary bladders.
Gills are the respiratory organs. In cartilaginous fishes,
there are 5-7 gill pairs, but 4 in bony fishes. Additionally,
gill pairs in bony fishes are covered with a bony flap, the
operculum. Bony fishes have many adaptations for pro-
tection and feeding. The Lateral Line System, that is very
sensetive to motion, provides fish with a sense of distance
and touch, enabling them to sense objects that reflect
pressure waves and low-frequency vibrations. This helps a
fish to detect prey or their enemies. Unlike cartilaginous
fish, bony fish have a swim bladder (a gas filled sac),
because bones are heavier than cartilage. Swim bladder
lets a fish control its depth in the water. Gas from the fish’s
blood diffuses into the swim bladder and fills it like a bal-
loon. The fish then floats higher in the water. When gas
diffuses out of the swim bladder, the fish can go deeper.

Animal Systematic

Figure: Swim bladder Figure: Fish anatomy and morphology.

89
 The puffer fish is covered with sharp spines. In times of danger, it
inflates itself with air or water so that its spines stand out.
Electric eel stuns or kills its enemies with a strong electric charge.
They are capable of emitting a discharge of 450 to 600 Volt..
Flying fish jump above the water and go about 200 meters.
Piranhas live in freshwater in South America. Although the carnivorous
species are the best known, most species of piranhas are herbivorous.
They are about 25 to 60 cm long. Carnivorous species have powerful jaws
with sharp teeth. Piranhas mostly hunt other fishes, amphibians, birds and
mammals. Carnivorous piranhas associate in large schools and are
Figure: Buffer fish
attracted by commotion and the scent of blood. Once aroused, they can
quickly reduce a large mammal to a skeleton, although such incidents are
rare. About four species are considered dangerous. Piranhas are also scav-
engers and they are considered to be fine food fishes.
DIPNOI (Lungfish) The Dipnoi is a group of fish that are commonly
known as the lungfish. The lungfishes are true carnivores. Their bodies are
powerful, elongated and eel-like.
Their "lung" is a modified swim bladder, which in most fish is used for
floatability in swimming, but in the lungfish also absorbs oxygen and
removes waste.
Lungfishes are very interesting specimens. They can live through the
dry season. They bury themselves in the mud, curl up into a ball and
secrete a mucus which hardens to form a cocoon. They can live through
the dry season until the next rainfall. During this time, they breathe air
through their swim bladder instead of their gills and reduce their metabol-
ic rate dramatically. These fishes even drown if they are kept underwater
and not allowed to breathe air.

Figure: Flying fish

ZOOLOGY

Figure: Piranhas

90
 Class 4 Amphibia (Frogs and Salamanders)
OUTLINE Amphibia means double-life. Amphibians
™ Double life either live entirely in water or, usually, they return
™ Legs to the water for reproduction. Eggs hatch in
water. The embryos develop into larvae which
™ Respiration: Gill, lung,
are called tadpoles. They live in water and com-
skin
pletely depend on gill respiration (some sala-
™ Pulmonary circulation menders remain in this form). They feed on
™ 3 chambered heart aquatic plants. After some time, tadpoles
™ Lymph vessels undergo metamorphosis. During metamorpho- Figure: A diagrammatic representation
™ Mesonephros kidney sis some hormonal changes occure and larvae of the amphibian lung.
become adults. Adult amphibians lose their
gills, tails and caudal fins.
Amphibians have mucus glands and poison glands under the skin. Skin secre-
tions protect the body from bacteria and retain moisture. Amphibians are the first
vertebrates with legss. Previous classes have no legs, but amphibians use their legs
for movement.

The amphibian respiratory system

Amphibians have interesting respiration characteristics. The larvae of
amphibia respire by means of their gills, while they exchange gases
through their skin and lungs when in the adult phase, since the absence
of alveoli in the lungs of an amphibian reduces the available respiratory
surface area. In contrast to other vertebrates, the lungs are attached
directly to the pharynx and there is no trachea. Skin respiration therefore
is another way in which gases are exchanged. As a result, during the life
cycle of an amphibian, three types of respiration are observed: through the
gills, the lungs and the skin.
Figure: Internal anatomy of frogs.
The amphibian circulatory system
The amphibian heart consists of two atria and a ventricle.
It pumps blood to both tissues and lungs. The left atrium
contains deoxygenated blood while the right atrium contains
oxygenated blood. Both atria pump their contents into the
ventricle, resulting in mixing of the blood. Half-oxygenated
blood is carried to the tissues. In amphibia, the half-oxy-
genated blood pumped by the heart is enriched with oxygen
at the skin. Amphibia are the most primitive organisms to
possess lymph vessels and related structures.

Animal Systematic
They are known as cold blooded (poikilothermic) ani-
mals. Their body temperature depends on environmental
temperature.
Adult amphibians have mesonephros kidneys.

Figure: Life cycle of frogs.

91
 READ ME Poison Arrow Frogs
Taxonomy
Order : Anura
Family : Dendrobatidae
Genus/species : Dendrobates auratus (green poison arrow frog)
Dendrobates tinctorius (dyeing poison frog)
D. auratus frogs reach sizes of about one to 3 or 4 cm. Frogs in some populations may reach 6 cm. There are many
color variants based on geographic area. Most are black and either green or light blue with the black in bands or spots.
The stripes or spots can range from blue, blue-green, green, yellow-green, or white.
Poison arrow frogs are known for their beautiful colors. These colors are used as warnings to predators that they are
poisonous. Some scientists think that the reticulated pattern of the frogs also acts as camouflage among the forest shad-
ows. This idea is not the norm.
Not all arrow frogs are deadly, only three species are very dangerous to humans. The most deadly species to humans
is Phylobates terriblis. Its poison, batrachotoxin, can kill many small animals or humans.
ZOOLOGY

92
 Classification of Amphibia
Amphibians are classified into three
orders.
Anura
This order includes frogs and toads.
They have a compact, tailless body and
their large head is fused to the trunk.
Their rear limbs are specialized for
jumping.
Typical Example : Toads, frogs
Frogs live around ponds and lakes.
They have smooth, damp skin and they Key features : Compact tailless body, large head fused to the
are expert jumpers. On the other hand, trunk; rear limbs specialized for jumping.
toads generally live in forests but some
can live in the desert.
They have dry, thick skin and rela-
tively short legs for walking and hop-
ping. Unlike frogs, toads usually spend
much of their time on land.

Urodela
This order includes salamanders,
newts and mud puppies. They have a
slender body and long tail. Their limbs
extend out of the body at right angles.
They can’t jump.
Typical Example : Salamanders, newts, mud puppies
Salamananders are the most famous
members of urodeles. Most salamanders Key features : Slender body, long tail, limbs set out at right
range from 8 to 20 cm in length. angles to the body.

However, the largest amphibian, the

Japanese giant salamander reaches a
length of 1.5 meters.
While some salamanders are entirely
aquatic, others live on land in moist
places. They are generally active at night.

Apoda

Animal Systematic
This order includes caecilians. They
are tropical amphibians.
They have snake-like bodies, which
means they don’t have limbs and also
Typical Example : Caecilians
the tail is small or absent.
Key features : Tropical group; snake-like body, no limbs, little or
no tail.

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 Class 5 Reptilia (Reptiles)
OUTLINE Reptiles are fully adapted to life on land.
™ Amniotic egg They have dry, scaly, waterproof skin which pro-
(Shelled egg) tects the body from drying out and from preda-
™ Dry scaly skin tors. They have some glands in their skin. They
are poikilothermic organisms and can not inter-
™ Internal fertilization
nally regulate their body temperature. Their
™ Partially divided ventricle body temperature depends on the ambient
™ Poikilothermy temperature. Their body temperature goes up
™ Lung with expandable and down as the ambient temperature varies.
rib cage Because of their scales, reptiles can not use
their skin for respiration. Therefore, reptiles
have well-developed lungs with many folds to
increase the surface area. The more surface area increases,
the more gas exchange between blood and air. Reptiles have a
circulatory system with a 3-chambered heart. In reptiles, blood
goes to the lungs to get oxygen. The ventricle of the reptile
heart is partially divided. Oxygen-rich blood is almost comple-
taly separated from blood low in oxygen. So blood pumped to
the different parts of the body carries a high amount of oxy-
gen. Their excetory organs are kidneys. They remove urine
and undigested food through an opening called the cloaca.
The nervous system of reptiles is similar to other vertebrates’.
Figure: Internal anatomy of reptiles Brain and spinal cord direct and coordinate body functions.

Reproduction in Reptiles
Reptiles are well-adapted to live on land. Probably the most important adapta-
tion of reptiles to land is reproduction. Unlike amphibians, reptiles do not need
water in which to reproduce. Reptiles have reproductive organs that are adapted for
intenal fertilization. It occurs within the female’s body. After being fertilized, each
egg is covered by a leathery shell.
The female then lays the egg on land. The shell keeps the egg moist and pro-
tects it from injuries. Tiny pores in the shell allow O2 and CO2 exchange. Inside the
shell, the reptile embryo has all the water and food (egg yolk) it needs to grow.
Some other layers in the egg remove wastes and provide gas exchange, support
and protection.
An embryo passes its early period of development within an
egg. When the reptile hatches, it can breathe on land. There is
no larval stage.
The young reptile looks like a small adult. As in birds, reptil-
ian eggs are rich in yolk, but the shell is more flexible. Eggs con-
tain amnion, chorion, allantois and vitellus structures.
ZOOLOGY

Vertebrates that have an amnion in the egg are collected in a

separate group called amnionts. Reptiles are cold-blooded ani-
mals like fish and frogs.

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 Classification of Reptiles
There are about 6000 species of
reptiles alive today. They are classified
into 4 different orders. But the fossil
record shows that in the past more than
10 orders of reptiles lived on the earth,
but now they are extinct (dinosaurs).
The orders of living reptiles.

Chelonia Typical Example : Turtle, tortoises

This order contains about 250 Key features : Ancient, armored reptiles with shell of bony plates
species. They have a bony or leathery to which vertebrae and ribs are fused; sharp,
shell. The shell protects the body. They horny beak without teeth.
are found both on land and in the water,
but they are air-breathing and must return to the surface to respire. Turtles and tor-
toises are two reptiles that look alike, but their adaptation is different. Turtles spend
Some marine tur-
most of their time in the water, but tortoises spend most of their time on land. tles reach lengths
Turtles have paddle-shaped legs for swimming. Tortoises have short legs with of 2 meters and
claws for digging. Neither turtles nor tortoises have teeth. They have sharp beaks weights of more than
and strong jaws. Most of them eat plants. Some marine turtles reach lengths of 2 500 kg. Some land tortois-
meters and weights of more than 500 kg. Some land tortoises have reached es have reached weights of
weights of more than 180 kg. They may live more than 100 years. Both turtles and more than 180 kg.
tortoises lay their eggs on land. The strategy is to lay many eggs to ensure that a
few turtles survive and reproduce.

READ ME CARETTA CARETTA

Kingdom : Animalia Phylum : Chordata
Subphylum : Vertebrata Class : Reptilia
Order : Testudines Family : Cheloniidae
Genus : Caretta Species : Caretta caretta
They have a characteristic large head, with more massive jaws and muscles than
other sea turtles. This species is the largest hard-shelled turtle in the world. They are
mainly carnivorous. They eat a wide variety of marine animals, including sponges, jelly-
fish, crabs, clams, fish, squid, and oysters. They have powerful jaws which enable them
to crush the hard shells of some prey. They do ocasionally eat algae and other plants as
well.

Animal Systematic
They spend much of their time around reefs, or along the bottom. Adults sometimes travel for thousands of kilometers. Hatchlings
and young juveniles do not dive, staying near the surface, often in association with mats of floating seaweed.
Females nest on sandy beaches, usually just above the average high tide line. Each time the female Caretta caretta returns to lay
her eggs. She does on the same beach she was born on. She comes ashore at night and pulls herself to the upper part of the beach
where she digs a hole and lays up to 200 eggs before returning to the sea. The eggs must remain undisturbed in the warm sand for
about 2 month before they hatch out. When the eggs hatch, they dig their way out of the nest usually emerging during the night or
very -very early in the morning and they make their way down to the sea. Although a female sea turtle may lay hundreds of eggs each
summer, only very few hatchlings will survive to adulthood: only one out of a thousand will reach reproductive age of 30 years.

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 Crocodile
The order Crocodilia contains croc-
odiles, allgators, caimans and gavials.
Crocodiles and alligators are large rep-
tiles with scaly, armor-like skin.
They range in length from 2.5 m to
more than 7 meter. They live in tropical
and subtropical climates.
They feed on large animals caught
Typical Example : Crocodiles, alligators on land or in water. They have powerful
Key features : Four-chambered heart and socketed teeth jaws and teeth to tear apart their prey.
All the animals in this order have
four strong legs, the hind legs being powerful. They also have a powerful tail used
for swimming.
Like all reptiles, they have a closed circulatory system, but unlike other reptiles
alligators and crocodiles have a 4-chambered heart. The ventricle is completely
divided. This chambered heart enables alligators and crocodiles to get more oxy-
gen.
Both crocodiles and alligators spend most of their time submerged in water
with only their eyes and nostrils above the surface. They are carnivores and feed
on meat. Although alligators and crocodiles are similar in appearance, they have
some differences. Alligators have broad snouts, but crocodiles have narrower,
more pointed snouts. When a crocodile’s mouth is closed, some of the lower jaw

Nile Crocodiles
A female Nile croc-
odile may put her
babies in her mouth if
there is danger nearby.
Crocodile parents some-
times help their babies
hatch by gently rolling the
eggs in their mouth to
crack the shells. Crocs
have eyes high on their
heads so that they can see
above the surface of the
water when they are sub-
merged.
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96
teeth are visible, but when an alligator
closes its mouth, none of its teeth are
visible.

Squamata
This order contain most living rep-
tiles. About 95% of reptiles are snakes
and lizards. Members of this order can
be found in all areas of the earth except
the polar regions, but they are found
mostly in warm climates. The order can Typical Example : Lizards
be divided into two suborders, lizards Key features : Limbs set out at right angles to body; anus is in
(about 2500 species) and snakes. transverse slit; most are terrestrial.
Lizards: They generally live in warm areas and feed on insects and worms.
They have 2 pairs of legs and a long tail.
Lizards have movable eyelids to protect their eyes, and ear to detect sound. Chameleons
Like other reptiles, lizards are poikilothermic organisms.
These lizards are
Chameleon: A kind of lizard which has a unique feature: it can change its color amazing quick-
when in danger or in respose to light, temperature or background environmental change artists. How do
changes. they and other animals
change color-and why?
They have pigments which change color in response to hormones. The It's green. . . then red. . .
chameleon has a remarkable, long, sticky tongue, which darts into the air to catch then yellow. . . then brown.
insects. Their eyes are big and can move independently. They live mostly in trop- . . then blue. The amazing
ical climates. chameleon (kuh MEEL yun)
can change color often and
quickly. If you watch one at
the right moment, you can
actually see the color
change.
Chameleons live in north-
ern Africa, the Middle East,
India, and the island of
Madagascar. Other animals
that live closer to home
can change color too.

Animal Systematic

97
 READ ME komodo dragons
Komodo dragons are the largest lizards in the
world. They can reach a length of 10 feet and a
weight of over 250 pounds!
Komodo dragons are endangered animals.
There are only about 5,000 Komodo dragons left
living on four small islands of Indonesia.
Komodo dragons got their name from the
island on which they were first discovered -
Komodo Island.
Some people also call them "Komodo Island
monitors" because these animals belong to the
monitor lizard group.
Monitors have tapered heads, long necks,
snake-like tongues, strong legs, and powerful tails.
They are meat-eaters. They may attack living animals or feed on decaying meat. Savannah monitors (also known as
Cape monitors) and Nile monitors are also family members of monitors.
Despite their large size, Komodo dragons are fast short-distance runners. They can run as fast as 12 miles per hour
for a brief period of time! However, Komodo dragons rarely chase after their prey. Instead, they are stealth predators -
they hide and sit motionlessly for hours to wait for their food to come near.
When Komodo dragons spot prey, they ambush it by running out of their hideouts at top speed! Komodo dragons
may use different attack strategies depending on the size of their prey.
If Komodo dragons are ambushing a larger prey, such as a deer or a water buffalo, they attack its feet first in order
to knock the prey off balance. If they are dealing with a smaller prey, such as a bird or a young Komodo dragon, they
go for its neck first.
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98
 Snake
All snakes have a tubelike body cov-
ered by scales. They have no legs, so
they move on their belly. On the other
hand they have some special organs for
hunting. Snakes have several well-
developed sense organs that help them
in finding prey.
Snakes have an inner ear, but no
external opening. They can not hear but
they can detect vibration in the ground
through their lower jaw. Typical Example : Snake
Snakes have pour vision. They do Key features : No legs, scaly skin, most are terrestrial.
not have movable eyelids. The eyes of
snakes are especially adapted to detect quick movement.
They have a special organ in the mouth called the Jacobson’s organ.
Jacobson’s organ is a sense organ for smelling.
They also have a thermoreceptor, called a pit organ, on their head between the
eye and nostril. It is a heat detecting organ. By using this organ snakes can track
and strike warm-blooded prey, even at night or in deep burrows. Snakes are car-
nivores.
They eat other animals and the eggs of other animals. Snakes swallow their
food whole even when the prey is much larger than their mouth, because their
jaws unhinge.
King Cobra
This structure allows the mouth to open very vide. The ribs of snakes are unat-
tached at one end, so the snake body stretches to make room for the food. After This king really
rules. Longest of all
a large meal, a snake may go for weeks or months without eating.
poisonous snakes, it can
Actually snakes have a bad reputation, because only 200 of the 2500 known kill an elephant with a sin-
species are poisonous. They produce venom. They kill their prey by injecting them gle bite.
with special teeth called fangs. Venom
is produced by special glands located in
the head.
Some poisonous snakes are the rat-
tlesnake, cobra, and eastern green
mamba. Other snakes, such as boa
constrictor and python, kill their prey by

Animal Systematic
strangling it.
The anaconda is the longest and
most powerful snake in the world. An
adult may be 6m long and weigh 107
kg. The anaconda kills its prey by con-
striction, or squeezing.

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 Rhynchocephalia
Tuatara means "spiny back" in
Maori. Tuataras are reptiles but they are
very different from lizards, crocodiles
and amphibians (frogs, salamanders).
Tuatara have scaly, loose skin which
is soft to the touch.
They have a variable body tempera-
Typical Example : Tuatara ture which enables them to survive in
cold climates. They live in burrows and
Key features : Fused, wedgelike, socketless teeth. Parietal eye are nocturnal, hunting at night just out-
(third eye) side their burrow entrance.
They feed on wetas, worms, lizards, millipedes and small seabirds. An adult can
grow up to 24 cm in length and weigh about 500 grams. Tuatara lay about a dozen
leathery-shelled eggs. Tuatara mature at about 13 years old and may live to be 60
Tuatara mature at years old.
about 13 years old
and may live to be There are two species of tuatara. The most common species is Sphenodon
60 years old. punctatus, the tuatara found on the Northern Islands. It is thought that the Cook
Strait Islands tuatara is a subspecies of the Northern tuatara. S. punctatus has a
brown-white appearance. The second species is the Brothers tuatara, Sphenodon
guntheri, which is unique to Brothers Island, and has olive skin with yellow spots.
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READ ME dinosaurs
Millions of years ago, long before there were any people, there were dinosaurs. Dinosaurs were one of several kinds of prehistoric
reptiles that lived during the Mesozoic Era, the "Age of Reptiles." Dinosaurs were reptiles and most hatched from eggs. Plant-eating
sauropods were the largest animals to ever walk on Earth - but blue whales are more massive than any of the dinosaurs were! The
largest dinosaurs were over 30 m long and up to 15 m tall (like Argentinosaurus). The smallest dinosaurs, like Compsognathus, were
about the size of a chicken.
It is very difficult to figure out how the dinosaurs sounded, how they behaved, how they mated, what color they were, or even how
to tell whether a fossil was male or female. No one knows what color or patterns the dinosaurs were. Most dinosaurs were plant-eaters
(also called herbivores). Some dinosaurs were meat-eaters (also called carnivores). There were lots of different kinds of dinosaurs that
lived at different times.
Some walked on two legs, some walked on four. Some could do both.
Some were speedy, and some were slow and lumbering.
Some were armor-plated, some had horns, crests, spikes, or frills.
Some had thick, bumpy skin, and some even had primitive feathers.
The dinosaurs dominated the Earth for over 165 million years during the Mesozoic Era, but mysteriously went extinct 65 million
years ago. Paleontologists study their fossil remains to learn about the amazing prehistoric world of dinosaurs. When the dinosaurs
lived, the Earth's continents were jammed together into a supercontinent called Pangaea and the Earth was warmer than it is now.
The dinosaurs went extinct 65 million years ago, probably because of the environmental changes brought about by an asteroid
hitting the Earth. The dinosaurs went extinct about 65 million years ago, at the end of the Cretaceous period, which was a time of
high volcanic and tectonic activity. There are a lot of theories about why the extinction occurred. The most widely accepted theory is
that an asteroid impact caused major climactic changes to which the dinosaurs couldn't adapt.
Dinosaurs probably live on today as the birds. All that's left of the dinosaurs are fossils and, perhaps, the birds. Dinosaur fossils
have been found all over the world, maybe even near where you live!

Animal Systematic

101

Barn owls live in
trees and aban-
doned buildings.
They feed on small
rodents. Large flight feath-
ers quiet the flapping
sound of their wings, while
short head feathers help
guide sound waves toward
the owls' ears (lower left).
The barn owl's hooked
beak helps the bird tear
meat (lower right).
Figure: Respiratory system of bird.
ZOOLOGY
102
Class 6 Aves (Birds)
OUTLINE There are over 8,000 species of birds which
™ Feathers vary in sizes, shape and colors. Because they
™ Flight skeleton can fly, distribution of birds is wider than other
terrestrial vertebrates. Birds show great diversi-
™ Efficient respiration and
ty. The bill, foot, wing and tail are highly variable
circulation
and adaptable organs.
™ Endothermy
The bird body is remarkably covered with
™ Beak; no teeth
feathers. Feathers provide insulation and pre-
vent water loss, and function in flight.
Their tongues are hard and they have bills without teeth.
Their anterior extremites are wings which function in flight. A rib cage protects
internal organs.
Birds are warm-blooded: they maintain a constant body temperature as result
of metabolic heat. Birds have no sweat glands and cannot cool the body by per-
spiring.
Development and reproduction is similar to that of reptiles.
Eyelids are movable. There are upper, lower and inner eyelids. The iris shrinks
or enlarges to focus.
Respiratory system
Birds need high amounts of energy to fly.
Where do birds get this energy? They have very
complex systems to take in oxygen and transport
it to their cells. Birds have lungs and a series of
air sacs throughout their body for breathing.
These sacs cause much of the body cavity to be
filled with air.
Air enters the respiratory system through the
nostrils and flows into the lungs and then to the
air sacs. Air sacs increase the oxygen storage
capacity of birds. The oxygen taken by the lungs
passes to the blood and is carried to the body
cells.
Circulatory system
Birds have a four-chambered heart. The heart completely separates oxygenat-
ed and deoxygenated blood. These two kinds of blood do not mix.
Skeletal and Muscular System
The bones of birds have hollows in their structures. No other vertebrates have
hollow bones. The hollow spaces are filled with air and make the bones light.
Thus, the bones of birds are both strong and light.
 Birds fly by flapping their wings. Flap
your arms as if you were a bird. You might
feel the muscles in your chest pull your
arms toward your body. Birds are able to
flap their wings because they have large,
powerful chests and wing muscles.

Adaptations For Flight

Birds have some adaptations for flight.
1. They have wings.
2. They have light, hollow bones.
3. They have air sacs in their lungs.
4. They have large, powerful chests
and wing muscles.
Birds have feet adaptations for different
ways of life. The ostrich and other ground-
dwelling birds have sturdy feet and toes that
enable them to run. Ducks and geese have
webbed feet that are useful in swimming.
Figure: Bird skeletal system

Feathers
Feathers are lightweight and flexible. They
provide a body covering that protects the skin,
supports the bird in flight, and provides insu-
lation from the weather. In many species, the
male and female differ in coloring, with the
male generally brighter. Birds have three types
of feathers. Figure: Bird bone

Feeding and Digestion

Birds need high amounts of food to satisfy their high energy needs. For
example, a hummingbird may eat an amount equal to 100 percent of its
body mass each day. Birds do not have teeth and can not chew their food.
Instead, they take in food using their beaks.
The beaks of birds may have different adaptations according to their

Animal Systematic
feeding strategy. Woodpeckers have long, thin, tweezer-like beaks to pull
insects from cracks in the bark of trees. Ducks have wide, flat beaks to
strain food from water. Hawks have sharp and hooked beaks to tear the
flesh of their prey. The pelican uses its long, sharp beak for catching fish.
Birds swallow their food whole and grind it down in a structure called a
gizzard. Birds feed their offspring by vomiting through their gizzard. Food
Figure: The digestive system of a bird.
is digested very quickly. For example, a bird can eat berries and digest them. After

103

Fastest Flying
Falco peregrinus
can reach speeds of
200kmh/124mph in a steep
dive. In level flight the
record goes to the wander-
ing albatross which was
clocked maintaining 56kmh
for 800km
Longest migratory
flight
The Arctic tern
Sterna paradisa flies from
Kondalakaha, Russia to
Freemantle, W. Australia.
They breed on the shores
of Arctic ocean then fly to
ZOOLOGY
the Antarctic. One bird was
caught 9 months after it
was banded 14,000 miles
(22,530 km) away on
29/11/73.
104
digestion, nutrients pass to the blood and undigested materials go out the cloaca
in less than half an hour.
Excretion
Bird kidneys are metanephric. There is no urinary bladder. Urine and feces are
expelled through the cloaca. Because the kidney glomeruli are very small, only a
small amount of fluid can pass from the blood to the kidneys. Most is reabsorbed.
In this way, water loss is kept to a minimum
Nervous system and sense organs
A bird's nervous system includes a large, complex brain. The parts of the brain
that control flight are the most well developed because flight involves taking off,
landing and finding landmarks, as well as just staying in the air. A bird's brain is
also adapted to behaviors like nest building and finding food.
In most birds, the senses of smell and taste are less complex, but the senses
of sight and hearing are more complex. For example, owls use sounds to help find
their prey in the dark. Songbirds use sounds to communicate with each other.
Reproduction
In birds, fertilization is internal and embryos develop inside shelled eggs. Birds
lay eggs with a hard shell. Bird embryos need to be kept warm to develop.
Therefore, adult birds incubate their eggs or warm them with their bodies.
The hard shell keeps the growing embryo from being crushed during incuba-
tion. When you look at a fertilized bird egg, the yellow part is a source of food for
the growing embryo. Both the embryo and yolk are surrounded by the egg white.
The egg white contains food and water and acts as a protective cushion for the
embryo. A membrane inside the egg shell controls gas exchange and excretion.
When a chick is completely formed, it cracks through the shell with a special
egg tooth on its beak. This tooth falls off soon after the chick hatches.
When most birds hatch, they are covered only by down feathers and are com-
pletely helpless. Their parents keep them warm and bring them food until they are
ready to leave the nest.
Figure: Bird egg
 Highest recorded
flight
Ruppell's Griffon
Vulture (Gyps ruepellii) was
recorded flying at
11,277m. At that height,
human beings would die
from lack of air.

Most acrobatic flight

Hobby (Falco sub-
butea) can catch
swallows and swifts in
mid-air. Many humming-
birds can fly backwards
and sideways as well as
going vertically up and
down.

Quickest generation
Migration time

One of the most interesting behavior of birds is migration. Migration is the 5 species of quails
instinctive movement of animals, usually between their wintering grounds and in the genus Caturnix actu-
ally mature 5 weeks after
their breeding seasons.
hatching.
Most of the arctic birds and some tropical birds migrate. However they have
regular seasonal movements away from and back to the breeding area. The most
famous is the arctic tern, which migrates from the northern latitudes of Eurasia
and North America to Antarctica.
Long distance migration raises the intriguing question of how birds find their
way. Some fly only at night, others over trackless seas. Scientists know that no sin-
gle navigation system exists. Some birds seem to steer by star patterns and oth-
ers by the angle of the sun. At least some birds can detect ultraviolet radiation or
the magnetic field of the earth, but the actual sensory mechanism by which birds

Animal Systematic
translate environmental signals into navigational aids is still a puzzle.

Fastest Wingbeat
Horned Sungem (Heliacter cornuta) from S. America moves its
wings at a rate of 90 beats/sec! Several other hummingbirds have
similar wingbeat speeds.
Figure: Bird migration

105
 Classification of Birds
There are almost 9000 different species of birds. The classification of birds is
disputed among experts. Decisions according to which species are related to one
another are usually easy, but at higher levels relationships become more and more
uncertain. One way to study these many species is to divide them into four groups:
Perching birds, water birds, birds of prey, and flightless birds.
Perching birds: Passerine is a common
name for any of the perching birds
Figure: Perching bird belonging to the largest avian order,
which includes more than 5700 highly
diverse species and well over half of all
living birds. Passerines are distinguished
by four-toed feet, with three toes pointing for-
ward and one large toe pointing backward.
They are mostly songbirds. Robins, cardinals,
blue jays, pigeons, crows, finches, wrens, swal-
low, nightingales, warblers, vireos, tanagers, and
flycatchers are only a few of the many birds of
the passerine order.
Passerines are highly diverse in body size,
Figure: Duck ranging from kinglets, at about 5 g, to ravens,
at about 1400 gr.
Water birds: They live on or near water. Loons, ducks, sea
gulls, geese and herons belong to this group. Some water birds,
like herons, have long legs for wading in shallow water. Others, like ducks, have
webbed feet adapted for swimming.
Birds of prey, also known as raptors, include a night-hunting order (owls) and
a day-hunting order that includes the hawks, eagles and falcons, as well as the car-
rion-feeding vultures. They are all meat eaters (although the "meat" for the small-
er species is generally insects) and some feed on fish. All have powerful, sharp
beaks and all but the vultures have grasping toes tipped with curved, sharp claws
or talons.
Figure: Owl Golden Eagle is distributed through most of the northern
hemisphere. Females attain a length of about 1 m from the tip
of the beak to the tip of the tail and have a wingspread of about
2 m. Most golden eagles' nests
are placed on cliff ledges, but in
some areas large trees are pre-
ferred. The diet of this species
consists of mammals, ranging in
size from mouse to deer.
ZOOLOGY

The largest is the wedge-

tailed eagle of Australia, a most-
ly black bird with a wingspan of
Figure: Hawk as much as 2.5 m.

106
 Flightless birds: Penguins, ostriches
and kiwi make up an unusual group of
flightless birds (though they still have
wings). Penguins "fly" through ocean water
with their flipper-like wings. Ostriches and
rheas run with their wings outstretched.
This position increases their speed and
helps them to maintain balance. The
ostrich is the largest bird, standing nearly
2.5 m high and weighing as much as 136
kg.
Penguins have a white breast and a
black head. Most penguins are found in
Antarctica. Others are native to the coasts
of Australia, South Africa and South
America. Penguins feed on fish, cuttlefish,
Figure: An ostrich and penguins
crustaceans and other small sea animals.
The largest species is the emperor
penguin, which may attain a height of
more than 120 cm. Unlike most species,
the king, emperor and little penguins have blue-gray backs. The ostrich is found
only in Africa. They are the largest and the strongest of living birds, about 2.4 m
in length and weighing up to 136 kg. They spread their small wings during run-
ning and have long, powerful legs that are used for defense. Their feet have only
two toes.
Ostriches are rapid runners and can attain a speed of about 65 km/h. Their
eggs weigh about 1.4 kg. The male sits on them at night and the female incubates
them during the day. Kiwis live in New Zealand and on adjacent small islands. They
are about 50 cm long. The long slender bills of kiwis have nostrils near the tip,
unique among living birds. Kiwis are nocturnal. Their eyes are tiny and their vision
Figure: Kiwi bird
is poor. They search for their food by scent, a characteristic unusual for birds. They
don't have tails and wings.

READ ME King Penguin

Scientific Name : Aptenodytes patagonica
Home : Barren coasts of the sub-Antarctic islands
Description : Blue-black back with white belly, golden swish outlined in bold black on sides of head, almost three feet tall

Animal Systematic
Penguins are amazing fishing acrobats! The king penguin, second in size only to the huge emperor penguin, is one of the biggest
birds around. Swimming at speeds of 6 mph, king penguins use their wings as flippers to fly through the water, and then hop out onto
the rocky shore. Baby chicks are born from their greenish-white eggs nearly naked, but quickly become covered in a brown woolly
fuzz to keep them warm. Unlike many other penguins, the king penguin runs with its feet and doesn't hop while on land!
King penguins do not build nests, but tuck their single egg under their bellies while resting it on their feet! Mother and father pen-
guin take turns keeping the egg warm in the cold! Nesting colonies of as many as 10,000 penguins will form on shore, and each bird
keeps its neighbor at an exact, but short, distance away. In these close quarters, coming too close gets a nasty jab or flipper slap!

107
 READ ME Regulation of Body
Temperature In Vertebrates

Regulation in Poikilotherms
The body temperature of amphibians and reptiles fluctuates, as they depend on environmental temperature for regulation due to
the mixing of deoxygenated and oxygenated blood in the heart (Figure-1.37). These types of organisms are called poikilotherms or
cold-blooded organisms of variable body temperature. Low environmental temperatures reduce the activity of enzymes and lead to
slow metabolic rates. Due to this, oxygen and food consumption at low temperatures is very slow. Poikilothermic organisms hibernate
during the winter season to regulate their energy requirements. For instance, a hibernating frog or snake can exist on only a small
amount of food.

Regulation in Homeotherms
Birds and mammals have a four-chambered heart comprising two atria and two ventricles (Figure-1.38). The right side of the heart
contains deoxygenated blood whereas the left side contains oxygenated blood. Oxygenated and deoxygenated blood are separated
in homeothermic or warm-blooded organisms of fixed body temperature. The body temperature of these organisms is constant and
does not alter according to their environment. For instance, the body temperature of birds living at the North pole is +44°C even
though the outside temperature is -44°C. These birds would die if their body temperature decreased by a few degrees centigrade.
They are always active, and as a result they require considerable quantities of oxygen and more food as compared with other organ-
isms.
ZOOLOGY

108
 Class 7 Mammalia (Mammals)
OUTLINE Mammary glands (in females) and hair cov-
™ Hair ered bodies are characteristics of mammals.
™ Milk-producting glands Other features include: hair covers the skin.
Hair originates from the epidermis, while hair
™ Placenta
follicles are in the dermis.
™ Sweat glands
They are warm-blooded and their hearts
™ Endodermy
have 2 atria and 2 ventricles.
Except camels, the erythrocytes lack nuclei.
Coelom is divided by the diaphragm into thoracic
and abdominal parts. Teeth are developed.
Respiratory system is well-developed.
Most have a placenta and give birth to live young.
Fertilization is internal but their young develop in dif-
ferent ways. Female mammals have mammary
glands which produce milk.
They feed their young with milk. Brain function
and mobility are developed. Mammals range in size
from 5 cm to 30 meters.

Classification Of Mammals
According to organization and embryonic devel-
opment, there are 3 subclasses:
Figure: Dog anatomy
Monotremata (Egg-laying mammals):
These organisms do not have
a placenta. The urogenital open-
ing is a cloaca into which the
large intestine, and urinary and
genital ducts open.
This feature is shared with
reptiles and birds. These are egg-
laying animals, but they feed their
young with milk produced by
mammary glands.
There are many extinct
species and a few living species.

Animal Systematic
Examples are the duck-billed
platypus (Ornithorhynhus ana- Figure: Platypus
Figure: Spiny anteater
tonus) and the spiny anteater
(Echidna aculeata). Monotremata are
egg-laying mam-
mals and they
have cloaca.

109
 READ ME mammals
Duck-Billed Platypus (Monotreme)
Among all the monotremes, or egg-laying mammals, the duck-
billed platypus (subclass Holotheria, genus Ornithorhynchus) is perhaps
the most familiar species. Like all mammals, the duck-billed platypus is
endothermic, meaning it generates its own internal body heat. However,
its metabolic rate and body temperature are lower than those of most
other mammals. The duck-billed platypus is also one of the rare ven-
omous mammals. A spike on its ankle contains a poison that is inject-
ed when the meat-eating platypus attacks a small animal. Functioning
similar to birds, monotremes incubate their one to three eggs outside
the body of the mother. Another similarity to birds is that the platypus
does not possess teeth. Incubation lasts about 12 days, after which the
monotreme young use a "milk tooth" to carve themselves free from
within an egg. Milk produced by a mother's mammary gland is secret-
ed onto the skin within the pouch and sucked or lapped up by the
babies. Weaning of the young happens at 16 to 20 weeks of age.

Kangaroo (Marsupial)
Worldwide, there are approximately 272 species of marsupials (subclass Metatheria). The
vast majority (about 200 species) live in the Australian region, while another 70 marsupial
species are found in Central and South America.
A marsupial youngster is so tiny at birth that its mother's pouch is effectively the only envi-
ronment in which it could survive. Infants typically weigh less than 1% of their mother's body
weight.
At birth, newborn marsupials emerge from their mother's reproductive tract and crawl
immediately and instinctively into her pouch. Using their forelimbs, the young pull themselves
along the mother's belly by grasping hairs and begin to suckle from her nipples.

Hump-Backed Whale (Placental)

The subclass Eutheria includes a vast group of diverse species such
as primates (monkeys, apes,); insectivores (shrews, moles, hedgehogs,
tenrecs); cetaceans (whales, porpoises, dolphins); carnivores (lions,
tigers, wolves); and many other orders of mammals.
Eutheria species are placental, meaning the young develop in the
womb of the mother while attached to a placenta. Through the placen-
ta, nutrients pass from mother to embryo, and wastes travel from
embryo to mother. Cetaceans such as whales, including the humpback
whale, are adapted to live, breed, rest, and carry out all of their life func-
tions in the water.
ZOOLOGY

Body features of many cetaceans help reduce drag for efficient

swimming. This is especially important for whales traveling thousands
of kilometers during migration. Body-part extensions such as external
ears or genitals would increase drag.

110
Figure: Koala Figure: Oppossum Figure: Wombat

Marsupialia (Pouched Mammals):

The pouched mammals do not have a placenta. They give birth to underde-
veloped embryos which complete their development inside a pouch (marsupium) Marsupialia have an
abdominal pouch
on the mother’s abdomen, where the mammary glands are located. Many species
for their young.
are found exclusively in America and Australia. They are hunters or herbivores.
Examples of the group are the kangaroo, sugar glider, wombat, and oppossum.

READ ME TASMANIAN DEVILS

Order : Dasyuromorphia
Family : Dasyuridae
Genus : Sarcophilus
Species : Harrisii
Length : 57 to 65 centimeters; tail about 26 centimeters
Weight : 6 to 8 kilograms
Life span : About 7 to 8 years
Gestation : 31 days; young then remain in the mother's pouch for
about 4 months
Tasmanian Devils are large, meat-eating marsupials. They have large pow-
erful jaws and teeth. They are black in color, with a white band. They have hair-
less pink ears. Females have a backward-opening pouch. Tasmanian Devils are
found only in Tasmanian habitats, including rainforests, eucalyptus forests,
farmlands, and even outer city suburbs. Tasmanian Devils are nocturnal, spend-
ing the daytime sleeping in dens made in hollow logs, caves or old wombat bur-
rows which they line with grass and leaves.
Mating takes place between February and September and joeys are born. Each is slightly larger than a grain of rice. They are car-

Animal Systematic
ried in the pouch for about 15 weeks, after which they are left in the nest while the mother is away feeding. Later, they ride on the
mother's back, or follow behind. They become independent after about 28 weeks, and may live for up to 8 years.
Tasmanian devils have been described as the "vacuum cleaners" of the forest, because they mainly eat animals that have already
died. By day, Devils are hidden away from danger in their burrows. If attacked, adult Tasmanian Devils can use their threatening growls
and powerful bite to deter most animals.
Tasmanian Devils are very loud especially when there are a number of them at one carcass, trying to scare each other off. They
have a range of sound, from barks to snorts to growling to screaming ! This screaming and their fierce looks gave birth to their "Devil"
name.

111
 Placental Mammals
Features: Placenta
Nearly 95% of mammal species found today are in this group.
The placenta plays an important role in embryonic development,
functioning in excretion, respiration, and the transfer of nutrients
from the mother to the embryo.
Unlike egg-laying and pouched mammals, the young of pla-
cental mammals develop totally within the female. The placenta
is a structure by which the embryo receives food and oxygen
from its mother and removes waste materials before birth. After
the young are born, females supply their young with milk.
There are more than 20 groups of placental mammals. They
are grouped according to how they eat, how they move or where
they live. Nine groups are discussed in the remainder of this sec-
tion.

Cheetahs
The cheetah is the fastest mammal on land. It can
run up to 100 kilometers an hour! Nonretractable
claws that lack a protective covering help the cheetah
make sharp turns at high speeds. Cheetahs also have very
good eyesight and can see hidden prey

READ ME LION
The King of the Jungle, Forest, and Savanna
Lions have captured our imaginations for centuries. Stars of
movies and characters in books, lions are the top of the African
food chain. The Swahili word for lion, simba, also means "king,"
"strong," and "aggressive." The word lion has similar meaning in
our vocabulary. If you call someone lionhearted, you're describ-
ing a courageous and brave person. If you lionize someone, you
treat that person with great interest or importance. The lion
belongs to the cat family and is very predatory, with his long
torso, short legs, large head, strong appearance and majesty,
Living with Pride
Lions are the only cats who live in large, social groups,
called "prides." A pride is made up of 3 to 30 lions. The pride
consists of lionesses (moms, sisters, and cousins), and their
cubs, along with a few unrelated adult males. The pride has a
close bond and is not likely to accept a stranger. The unrelated
males stay a few months or a few years, but the older lionesses stay together for life. In dry areas with less food, prides are smaller,
ZOOLOGY

with two lionesses in charge. In habitats with more food and water, prides can have four to six adult lionesses.
All for One and One for All
Living in a pride makes life easier. Hunting as a group means there is a better chance the lions will have food when they need it,
and it is less likely that they will get injured while hunting.

112
 Flesh eating mammals:
Flesh-eating mammals are called carnivores. Carnivores
are predators. Most carnivores have sharp, pointed teeth,
called canines, that they use for tearing meat. You also have
canines; two in the top set of teeth and two at the bottom.
Most carnivores are strong, fast and have sharp claws.
They also have a well-developed sense of smell. Their
powerful jaws, large claws and good sense organs help them
in hunting. Most carnivores, such as lions, wolves and bears,
have very strong, muscular legs that help them chase other
animals. Carnivores are generally intelligent and much of
their hunting behavior is learned. Flesh-eating mammals
include wolf, fox, dog, lion, tiger, leopard, cheetah, panda,
polar bear, seal and walrus.

READ ME ICY LIFE

Snow Leopard
Scientific Name : Panthera uncia
Home : At high altitudes in coniferous forests of the
Himalayan and Altai mountains
Description : Soft gray fur with dark black-brown spots, a yard-
long furry tail, large paws
Adapted for the extreme weather conditions of freezing snowy peaks
and rocky terrain, these rare creatures hunt alone high in the mountains
for ibex, wild mountain sheep, musk deer, small goats and often tinier
mammals during the warmer daytime hours. Unlike most big cats, the
snow leopard doesn't roar, and feeds crouched over her dinner, like small
cats do. Snow leopard young are born up to four at a time in a warm den
lined with mama leopard's fur.

Polar Bear
Scientific Name : Ursus maritimus
Home : All around the North Pole on sea ice, islands, and coasts
Description : White-furred, long-legged, huge, one-ton bear
Polar bears are among the largest land carnivores. Adult male polar bears, called boars,
weigh from 350 to 650 kg and are about 2.5 to 3 m long. Their diet includes everything from
seals to large fish, or scavenging for dead whale or walrus. The polar bear uses a sense of smell

Animal Systematic
100 times better than ours. A clever polar bear technique for catching a seal requires long
hours by a hole in the ice, waiting for the seal to come up for air so he can grab it. Polar
bears can run at speeds close to 40 mph. Some polar bears never step on land, though,
and move from one ice floe to another. Even though they are amazing swimmers, with
water-repellent coats and partially webbed paws, the bears prefer to use chunks of ice as
rafts to get around! Adapted for the cold, polar bears have a thick fur coat. The coat can
vary from pure white to creamy yellow to light brown, depending upon season and angle
of light. A polar bear's black skin absorbs heat from the sun, helping it stay warm.

113
 Flying mammals:
Bats are the only flying mammals. Bats are
able to fly because they have skin stretched over
their arms and fingers, which forms wings.
There are two types of bats: fruit eaters and
insect eaters. Fruit-eating bats are found in trop-
ical areas, such as Africa, Australia, India and
the Asian countries.
Figure: Anteater
Insect-eating bats live almost everywhere.
The vampire bat, which is found in Central and
South America, hunts mainly cattle. To obtain
blood, the bat bites off a small piece of skin and
then laps up the blood.
Figure: Bat
Toothless mammals:
Anteaters, armadillos and sloths belong to this qroup. In these animals, teeth
are either very small or completely absent. Members of this group are found in
South and Central America. The sloth is very slow animal. Its metabolism is very
low. For example, its heart beats 8-10 times per munite.
Unlike the spiny anteaters, the true anteater does not lay eggs. The young
remain inside the female until they are fully developed. However, both types of
anteaters have a long sticky tongue that is used for catching insects
Figure: Armadillo Armadillo: The most striking feature of the armadillo is its protective, armor-
like coat. They vary in size from 1 m, excluding the tail, to 15 cm long. A layer of
horn and bony plates protects the animal from predators.

READ ME sleep well

Habitat: tropical forests
Diet: leaves, fruit, and tender twigs
A sloth spends nearly all its life hanging upside down from branches in the
rain forest canopy. It eats, sleeps, mates, gives birth, and even defecates in this
position. Sloths' bodies show some remarkable adaptations for this upside
down lifestyle. All sloths have 3 toes on their feet, but two-toed sloths have only
two claws on their hands. Their claws are long, sharp, and curved like meat
hooks. Their main use is to enable the animals to hang for almost all their lives,
but they are also formidable weapons for defense. Although they are capable
of standing on their feet for a short time, they cannot walk erect. Their neck
muscles allow their heads to turn through 270 degrees, so that the head can
be held almost the right way up while the rest of the body is upside down.
The claws are part of their adaptation to life in the trees and help them
ZOOLOGY

remain sleeping and suspended underneath branches for hours. Sloths are
generally nocturnal and move around little when awake. When they do move, it is at a slow and deliberate speed.
The slow or low rate of metabolism in sloths effects their ability to fight off illness. Most sloths have difficulty surviving when in
captivity outside of their natural range because they cannot fight off new diseases or adapt to a colder climate.

114
Figure: Giraffes Figure: Zebras Figure: Tapir
Hoofed mammals
What do sheep, camels, horses, and rhinoceroses have in common? Not
much at first glance. They look very different. Yet look again. The feet of these ani-
mals end in hooves. One kind of hoof has an even number of toes and belongs
to such mammals as deer, hippopotamus, llama, camels, goats, cows and
giraffes. The other kind of hoof has an odd number of toes and belongs to mam-
mals such as horses, rhinoceroses, zebras and tapirs.
Hoofed animals are among the most important “partners” of human beings
and have been for thousands of years. People eat their meat, drink their milk, wear
their skins, ride on them and use them to pull devices used in farming. Most of the
Figure: Rhino
hoofed mammals are herbivores. Herbivores are organisms that feed on plants.

READ ME musk oxen

The musk ox has long brown, grey and yellowish fur. They
are social animals that live in groups, being famous for making
a defensive ring when they feel threatened.The Arctic tundra is
one of the harshest places to live on Earth. To survive the bleak
winter season, some animals (like reindeer) move away tem-
porarily, and some (like Arctic ground squirrels) take a long nap.
Musk oxen, however, choose to do neither. It appears that they
don't mind the unpleasant weather and scarce food supply even
one bit! Well, of course musk oxen don't mind the climate,
because their outfit comes with an "all weather proof" warranty!
Musk oxen wear two layers of coats. The outer layer is made of
coarse, dark brown hair that is so long that it almost reaches the
ground. The inner layer, on the contrary, consists of short, soft,
pale brown hair that is replaced once a year around the summer
time. As the hair on their outer coats is water resistant, musk

Animal Systematic
oxen are not afraid of getting wet when it rains or snows.
Likewise, since the hair on their inner coats is warm, musk oxen
are well insulated from the icy temperature.

Famous For Their Defense

No other animal has the defense method of musk oxen. When danger threatens they do not run away. Instead, a herd of twenty
to forty individuals backs into a rough circle facing outward with the calves in the center or under their mother's bellies. This ring of
horned heads can defy such natural enemies as the arctic wolf and the grizzly bear.From time to time a bull dashes out to do battle,
then returns to the circle. He is exceedingly nimble. A single sweep of his horns can cripple or kill a wolf, dog or Eskimo hunter.

115
 The largest animal
Mammals with trunks
on land at the This group includes only elephants. They are the largest land animals. There
moment on this are two types of elephants: African and Asiatic. Although there are a number of dif-
planet is a mammal;
ferences between these two, the most obvious one is the ear size. The ears of the
the bull African Elephant.
The largest specimen
African elephant are much larger than those of their Asiatic cousins. The Asian ele-
recorded stood around phant reaches a height of about 3 m and the African elephant, about 4 m. The
3.96 m at the shoulder and trunk is the distinguishing feature of all elephants. It is powerful enough to tear
weighed over 12 tons. large branches from trees. Yet, at the same time, elephant trunks are capable of
such delicate movements as picking up a single peanut thrown by a child at a zoo.
The trunk of an elephant contains 50,000 different muscles. This trunk can hold
about 4 L of water. Elephants consume as much as 225 kg of forage a day and
drink as much as 190 liters of water.

READ ME GIANT ELEPHANTS

The African elephant is the largest living land mam-
mal, one of the most impressive animals on earth.
Of all its specialized features, the muscular trunk is
the most remarkable. It serves as a nose, a hand, an extra
foot, a signaling device and a tool for gathering food,
siphoning water, dusting, digging and a variety of other
functions.
The tusks, another remarkable feature, are greatly
elongated incisors (elephants have no canine teeth);
about one-third of their total length lies hidden inside the
skull. Elephants use their ears to display, signal or warn.
When alarmed or angry, they spread the ears, bringing
them forward and fully extending them. The ears also
control body temperature.
By flapping the ears on hot days, the blood circulates
in the ear's numerous veins; the blood returns to the
head and body cooler. The sole of the elephant's foot is
covered with a thick, cushionlike padding that helps sus-
tain weight, prevents slipping and deadens sound.
When they need to, elephants can walk almost silent-
ly. Elephants can live in nearly any habitat that has ade-
quate quantities of food and water. Their ideal habitat
consists of plentiful grass and browse. Elephants are gen-
erally gregarious and form small family groups consisting
of an older matriarch and three or four offspring, along
with their young.
Smell is the most highly developed sense, but sound (deep growling or rumbling noises) is the principle means of communica-
tion. Some researchers think that each individual has its signature growl by which it can be distinguished.
Sometimes elephants communicate with an ear-splitting blast when in danger or alarmed, causing others to form a protective cir-
ZOOLOGY

cle around the younger members of the family group.

Elephants make low-frequency calls, many of which, though loud, are too low for humans to hear. These sounds allow elephants
to communicate with one another at distances of five or six miles.

116
 Figure: Rabits and hare
Rodent like mammals (Logomorphs)
Rabbits, hares and pikas belong to rodent-like mammals. These mammals
have gnawing teeth, like rodents. But unlike rodents, they have a small pair of
grinding teeth behind their gnawing teeth. Another difference between these two
groups of mammals is that both rabbits and hare have long ears and fluffy tails.

Rodents (Gnawing Mammals)

The largest family of mammals is the rodents. These mammals are named
rodent, which means "gnawing animal" because of their large incisor teeth and the Rodents, at least the
few species that are
way they eat. The two long pairs of incisors are used like chisels to gnaw or chew
pests, cost us about
hard objects such as wood, nuts and grain. Their teeth are worn down as the teeth 43 million tons of dam-
grow. Some rodents, especially rats and mice, compete with human beings for aged and destroyed food
food. They eat the seeds of plants and lots of other food used by people. There every year.
are more than 2000 species of rodents which are widely distributed throughout the
world. There are 3 major types of rodents which are represented by squirrels, mice
and porcupines.
The flying squirrel is a nocturnal rodent that glides from higher to lower tree
branches by means of a blanket-like membrane of furry skin stretched between its
long forelegs and hind legs. Flying squirrels have large eyes, dense soft fur and
long flattened tails, which are used to guide their parachute-like glides. The giant
flying squirrel of Asian forests glides as far as 450 m.

Animal Systematic

Figure: Squirrel Figure: Fly Squirrel

117
 Whales and dol-
Aquatic mammals
phins sleep one There are 78 known species of aquatic mammals, like dolphin, whales and
side of their brains dugongs.
at a time - while one
side is asleep the other Whales and dolphins spend their entire lives in the ocean and cannot survive
keeps watch for danger. on land. They can remain underwater for long periods of time. Dugongs live in
shallow water, often in rivers and canals.
Aquatic mammals are air breathers. Like other mammals, aquatic mammals
give birth to live young, which are fed with milk.

Figure: Dugong Figure: Killer whale

Blue whales are
not only the
largest animal
ever, they are also
the loudest. Their low
frequencies can be heard
from 530 MILES away.
ZOOLOGY
Dugong
The dugong is a large marine mammal that inhabits the tropical waters of the
Indian and western Pacific Oceans. It is commonly called a sea cow. The dugong's
massive body is about 2.4 m long. They are plant eaters. This harmless sea ani-
mal has long been hunted for its meat and oil. Today the world population of
dugongs is believed to be reduced to less than 40,000. They are now classified as
endangered.
Whale
Whales are huge aquatic mammals. They have lungs like other mammals.
They breathe air through a single nostril on the top of the head. Some whales can
hold their breath up to 50 minutes while diving, and others up to 75 minutes. The
life span varies: for small toothed whales such as the beluga it is thought to be
about 30 years; for the sperm whale it is up to 70 years; and baleen whales prob-
ably live for as long as 80 years. There are two types of whales: toothed and baleen
whales.
Toothed whales include sperm whale, pilot whale and killer whale. Toothed
whales feed on fish and invertebrates such as squid and crustaceans. Only the

killer whale has a varied diet that includes seabirds and marine mammals.
Baleen is also known as whalebone. It is a hard and horny substance that
grows in long plates in the upper jaws of toothless whales.

118
 Toothless whales are also known as baleen whales.
Baleen whales include the blue whale, gray whale and
humpback whale. Baleen whales feed on microscopic
plankton. While feeding, a baleen whale swims with its
mouth open in order to engulf plankton and seawater by
the ton.
Dolphin: Dolphins, like whales, breathe through a
blowhole at the top of the head. Dolphins are superbly
streamlined and can sustain speeds of up to 30 km/h, with
bursts of more than 40 km/h. They dive to depths of more
than 300 m. Dolphins are intelligent. They are able to learn
and perform complex tasks in captivity. Some investiga-
tions suggest that the animals might be capable of learn-
ing a true language and communicating with human Figure: Dolphin
beings.

READ ME dolphin
Dolphins have outstanding vision in and out of the
water. In the water, their eyes are protected from the sea
water by mucus secreted from glands at the outer corner
of the eye. Their ears, small and hard to detect, are locat-
ed just behind the eyes and have no flaps or lobes. The
dolphin's swimming power comes from its caudal fluke,
which moves up and down instead of side-to-side like fish.
The dorsal fin provides stabilization and may also regulate
body heat -- a dolphin's body temperature is very close to
humans’ at 36.5 degrees C
What do dolphins eat?
After feeding on mother's milk the first few weeks,
calves begin eating fish at 3 to 4 months and are weaned
at 12 to 18 months. Dolphins feed on all kinds of fish and
crustaceans .
How long do dolphins live?
In captivity, dolphins have lived as long as 40 years. In
the wild, though, scientists believe they only live 25 to 30
years.
Do dolphins sleep?
Traveling as much as they do, dolphins must rest some time. They don't sleep, though. They merely take cat naps at the ocean's surface for two
or three minutes at a time. At night, those naps increase to seven or eight minutes.
How often do dolphins surface?
Because, like most marine mammals, they lack nostrils, dolphins surface every 15 to 20 seconds to clear their blow holes with a burst of air. They

Animal Systematic
commonly dive 200 meters and can remain underwater for 8 to 10 minutes by slowing their heart beat and controlling their blood flow. Dolphins only
breathe voluntarily rather than automatically like humans, so if they're knocked unconscious, they stop breathing.
How fast do dolphins swim?
Dolphins typically cruise at 5 to 7 miles per hour, but they have been clocked at 18 to 22 miles per hour with top speeds of 30 miles per hour.
How do dolphins travel?
Dolphins travel in pods of up to 15. A pod typically consists of several adult females, calves and adult males. Pods may travel together in herds of
several hundred individuals. Dominance or aggression, in the form of a showing of teeth, tail smacking, jaw snapping or head butting, establishes the
hierarchy in the pod.

119
 Figure: Orangutan
Orangutans
Shaggy, orange-haired orangutans live in
tropical rain forests. They spend most of
their time high in the trees, often pulling them-
selves along branches with long, powerful arms.
Their hands and feet grasp branches and vines.
Young orangutans travel with their mothers for up
to seven years.
ZOOLOGY
Figure: Baboon
120
Figure: Chimpanzee
Primates
Baboon, lemur, gibbon, chimpanzee, orangutan, mon-
key, gorilla and human being are members of the same
group, called primates. The primates have five fingers on
each hand and five toes on each foot. The fingers are capa-
ble of very complicated movements, especially grasping
objects. Their fingers and toes have flat nails instead of
claws. Most primates live in trees, except humans, gorillas
and baboons, which live on the ground. Primates eat both
plants and meat. Monkeys and apes walk on all four limbs,
but they may run upright using only their hind legs.
Primates are born fully formed. They tend to have a long
gestation period in their mother's womb. Parents also care
for and educate their young much longer than other ani-
mals. This results in a strong bond between a baby and the
mother. Primates are very social animals and tend to form
strong bonds with family and friends.
Figure: Lemur
 Primates also have large and complex brains. Because of this they are the most
intelligent of all mammals. There is evidence that chimpanzees can be taught to
communicate with people by using a kind of sign language. Some scientists have
reported that chimpanzees can use tools, such as twigs, to remove insects from a
log. Human beings are another primate that can make their own tools. Their sight
is well developed.
The human brain is more than twice the size of other primates’.
This makes human beings the most intelligent primates, with the most devel-
oped communication, language and reasoning skills. Human beings are able to
make and use complex tools to help control their environment. Human beings
also walk upright on two legs.

no comment

Chimpanzees
They live in Africa,

Animal Systematic
where they spend a
lot of time on the ground,
although they also climb
among the trees. A chimp's
hands and feet can easily
grip branches and objects.
Chimps communicate with
each other by vocalizing

121
 PLACENTAL MAMMALS
These are generally nocturnal
animals with thick fur, pro-
truding proboscis, and sharp
teeth. Some are arboreal
while many others are subter-
ranean.
Insectivora
(moles, shrews)
These are mostly insectivo-
rous animals that are able to
fly. Some species suck blood
from vertebrates and some
others prey on small verte-
brates like frogs. They are
Chiroptera (bats) usually nocturnal.
They eat basically meat and
are characterized by sharp
and long canine teeth. The
front molars are sharp, too.
They are strong and fast
predators.
Carnivora
(carnivores)
They are sluggish animals
that feed on insects and small
invertebrates. Teeth are
reduced or absent. Body is
protected by thick plates.
Edentata
(toothless mammals)
Incisors are characteristically
well-developed. Canine teeth
are missing. They are adapt-
ed to gnawing.
Rodentia (rodents)
In general, these have promi-
nent incisors, long ears and
hind legs.
ZOOLOGY
Lagomorpha
(hares and rabbits)
122
The brain and eyes are well
developed. Orbits are direct-
ed anteriorly. Some have nails
instead of claws. They are
basically omnivorous.
Primates (monkeys,
chimpanzee)
These are herbivores with an
odd number of hoofed digits
(1-3-5, generally 1). Teeth are
specialized for grinding of
plant matter. They are nor-
mally robust, long-legged
Perissodactyla plains dwellers.
(horse, zebra)
These are herbivores with 2
or 4 hoofed digits per leg.
Many are ruminants with
chambered stomachs. Horns
are usually seen in one or
both sexes.
Artiodactyla (cattle,
sheep, giraffe, pig, deer)
These are the largest terres-
trial organisms (up to 7 tons).
A heavy head, large ears,
loose, thick skin, and muscu-
lar body are characteristic of
the group.
Proboscidea (ele-
phants)
Sea mammals are included in
this group, despite rare occa-
sions of freshwater species. All
extremites are adapted to sea
life. Hind limbs are missing.
Many species have a thick layer
of fat. They are among the most
intelligent animals. The blue
Cetacea (whales and whale is the largest animal ever
dolphins) to have existed in the world.
Limbs are specialized for
swimming. They are carni-
vores and feed primarily on
fish.
Pinnipedia
(sea lions and seals)
 Zoology
APPENDIX

Animal Classification
 UNDERSTANDING BIOLOGICAL TERMS
PREFIXES SUFFIXES AND SOME COMMON WORD ROOTS
a-, an-, un- less, lack, not (asymmetrical, not symmetrical)
ad- (also af-, ag-, an-, ap-) to, toward (adduct, move
toward the midline of the body)
auto- self (autotroph, organism that manufactures its own
food)
bio- life (biology, the study of life)
ecto- outside (ectoplasm, outer layer of cytoplasm)
end-, endo- within, inner (endoplasmic reticulum, a net-
work of membranes found within the cytoplasm)
epi- on, upon (epidermis, upon the dermis)
extra- outside, beyond (extraembryonic membrane, a
membrane that encircles and protects the embryo)
hemi- half (cerebral hemisphere, lateral half of the cere-
brum)
hetero- other, different (heterozygous, having unlike mem-
bers of a gene pair)
intra- within (intracellular, within the cell)
meso- middle (mesoderm, middle tissue layer of the ani-
mal embryo)
micro- small (microscope, instrument for viewing small
objects)
oo- egg (oocyte, developing egg cell)
para- near, beside, beyond (paracentral, near the center)
peri- around (pericardial membrane, membrane that sur-
rounds the heart)
poly- many, much, multiple, complex (polysaccharide, a
carbohydrate composed of many simple sugars)
post- after, behind (postnatal, after birth)
pre- before (prenatal, before birth)
pseudo- false (pseudopod, a temporary protrusion of a
cell, i.e., "false foot")
syn- with, together (syndrome, a group of symptoms that
occur together and characterize a disease)
Suffixes
-able, -ible able (viable, able to live)
-ad used in anatomy to form adverbs of direction (cephal-
ZOOLOGY
ad, toward the head)
-logy study or science of (cytology, study of cells)
-osis indicates disease (psychosis, a mental disease)
-scope instrument for viewing or observing (microscope,
instrument for viewing small objects)
124
Some Common Word Roots
arthr joint (arthropods, invertebrate animals with jointed
legs and segmented bodies)
bi, bio life (biology, study of life)
brachi arm (brachial artery, blood vessel that supplies the
arm)
bry grow, swell (embryo, an organism in the early stages of
development)
cardi heart (cardiac, pertaining to the heart)
cephal head (cephalad, toward the head)
cerebr brain (cerebral, pertaining to the brain)
chondr cartilage (chondrocyte, a cartilage cell)
cili small hair (cilium, a short, fine cytoplasmic hair pro-
jecting from the surface of a cell)
cran skull (cranial, pertaining to the skull)
cyt cell (cytology, study of cells)
ecol dwelling, house (ecology, the study of organisms in
relation to their environment, i.e., "their house")
gamet a wife or husband (gametangium, the part of a
plant or protist that produces reproductive cells)
gastr stomach (gastrointestinal tract, the digestive tract)
gon seed (gonad, an organ that produces gametes)
gutt a drop (guttation, loss of water as liquid "drops" from
plants)
hem blood (hemoglobin, the pigment of red blood cells)
hepat liver (hepatic, of or pertaining to the liver)
hist tissue (histology, study of tissues)
leuk white (leukocyte, white blood cell)
menin membrane (meninges, the three membranes that
envelop the brain and spinal cord)
my, myo muscle (myocardium, muscle layer of the heart)
nephr kidney (nephron, microscopic unit of the kidney)
neur, nerv nerve (neuromuscular, involving both the nerves
and muscles)
ost bone (osteology, study of bones)
ped, pod foot (bipedal, walking on two feet)
zoo an animal (zoology, the science of animals)
 A Arthropod: Invertebrate that belongs to phylum
Abdominal cavity: The body cavity in mammals that
primarily houses parts of the digestive, excretory, and
reproductive systems. It is separated from the thoracic
cavity by the diaphragm.
Acoelomate: Animal lacking a body cavity
Adipose tissue: Tissue in which fat is stored.
Allantois: One of the extraembryonic membranes of
reptiles, birds, and mammals.
Alveolus: An air sac of the lung through which gas
exchange with the blood takes place.
Amnion: An extraembryonic membrane that forms a
fluid-filled sac for the protection of the developing
embryo.
Amniotes: Terrestrial vertebrates: reptiles, birds, and
mammals; animals whose embryos are enclosed by an
amnion.
Amphibians: Members of vertebrate class that includes
salamanders, frogs, and caecilians.
Anatomy: The study of the structure of an organism.
Annelid: Member of phylum Annelida; segmented
worm such as earthworm.
Anterior: Toward the head end of a bilaterally symmet-
rical animal.
Anura: The order of frogs and toads that includes tail-
less tetrapod amphibians.
Anus: The distal end and outlet of the digestive tract.
Apoda: The order of caecilians that includes legless
amphibians.
Arachnids: 8-legged arthropods such as spiders, scor-
pions, ticks, and mites.
Arthropoda; characterized by a hard exoskeleton, a seg-
mented body, and paired, jointed appendages.
Asexual reproduction: Reproduction in which there is
only one parent genetic makeup of parent and of off-
spring is usually identical.
Autotroph: Organism that makes their own food from
simple raw materials; also called producer.
Aves: The vertebrate class of birds, characterized by
feathers and other flight adaptations.
B
Bilateral symmetry: Characterizing a body form with a
central longitudinal plane that divides the body into two
equal halves.
Binomial system of nomenclature: System of naming
a species by the combination of the genus name and a
specific epithet.
Body cavity: A fluid-containing space between the
digestive tract and the body wall.
Book lungs: Organs of gas exchange in spiders.
Bipedal: Walking on two feet.
Brain: An organ that controls body functions.
C
Capillary: A microscopic blood vessel that penetrates
the tissues and allows exchange between the blood and
interstitial fluid
Cardiac muscle: Involuntary, striated type of muscle
found in the vertebrate heart.
Carnivore: An animal that feeds on other animals.
Cartilage: A type of connective tissue.
Cell: The basic structural and functional unit of life.
125
Centrosome: Cell organelle present in the cytoplasm of
eukaryotic cells, important during cell division.
Cephalization: The formation of a head.
Cephalochordates: Members of the chordate, subphy-
lum that includes the lancelets.
Chelicerae: The first pair of appendages in certain
arthropods; claw-like appendages located immediately
anterior to the mouth and used to manipulate food into
the mouth.
Chemoreceptor: A sensory receptor that responds to
chemical stimuli.
Chilopoda: The animal class that includes centipedes.
Chitin: A nitrogen-containing structural polysaccharide
that forms the exoskeleton of insects.
Chondrichthyes: The class of cartilaginous fishes;
includes the sharks, rays, and skates.
Chordates: Deuterostome animals that belong to phy-
lum Chordata characterized by having a notochord; a
dorsal, tubular nerve cord; pharyngeal gill grooves; and
a postanal tail.
Chorion: An extraembryonic membrane in reptiles,
birds, and mammals that forms an outer cover around
the embryo and in mammals helps to the formation of
the placenta.
Class: A taxonomic category made up of related orders.
Cloaca: A common opening for the digestive, urinary,
and reproductive tracts in all vertebrates except most
mammals.
Closed circulatory system: A type of circulatory sys-
tem in which the blood flows through a continuous cir-
cuit of blood vessels; characteristic of annelids, some
mollusks such as cephalopods and all vertebrates.
Cnidarians: Phylum of animals that have cnidocytes,
two tissue layers, and radial symmetry; include hydras
and jellyfish.
126
Cnidocytes: Stinging cells which is the characteristic of
cnidarians.
Coelom: The main body cavity of most animals; a true
coelom is lined with mesoderm.
Coelomate: Animals that have a true coelom.
Commensalisms: A kind of symbiosis in which one
organism benefits and the other one is neither harmed
nor helped.
Compound eye: A type of eye in insects and crus-
taceans consisting of many light-detecting ommatidia;
especially good at detecting movement.
Cone cell: One of two types of photoreceptors in the
vertebrate eye; detects color.
Connective tissue: Animal tissue consisting mostly of
intercellular substance (fibers scattered through a
matrix) in which the cells are embedded, e.g., bone.
Cornea: Transparent covering of an eye.
Crocodilian: The reptile group that includes crocodiles
and alligators.
Crustacea: The animal phylum that includes crabs, lob-
sters, crayfish, and shrimp.
Ctenophores: Phylum of marine diploblastic animals
such as comb jellies which has comblike rows of cilia for
movement.
Cytoplasm: The entire contents of the cell includes the
nucleus and all cell organelles.
D
Diaphragm: A sheet of muscle that forms the bottom
wall of the thoracic cavity in mammals; active in venti-
lating the lungs.
Diploblastic: Having two germ layers ectoderm and
endoderm.
Deuterostome: Major division of the animal kingdom
which includes echinoderms and chordates. In these
animals the anus forms first.
Digestion: The breakdown of big food molecules to External fertilization: The fusion of gametes occurs
smaller molecules. outside of the female body.

Diplopoda: The animal class that includes millipedes. F

Dipnoi: The class of lungfishes. Family: In classification, the taxonomic category above
genus.
Domain: A taxonomic category that includes one or
more kingdoms such as domain eukaryote. Fertilization: Fusion of sperm and egg which results in
the formation of a zygote.
Dorsal: The uppermost surface or back of an animal.
Flagellum: Long, whiplike, movable structure that pro-
E vides locomotion.
Echinoderms: Phylum of marine deuterostome inverte-
brates characterized by a spiny-skin a water vascular Fossil: Parts or traces of an ancient organism usually
system and tube feet; include sea stars, sea cucumbers, preserved in rock.
and sea urchins.
G
Ecology: The study of how organisms interact with their
Gamete: A sex cell; an egg or sperm.
environments.
Genus: A taxonomic category above the species level,
Ectoderm: The outermost of the three primary germ
designated by the first word of a species' binomial Latin
layers in animal embryos.
name.
Embryo: A young new developing organism.
Germ layers: In animals, three embryonic tissue layers:
Endoderm: The innermost of the three primary germ ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm.
layers in animal embryos
Gills: The respiratory organs of many aquatic animals,
Endoskeleton: The supportive bony or cartilaginous fish and some amphibian such as salamander.
structures within the body.
H
Endotherm: An animal that uses metabolic energy to
maintain a constant body temperature, such as a bird Heart: A muscular pumping organ which pumps and
or mammal. receives blood to or from the body.

Epithelial tissue: The type of animal tissue that covers Hemocoel: Blood cavity characteristic of animals which
body surfaces and lines body cavities. has an open circulatory system.

Eumetazoa: All animals except sponges. Hemoglobin: The red pigment in blood that transports
oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Eukaryote: Organism whose cells have nuclei and
membranous organelles. Herbivore: An animal that feeds on plants.

Excretory system: The body system in animals that Hermaphrodite: An organism that has both male and
removes metabolic wastes. female sex organs.

Exoskeleton: A hard surface of an animal that provides Heterotroph: Organism that cannot synthesize its own
protection. food.

127
 I Medusa: Umbrella-shaped stage in the life cycle of cer-
Insecta: The class of arthropods typically having six
legs, two pairs of wings, and one pair of antennae.
Interstitial fluid: The internal environment of verte-
brates, consisting of the fluid filling the spaces between
cells.
Intracellular digestion: A type of digestion occurring
within the cell.
K-L
Keratin: A horny, water-insoluble protein found in nails,
feathers, hair, and horns.
Kingdom: A taxonomic category made up of related
phyla.
Lancelet: One of a group of invertebrate chordates.
Larva: A free-living immature form in some animal.
M covering such as an exoskeleton.
Malpighian tubules: The excretory organs of many
arthropods.
Mammals: The class of vertebrates that is characterized
by hair, mammary glands, a diaphragm, and differenti-
ation of teeth.
Mandible: The lower jaw of vertebrates; Jawlike, exter-
nal mouthparts of insects.
Mantle: In the mollusk, a fold of tissue that covers the
visceral mass and may secrete shell.
Marsupials: A subclass of mammals which includes
kangaroo, wombat and opossum, characterized by the
presence of an abdominal pouch in which the young
are carried for some time after they are born.
Maxillae: Appendages used for manipulating food;
characteristic of crustaceans.
Mechanoreceptor: A sensory cell or organ that receives
mechanical stimuli such as hearing, touch, pressure,
and balance.
128
tain cnidarians such as obelia.
Meiosis: Process which produces gametes (sperm and
egg) and provides sexual reproduction.
Mesoderm: The middle primary germ layer of an early
embryo.
Metamorphosis: Transition from one developmental
stage to another, such as from a larva to an adult.
Metanephridia: The excretory organs of annelids and
mollusks.
Mitosis: A kind of cell division in which parent cell
divides in two daughter cells, provides asexual repro-
duction.
Mollusks: A phylum of coelomate-protostome animals
characterized by a soft body, visceral mass, mantle, and
foot.
Molting: The shedding and replacement of an outer
Molting hormone: A hormone that controls growth and
molting in insects.
Muscle: An organ that provides movement by contrac-
tion.
Mutualism: A kind of symbiotic relationship in which
both partners benefit from the association.
N
Nematocyst: A stinging structure found within cnido-
cytes (stinging cells) in cnidarians; used in defense, and
capturing prey.
Nematodes: Phylum of pseudocoelomate animals
commonly known as roundworms.
Nemerteans: Phylum of acoelomate animals common-
ly known as ribbon worms; possess a complete diges-
tive tract.
Nerve net: A nerve system found in cnidarians and
echinoderms.
Notochord: A long flexible rod that runs along the dor-
sal axis of the body in the all chordate embryos.
O food passages cross.
Omnivore: An animal that eats plant and animal mate-
rials.
Open circulatory system: A type of circulatory system
in which the blood bathes the tissues directly; charac-
teristic of arthropods and mollusks except cephalopods.
Operculum: In bony fishes, a protective flap that covers
the gills.
Oral cavity: The mouth of an animal.
Order: A taxonomic category made up of related fami-
lies.
Organ: A specialized structure, such as the heart or
liver, made up of tissues and adapted to perform a spe-
cific function or group of functions.
Organism: Any living system composed of one or more
cells.
Osteichthyes: The vertebrate class of bony fishes.
Oviparous: Bearing young in the egg stage of develop-
ment; egg-laying.
Ovoviviparous: A type of development in which the
young hatch from eggs incubated inside the mother's
body.
P
Parasite: A heterotrophic organism that obtains nour-
ishment from another organism (the host).
Parasitism: A kind of symbiotic relationship in which
one member (the parasite) benefits and the other (the
host) is harmed.
Parazoa: Animals which have no true tissues and
organs such as sponge.
Parthenogenesis: The development of an unfertilized
egg into an adult organism; common among honey
bees, wasps, and certain other arthropods.
Pharynx: An area in the vertebrate throat where air and
Pheromone: A substance secreted by an organism to
the external environment that functions in communica-
tion between animals influences the development or
behavior of other members of the same species.
Photoreceptor: A sense organ specialized to detect
light.
Phylum: A taxonomic category. Phyla are divided into
classes
Placenta: A structure in the pregnant mammal uterus
for nourishing the fetus with the mother's blood supply.
Planula larva: A ciliated mobile larval form found in
cnidarians.
Platyhelminthes: Phylum of acoelomate-animals
known as flatworms.
Population: A group of organisms of the same species
that live in the same geographical area at the same
time.
Posterior: Toward the tail end of a bilaterally symmetri-
cal animal.
Predation: A kind of relationship in which one organism
(the predator) kills and devours another organism (the
prey).
Prokaryote: Cell that lacks a nucleus and other mem-
branous organelles; includes the bacteria.
Protonephridium: An excretory system of flatworms,
consisting of a network of closed tubules and flame
cells.
Pseudocoelomate: Animal which has a pseudocoelom.
Pupa: A stage in the development of an insect, between
the larva and the (adult); a form that neither moves nor
feeds, and may be in a cocoon.
129
 R classifying organisms.
Radial symmetry: A body plan in which any section
through the mouth and down the length of the body
divides the body into similar halves. Jellyfish and other
cnidarians have radial symmetry.
Radula: A rasplike structure in the digestive tract of chi-
tons, snails, squids, and certain other mollusks.
Reproduction: Process by which new individuals are
produced.
Reptile: Class of vertebrate animals characterized by
dry skin with horny scales, includes turtles, snakes, and
alligators.
Rhodopsin: A light-sensitive pigment found in the rod
cells of the vertebrate eye.
Ruminant: An animal, such as a cow, with an elaborate,
multi-chambered stomach specialized for an herbivo-
rous diet.
S bral column; include fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds,
Sessile: Permanently attached to one location, e.g.,
coral animals.
Setae: Bristle-like structures that provides locomotion
in annelid.
Species: The groups of populations whose members
have same chromosome number and they are capable
of interbreeding in nature to produce fertile offspring.
Sperm: The male reproductive cell of animals.
Spinal cord: The dorsal, tubular nerve cord in verte-
brate animals.
Systematics: The scientific study of the diversity of
organisms and their relationships.
T
Taxon: A formal taxonomic group at any level, e.g.,
kingdom, phylum or genus.
Taxonomy: The science of naming, describing, and
130
Thermoreceptor: A sensory receptor that responds to
heat.
Tube feet: The structures characteristic of echino-
derms; function in locomotion and feeding.
Tunicates: Chordates belonging to subphylum
Urochordata.
U-V-W-Z
Urochordates: Subphylum of chordates; includes the
tunicates, sea squirts.
Urodela: The order of salamanders that includes tetra-
pod amphibians with tails
Vein: A blood vessel that carries blood from the tissues
toward the heart.
Ventral: The underside surface or bottom of an animal.
Vertebrates: Subphylum of chordates which has verte-
and mammals.
Visceral mass: Concentration of body organs (viscera)
located above the foot; characteristic of mollusks.
Viviparous: Bearing living young that develop within
the body of the mother.
Yolk: Nutrients stored in an egg.
Water vascular system: Special hydrostatic system of
echinoderms; functions in locomotion and feeding.
Zygote: The first cell formed from the union of gametes
in sexual reproduction..
 INDEX Bivalvia 62, 63
Abdomen 64, 68, 71, 72, 74, 77, 118 Blattodea 75

Absorption 8, 10, 16, 20, 25 Bony Skeleton 90

Acoelomate 40,36 Brain 10, 12, 13, 17, 20, 29, 30

Agnatha 86, 87 Canidae 32

Alligators 96, 102 Canis 32, 33

Ameboid 42 Carl Von Linnaeus 32

Amphibia 86, 93, 94, 95, 96 Carnivore 25, 32, 82, 83, 91, 101, 102, 103, 110, 113,
121, 122
Amphibians 9, 16, 17, 18, 22, 24, 27
Cell 6, 7, 9, 10, 25
Analogous Organs 37
Centipede 71, 73, 77
Annelida 37, 38,40, 64, 66
Centrosome 7
Anoplura 75
Cephalization 86
Anthozoa 45, 47
Cephalopoda 60 62, 63
Anura 92, 95
Cephalothorax 71, 72, 77
Apoda 96
Cerebellum 12, 13
Arachnida 71, 72, 77
Cestoda-Tapeworms 51
Arthropoda 37, 38, 40, 68, 78, 83 Cetaceans 110
Ascariasis 56 Chemical Digestion 25
Ascaris Lumbricoides 56 Chemoreceptors 18, 61, 65
Asexual Reproduction 42, 80 Chilopoda 71, 73, 77
Asteroidea 80 Chimpanzee 120, Pb 122
Asymmetrical 35 Chitin 68
Asymmetry 40 Chitones 61, 63
Atom 6 Choanocytes 42
Aurelia 46 Chondrichthyes 86, 89
Aves 87, 104 Chordata 32, 40, 84, 95
Bilateral 35 Choroid 19, 20
Bilateral Symmetry 40, 50, 55, 59, 68, 79, 84 Cilia 49, 50, 51, 58, 82
Binominal Nomenclature 32 Circulatory System 9, 10, 11, 23, 24, 26
Birds 9, 16, 17, 24, 25, 26, 27 Clams 61, 62, 63, 95

131
Class 32, 33 Earthworms 64, 65, 66, 67
Closed Circulatory System 23, 60, 62, 64, 65, 86, 102 Ecdysone 14
Cnidaria 40, 43, 44, 45, 47, 50, 65, 82 Echinodermata 40, 79, 80
Cnidocytes 43, 44 Echinoderms 24, 37
Coelemates 60 Echinoidea 80, 81
Coelenterata 40, 45 Ectoderm 36, 37 ,41, 43, 49, 50
Coelom 36, 37, 60, 64, 79, 84, 117 Electroreceptors 22
Coelomate 37, 40 Endoderm 36, 37, 41, 43, 49, 50
Coleoptera 76 Endoplasmic Reticulum 7
Collar Cells 42 Endoskeleton 27, 29, 42, 79, 81, 84, 86
Colony 45, 47, 78 Epithelial Tissues 8
Comb Jellies 49 Eumetazoa 40
Compound Eye 19, 21 Eutheria 110
Connective Tissue 8 Excretory System 11, 26
Coral 47, 48, 82 Exoskeleton 27, 28, 68
Cornea 19, 20, 21 External Fertilization 60, 66, 71, 87, 90
Crinodiea 80 Eye Spot 58
Crocodile 96, 102, 104 Family 32, 33
Crustaceans Fertilization 42, 51, 52, 55, 60, 66, 71, 87, 89, 90, 97,
99, 109, 117
Crustaceans 22, 24, 28, 69, 71, 72, 77, 83, 115, 119,
Pb 122 Filter Feeders 42, 62, 90
Ctenophora 40, 49 Flagellum 7
Cytoplasm 6, 7 Gastropoda 61, 63
Decomposers 25 Genus 32, 33
Deuterostomes 37 Gills 60, 69, 71, 77, 79, 80, 83, 89, 90, 91, 93, 94
Difussion 42 Gizzard 65, 107
Digestive System 11, 25 Golgi Body 7
Diploblastic 41, 43 Hagfish 87, 88
Diplopoda 71, 73, 77 Hemiptera 76
Diptera 76 Hemoglobin 82, 86
Drones 78 Hemoptera 76

132
Herbivores 25 Mammals 9, 14, 15, 16, 24, 25, 26, 27
Hermaphrodite 42 Marsupialia 111, 118
Hermaphroditic 42, 45, 50, 51, 52, 53, 65, 66, 67, 83 Mechanical Digestion 25
Hirudinea 66 Medusa 44, 45, 47, 82
Holothuroidea 80, 81 Mesoderm 36, 37
Homologous Organs 38 Mesoglea 43, 49
Hormones 13, 14, 15, 16 Mesonephros 26, 91, 93, 94
Hydrostatic Skeleton 44, 55, 64, 82, 83 Metamorphosis 69, 70, 75, 76, 77, 80, 93
Hydrozoa 45, 47 Metanephridia 60
Hymenoptera 76, 78 Metanephros Kidney 26
Insects 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 78, 83, 102, 107, Metazoan 34
114,
Migration 57, 105, 110, 111, 112
Invertebrates 14, 25, 26, 28
Millipedes 71, 73, 104
Iris 19, 20, 21
Mites 77
Isoptera 75
Mitochondrion 7
Kangaroo 110, 118
Molecule 6
Kidneys 38
Mollusca 40, 59, 63, 83
Kingdom 32, 33, 40, 41, 44, 54, 68, 78, 95
Mollusks 9, 12, 19, 23, 24, 26, 36, 37,59, 60
Komodo Dragons 98
Monotremata 109, 118
Lampreys 87, 88
Muller Channel 27
Larva 42, 45, 47, 52, 56, 57, 60, 61, 70, 78, 80, 82, 85,
93 Multicellular 6, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19, 21, 23, 25, 27,
29, 34
Lateral Line System 90, 91
Muscle Tissue 8
Leeches 66, 67
Muscular Foot 59, 61, 62
Lens 19, 20
Nematocysts 43
Lepidoptera 76
Nematoda 40, 55, 82
Lizards 73, 97, 98, 102, 104
Nemertea 40, 54, 82
Lungs 38
Nephridia 38, 64, 65, 83
Lysosome 7
Nervous Tissue 9
Malpighian Tubules 26, 38, 69, 72, 74
Notochords 38
Mammalia 32, 87, 117

133
Nucleus 6, 7 Porifera 40, 41, 82
Obelia 45, 47 Pouched Mammals 118, 119
Octopods 62, 63 Proglottid 53
Octopus 61, 62, 63, 83 Pronephros Kidney 26
Odonata 75 Protonephridia 38, 50, 51, 58, 82, 85
Oligochaeta 66 Protostomes 37
Omnivores 25 Pseudocoelemates 58
Open Circulatory System 23, 60, 69 Pseudocoelom 37, 40
Operculum 89, 90, 91 Queen 78
Ophiuroidea 80 Radial Symmetry 40, 41, 44, 47
Order 32, 33 Radula 59, 83
Orthoptera 75 Rays 87, 89
Osteichthyes 86, 90 Regulatory System 11
Oviparity 87 Reptiles 9, 16, 17, 24, 26, 27
Ovoviviparity 87 Reptilia 86, 95, 97
Oysters 59, 62, 63, 95 Respiratory System 11, 23
Parazoa 40, 41 Retina 19, 20, 21
Peroxisome 7 Ribbon Worms 54
Pheromones 13, 18 Ribosome 7
Photoreceptors 19, 46 Rotifera 40, 58
Phylum 32, 33, 37 Rotifers 58, 65
Pit Organ 22 Roundworms 55, 56, 82
Placenta 87, 110, 117, 118, 119 Sandworms 66
Planarian 51 Scalops 62
Planula 44, 45, 47 Scavengers 25, 62, 66, 80, 83, 87, 91
Platyhelminthes 40, 50, 53, 82 Sclera 19
Plychaeta 65 Scorpion 71, 72, 77
Polychaeta 66 Scyphozoa 45, 46, 47
Polyp 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 82 Segmentation 38
Polyplacophora 61, 63 Segmented 61, 63, 64, 68, 77, 84

134
Sensory Reception 11, 13, 17 Ticks 77
Sessile 41, 42, 44, 47, 80, 82, 85 Tissue 6, 8, 9, 10, 16
Sexual Reproduction 42, 44, 45, 51 Trachea 24, 30, 38
Siphonaptera 76 Trematoda 51, 52
Skates 87, 89 Trichinae 55, 57
Smell 17, 18 Trichinella Spiralis 56, 57
Snake 93, 96, 98, 99, 103, 108 Trichinosis 57
Species 32, 33, 34, 40, 41, 42, 43, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, Triploblastic 50
50, 53, 54, 55, 58, 59, 61, 63, 64, 67, 68, 74, 77, 78,
79, 81, 85, 86, 89, 91, 92, 95, 99, 102, 103, 104, 105, Trochophore 60, 61
106, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 117, 118, 119, Pb
122 Tuatara 100, 104

Spider 71, 72, 73, 77 Tube Foot 80

Spinal Cord 10, 12, 13, 30, 84, 90, 99 Tubeworms 66

Sponges 41, 42, 43, 50, 82, 95 Turbellaria-Turbellarians 51

Spongin 42 Urodela 95

Squamata 102 Vacuole 7

Squid 59, 62, 63, 83, 95, Pb 122 Vertebrates 8, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 23, 25,
26, 27, 29, 30
Subphylum 32
Visceral Mass 59, 61
Swin Bladder 90
Viviparity 87
Symmetry 35
Warm-Blooded, 86
Systema Naturae 32
Wolf Channel 27
Tapeworm 50, 53, 82
Wombat 111, 118
Tarantula 73
Wuchereria Bancrofti 56
Tasmanian Devils 111
Zygote 34, 45
Taste 17, 18
Taxonomy 32
Tentacles 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 49, 61, 62, 63, 81, 82
The Lateral Line System 18
Thermoreceptors 22
Thorax 68, 71, 74, 77
Thysanura 75

135
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