Unsw Ume m1 Vent&Mineserv Powerpoint

University Of New South Wales - School Of Mining Engineering
UNDERGROUND MINE ENVIRONMENT

MODULE 1.0 VENTILATION AND MINE SERVICES
1.1 FLUID FLOW

SP
TP
SP
TP
Introduction
Topic 1.1.1 Fundamental units & relationships
Topic 1.1.2 Pressure loss dues to friction, discontinuities and obstructions
Topic 1.1.3 Bernoulli’s Equation
A MTEC - Minerals Education Australia Initiative

UNSW-UME-(M1-1 Fluid Flow)(R1).ppt Underground Mine Environment © 2003 UNSW School Of Mining Engineering 1
Introduction - Fluid Flow
• A solid can support shear stresses without moving and has a definite
shape and volume. (eg steel, wood or rock)
• A fluid is a substance that cannot support shear stresses without

moving and are classified as being a gases or liquids.
• A liquid is bound together by intermolecular forces so that it has the

property of essentially constant volume but without definite shape ie
assumed incompressible (eg water or oil)
• A gas or mixture of gases comprises molecules that are free to move

or disperse in any direction. Gases do not have definite volume or
shape (eg methane or air). A gas can only be assumed incompressible
for small changes in pressure or temperature.
• Temperature and pressure define the thermodynamic state of a liquid

or gaseous fluid. From this data, other properties such as density can
be determined.
TOPIC 1.1.1 FUNDAMENTAL UNITS AND RELATIONSHIPS
This section deals with the fundamental units and

relationships used for describing fluid flow and are;
– Geometry
– Quantity and velocity
– Temperature
– Mass and density
– Absolute, relative and gauge pressures
– Pressures indicated by manometers
– Natural ventilation pressures and buoyancy
Fundamental Units - Geometry And Flow
SI Units
Mass kilogram kg Distance meters m Time seconds s
Force Newtons N Energy Joules J Temperature Celsius OC
Units Of Geometry And Flow

Length m Volume m3
Perimeter m
Volume m3 Area m2 Height m
Area m2
Diameter m 3 /s
m s
tit y m /
3 /s u an city Length m
y m Circumference m Q elo
it s
u ant ity m/ V
Q oc Width m
Vel
For cross sectional A m and velocity V m/s

Quantity = velocity x area Q = V x A m3/s 1.0 m3/s = 1000 l/s
Click for example
Fundamental Units - Temperature
• Temperature measures the thermal energy of a fluid.
– At absolute zero molecules are considered to be at rest and occupy the minimum
space possible.
• Celsius scale based freezing point (0 OC) and boiling point (100 OC) of
water at standard pressure of 101.325 Pa.
• By experimentation, absolute zero is found to occur at -273.15 OC
• Kelvin scale is based on absolute zero and is required when

considering the effect of temperature on gas volume.
•Absolute zero = O degrees Kelvin = -273.15 degrees celcius
Click for example
Fundamental Units - Mass And Density
• All gaseous or liquid fluids possess mass (kg)
Mass can be related to force (force = mass x acceleration).
Acceleration due to gravity can vary 9.79 to 9.81 m/s2
Force = mass x g N 10 kg = 10 x 9.81 = 98.1 N
• Density is defined as the mass of a substance per 1.0 m3 units ρ kg/m3

– Water has a mass of 1000 kg per 1.0 m3 at 4.0 OC
– Air has a density of approximately 1.2 kg per m3 but varies with
temperature and pressure
• Relative density (RD) of a gas is the ratio of it’s density to air at the
same temperature and pressure.
• Specific volume is the volume occupied by unit mass and is therefore

the inverse of density.
Click for example
Fundamental Units - Pressure
• Pressure in liquids or gases is due to the mass and motion of molecules
Change in fluid temperature Same mass of fluid in smaller

volume
Kinetic energy of molecules
depends on temperature Increased number of molecules
This influences the impact impacting surface per unit area.
force per unit area Therefore pressure increases.
Pressure increases or
decreases with temperature.
• The change in volume of liquids is very small - incompressible

• The change in volume of gases is larger - compressible
• Pressure is the force exerted per unit area and 1 Pa = 1 Newton per m2
– Force is mass x acceleration, in this case due to gravity.
– Units of Newtons are kg m/s2 ie 1 kg = 1 x 9.81 = 9.81 N
Standard pressure = 1 atmosphere = 101.325 kPa = 1013.25 HPa

Click for example
Absolute, Relative And Gauge Pressures
System pressure higher than
Positive gauge atmospheric pressure
Relative Absolute pressure pressure
pressure greater than
Atmospheric
atmospheric Negative gauge pressure
pressure pressure
System pressure lower
Absolute pressure than atmospheric pressure
less than
atmospheric
pressure
Absolute zero
pressure
• Absolute pressure - relative to zero e.g. atmospheric 101.325 kPa.
• Gauge pressure - typically relative to atmospheric pressure + or -
• Relative pressure - between any two points.
Click for example
Fluid Density & Column Pressure
• Pressure due to a fluid column = ρ.g.h Pa

Density kg/m3 gravity m/s2 height m
P2 = P + ρ.g.h Pa absolute P
h
P2 = ρ.g.h Pa gauge relative to P
P2
• Height is the vertical difference in elevation
• Applies to liquids or gases
• Applies to static or moving columns
• Use average density when considering gases
Click for example
Manometers
In vertical limb manometers the pressure is given by the difference in
height of the two columns and the fluid density (pgh).
Atmospheric
pressure P
In inclined limb manometers the

-+0vegauge
vegauge
gauge
pressure is also given by the difference pressure
pressure
in height of the two columns and the
Atmospheric
fluid density (pgh) but the scale pressure P hm
provides improved accuracy.
Manometer fluid
• Manometer fluid - red oil RD 0.8
+- 0ve
vegauge
gauge
gauge
pressure
pressure
pressure
• Use mercury for higher pressures
• Water does not have a well defined hm

meniscus
Click for example
Natural Ventilation And Buoyancy
Exhaust Intake
Exhaust air usually hotter and shaft Goaf shaft
drainage
less dense than intake.
Pressure applied depends on Less dense More
differential density and depth. warmer dense
air ρ2 cooler air
Gas ρ1
Applies to static or moving mixture of
Depth of
workings
circuits variable h
density ρ2
Pressure of
Goaf holes may have higher workings
or lower density gas mixture.
• Natural ventilation pressure = ( ρ1 - ρ2 ) .g.h Pa
1 2 Click for example
Static, Velocity & Total Pressure
• Static pressure - or bursting pressure is due to random
movement of molecules.
• Acts with the same magnitude in all directions.
• Velocity pressure - or dynamic pressure is a result of the

movement of fluid or gases in addition to static pressure.
Calculated from density and velocity VP = ρ.v2
2
• Total pressure - sum of static and velocity pressure. Not a 3rd property
TP = SP + VP
Without friction or fans the total pressure remains constant
I.e if area decreases velocity increases and static pressure decreases
SP1 SP2 < SP1

VP1 VP2 > VP1
TP1 TP2 = TP1
Measuring Static Velocity And Total Pressures
SP
TP
Pressure = ρ.g.h Pa
ρ = density, kg/m3 SP
TP
g = gravity 9.81 m/s2
Static Total Velocity
h = height, m pressure pressure pressure
Pitot tubes combine
total and static
tubes.
• Static pressure is measured by the side tube
• Total pressure is measured by the facing tube

• Velocity pressure is the difference between the two readings.
Click for example
Static Pressure - The Effect Of Friction
Resistance determined by
shape and surface
Pressure roughness of the airway
Static
Surface roughness
Frictional loss reduces static pressure
• Friction results in a loss of pressure from the system.
• For constant velocity, friction results in an equal reduction in static

and total pressure
• The frictional pressure loss is determined by resistance R and square

of quantity
Pfric = R.Q2
Static Pressure - The Effect Of Fans
Pressure
Static
Fans increase static pressure to overcome frictional losses
• Fans result in a static pressure increase to the system which is
numerically equal to the frictional loss.
• The fan pressure Pfan is determined by the fan characteristic curve

and system resistance( refer Fans And Auxiliary Ventilation Module).
• Same rules apply to ducted or mine ventilation circuits
Click for example
TOPIC 1.1.2 PRESSURE LOSSES DUE TO FRICTION,
DISCONTINUITIES AND OBSTRUCTIONS
This section deals with the calculation of airway

resistance and frictional losses based on;
– Shape and length of the airway or duct.

– Roughness of the surface.
– Flow regime (turbulent or laminar).
– Quantity of air, gas or fluid in the airway or duct.
Frictional Loss - Reynolds Number And Turbulence
The degree of turbulence in a moving fluid depends
Laminar
on VISCOSITY AND VELOCITY. Flow
Surface
Less viscous fluids moving faster are more Turbulent

Flow
turbulent than more viscous fluids moving slower.
Surface
Turbulence is associated with energy/pressure losses

Reynolds number Re = ρ . L . V is the ratio of inertial to viscous forces
µ
µ = viscosity kg/ms (1.8 x 10-5 for air) L = characteristic dimension eg diameter.
In laminar conditions pressure loss is proportional to P ∝ V2

Turbulent
velocity
In turbulent conditions pressure loss is proportional to Pressure

Loss Transitional
velocity squared.
P∝V
Lamina
Turbulent flow starts between Re 2000 to 3000 r
Fluid Velocity
Frictional Loss - Hydraulic Diameter
When considering various airway or duct shapes,
they can be related by their hydraulic diameter Dh.
Cylindrical e.g smooth Rectangular e.g coal Semi rectangular

auxiliary ventilation duct mine development with e.g rough blasted
or raise bore holes uniform low roughness metalliferous mine
height from continuous development or
miners arched sections.
The hydraulic diameter is the diameter of a circle with the same ratio of area to
circumference as the shape being considered.
Dh = 4 x Area
Circumference
Click for example
Pressure Loss - Surface Friction
• Frictional pressure loss represents a loss of energy to the system.
– It results in a loss of static pressure which is not reversible.
– In turbulent regimes the loss is proportional to the square of velocity.
• Normally, the equation is written in terms of quantity although the

effect is due to velocity
P ∝ V2 Q= V.A P = R.Q2
P - static pressure loss,Pa Q - quantity, m3/s R - resistance, Ns2/m8 - Gauls
The resistance of an airway, pipe or conduit depends primarily on;

– Cross sectional area
– Shape - ratio of area to perimeter.
– Length
– Roughness of surfaces
– Density of the fluid/gas
Frictional Loss On Rough Surfaces
The general formula for resistance is Atkinson’s Equation (1854)
Perimeter m
R = k.C.L . ρ Ns2/m8 Area m2 Height m
A3 1.2
3 /s
y m /s
ntit y m
a i t
Qu eloc
C x L = area of rubbing surface V Length m
k = factor depending on surface roughness Width m
It can be convenient to characterise mine airways using resistance per 100 m or

R100 Ns2/m7.
K factors can be obtained from various texts but should be checked by direct
measurement.
The units of k are Ns2/m4 and range 0.003 for smooth ducts to 0.015 for rough
walls
Click for example

1 2
Frictional Loss In Leakage Paths
• Flow through low resistance leakage paths (stopping overcasts) obeys
the square law.
• Observed leakage rates through concrete seals indicates a transitional

flow regime where P = R.Q 1.7 although this may vary with site
conditions and type of seal.
• Leakage resistance should be measured by site surveys, the following

are typical values.
Leak Res. Leakage flow Leakage flow
Item Ns2/m8 m3/s per 500 Pa m3/s per 1000 Pa
Double doors 400 1.12 1.58
Conveyor belt seal 50 3.16 4.47
Overcast 1,000 0.71 1.00
Temporary stopping (poor) 200 1.58 2.24
Temporary stopping (good) 2,000 0.50 0.71
Permanent stopping (poor) 1,000 0.71 1.00
Permanent stopping (good) 10,000 0.22 0.32
Brick seal 20,000 0.16 0.22
Thick concrete seal 80,000 0.08 0.11
CALCULATION OF SHOCK LOSSES
This section deals with the calculation of shock losses

at discontinuities which are dependent on;
– Shape and severity of the discontinuity

– Velocity pressure impacting on the discontinuity
Shock Losses - Circuit Discontinuities
Laminar Surface friction
Flow Turbulent
Flow Boundary
Separation
Layer
Transition
Flow
Turbulent Acceleration
Flow Flow Flow
separation
Deceleration
• Shock losses occur due to flow separation and or impact due to

changes in direction of airflow.
• The static pressure loss (Pa) is generally determined as a function of
velocity pressure.
Shock loss = X . 1. ρv2 Pa
2
• Shock loss factors (X) are obtained from charts corresponding to the
geometry of the component in question.
• The shock loss is in addition to surface frictional losses

Shock Losses - Design X Factors
Method
• Select appropriate chart. Example bend
α
• Obtain shock loss factor. with varying angle
• Note which velocity the factor applies to.

• Calculate pressure loss from velocity 3
pressure.
• Note - Shock factor can be greater than 2
Shock Factor X
unity.
1
For example
A 90 deg bend in a rectangular duct has an 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
X factor = 1.6 Angle deg
Click for example
SURFACE ROUGHNESS AND K FACTORS
This section deals with the calculation of friction

factors from surface roughness.
– The calculations allow k factors to be estimated

if unknown or results of direct measurements
reconciled with observation.
Friction Factor And Surface Roughness
• The derivation of a formula relating surface roughness to K factors is provided
in the notes.
• The concept is that in turbulent flow regimes the k factor can be calculated
from surface roughness and airway/duct size.
• For non circular shapes the hydraulic diameter is used Dh = 4.A/C and
e = surface roughness.
1 = 1.74 - 2.Log (2. e ) where λ = 6.67. k
λ Dh
• The K factor is therefore dependent on the surface roughness height and

hydraulic diameter of the airway.
• With correction for density, this method can be used for mine airways, gas
drainage systems and water flow in pipes.
Range Of K Factors In Mining Applications
Lim it of square law Mining
0.016
applications
0.014
Friction Factor K Ns2/m4

Turbulent
0.012
e/D
0.010 Transitional 0.05
0.008 0.025
0.006 0.01
0.004 0.004
Lam inar
0.001
0.002 0.0001
Smooth
0.000
1.0E+03 1.0E+04 1.0E+05 1.0E+06 1.0E+07
Reynolds Number
• This graph shows K factor for various roughness heights against Reynolds No
• Note that for most mining applications K factor is essentially constant with e/D
Fibreglass ducts 0.2 to 2 mm
Raisebore holes 10 to 25 mm
Coal mine development 50 to 150 mm
Blasted development 150 to 350 mm
Click for example
Longwall face 500 to 1000 mm
Spreadsheet - Frictional Losses In Mine Airways
• A spreadsheet that calculates the frictional loss in airways due to surface
roughness and shock losses for multiple parallel airways,
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q
2 Length Height Width Area Perim Density Rough k Resis(1) X No R(total) Q V DP
3 m Diam m2 m kg/m3 mm Ns2/m4 Ns2/m8 Ns2/m8 m3/s m/s Pa
4 Shaft 100 5 2 10.0 14.0 1.2 50 0.00693 0.00970 1.0 1 0.01570 300.0 30.0 1413
=IF(E4>0,E4*D4,PI()*D4^2/4) =N4*O4^2
=IF(E4>0,2*(E4+D4),PI()*D4) =O4/F4/M4
=(1/(1.74-2*LOG10(2*I4/(1000*4*F4/G4))))^2/6.67
=J4*G4*C4/F4^3*(H4/1.2)
=(K4+L4*0.5*H4/F4^2)/M4^2
Length Height Width Area Perim Density Rough k Resis(1) X No R(total) Q V DP

m Diam m2 m kg/m3 mm Ns2/m4 Ns2/m8 Ns2/m8 m3/s m/s Pa
Shaft 100 6 28.3 18.8 1.2 50 0.00534 0.00045 1.0 1 0.00120 300.0 10.6 108
Airway 100 3 5 15.0 16.0 1.2 200 0.01105 0.00524 2.0 2 0.00264 200.0 6.7 106
Duct 100 0.6 0.3 1.9 1.2 0.5 0.00282 23.48510 1.5 1 34.7430 10.0 35.4 3474
Example Frictional Loss In Steel Pipe
10 m3/s through a 610 mm duct - what is roughness height
25 m3/s through a 1500 mm duct - what is frictional loss
CALCULATION OF LOSSES DUE TO OBSTRUCTIONS
This section deals with the calculation of shock

losses due to obstructions. Pressure losses are
determined by
– Shape of obstruction
– Amount that obstacles fill the airway
– Velocity pressure impacting on the obstruction
CALCULATION OF LOSSES DUE TO OBSTRUCTIONS
Air velocity determines velocity pressure
An obstruction will result in a pressure loss due to separation

and skin friction
The pressure loss depends on

– The air velocity
– Frontal area of obstruction
– Shape or drag coefficient of obstruction
Losses Due To Airway Obstructions
Frontal area of
transverse obstructions Ao Area and perimeter of
Area m2
longitudinal obstructions
Surface Airway area A

roughness and perimeter P
3 /s
m s
t i ty m /
u an ci ty
Q el o
V
• Pressure loss due to a transverse obstruction is a function of it’s frontal area,

shape and velocity impacting on the facing edge
• Pressure loss due to longitudinal objects result from reduction in cross

sectional area and increased rubbing surface.
• Method used to calculate frictional loss due to conveyor structure or shaft

furnishings.
Losses Due To Airway Obstructions
Calculation method based on standard shape drag coefficients
I Beam Square Rectangle Circular Plate Lined Flanges

Drag Coeff Cd 2.60 2.00 1.50 1.20 1.95 0.80 1.00
Pressure loss for transverse members is again related to velocity pressure

In this case, the velocity is calculated in the free airway area - net of longitudinal
members
Pressure loss p = Cd*. 1 ρ V2 Ao Pa
2 A
P = drag coeff x velocity pressure x fraction of area filled
The coefficient of fill Cf is the amount of the cross sectional area occupied by
members. This can be rewritten for pressure loss in terms of quantity.
Pressure loss p = Cd*. Cf . 1 ρ Q2 Pa
2 A2
The base case drag coefficients must be corrected for aspect ratio Cd*.
Losses Due To Airway Obstructions - Cd Corrections
Pressure loss calculated from
1.00
impact velocity pressure,
frontal area and 0.95
drag coefficient Cd reduces with
Correction Factor C HW
increased H/W ratio 0.90
until surface friction
0.85
becomes significant.
L 0.80
0.75
W Cd reduces with 0.70

1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
H closer spacing due to
Height To Width Ratio H/W
mutual interference
S 1.00
0.90
0.80
Correction Factor C SW
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
Correction for geometry and spacing 0.20
0.10
Corrected Cd* = Cd x CHW x CSW 0.00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Spacing To Width Ratio S/W
Equivalent Length And Resistance
To account for shock losses some simulation programs use equivalent lengths.
i.e the length of a duct or airway that has the same effect as a shock loss.
This length is added to the actual length to obtain the total pressure loss
Le = X.Dh
6.67.k
An alternative is to include shock losses in the airway resistance calculation.
Reff = R + X.0.5. ρ
A2
If possible, this second method is preferred as it maintains mine geometry.
Click for example
TOPIC 1.1.3 BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
This section deals with the general form of the pressure equation for
incompressible flow - Bernoulli's Equation - relating the five pressure terms
Static Velocity Column Friction Fans
The equation can be used to reduce more complex problems to first

principals but, in general, the following rules apply;
1/ A change in velocity pressure results in an equal and opposite change in static

pressure.
2/ Friction and shock losses always result in a reduction in system pressure.
3/ Fans result in an increase in system pressure.
4/ Column pressures are only used for absolute pressure calculations.
Bernoulli’s Equation
P1 + ρV12 + ρgh1 = P2 + ρV22 + ρg h2 = constant
2 2
• Bernoulli’s equation simply states a conservation of

energy in pressure terms for incompressible flow.
• With no fan or friction, the total pressure remains constant.
• Fans result in a pressure gain.

• Friction & shock loss result in a pressure loss
P2 = P1 + ρ (V12 - V22) + ρg(h1 - h2) - Pfric + Pfan
2
Static pressure = start static ± change VP ± change elevation - friction + fan
Application To Airways - Constant Velocity
Start pressure P1 = 101,000 Pa absolute Frictional loss is 225Pa Fan pressure is 2,600Pa.
No change in velocity pressure Change in pressure due to elevation is +2,010 Pa
With flow P2 = P1 + ρ.g.h - Pfric

P1 V1 P2 = 101,000 + 2,010 - 225 = 102,785 Pa
h1
P2 V2
No Flow P2 = P1 + ρ.g.h
h2
P2 = 101,000 + 2,010 = 103,010 Pa
With fan P2 = P1 + ρ.g.h - Pfric + Pfan
P2 = 101,000 + 2,010 - 225 + 2,600 = 105,385 Pa
• With no or negligible change in velocity pressure the absolute pressure at the

end of the airway is that due to the column effect (+ or -) minus frictional
losses plus fan pressure.
• Remember that if a trailing hose was used in this airway without a fan it would
measure, what ? 225 Pa
Application To Airways - Changing Velocity
Start pressure P1 = 101,000 Pa absolute
Frictional loss is 225Pa Fan pressure is 2,600Pa.
Change in velocity pressure is - 45 Pa
Change in pressure due to elevation is +2,010 Pa
With flow P2 = P1 + ρ.g.h - (VP1 - VP2) - Pfric

P2 = 101,000 + 2,010 + 45 - 225 = 102,825 Pa
• In this case the change in velocity pressure is negative

because the air slows down in the increased cross
sectional area. Therefore the static pressure increases by
the same amount (45 Pa).
Bernoulli’s Equation - Spreadsheet
• This spreadsheet is provided on the course CD
Airway Data Start Of Airway End Of Airway Changes Answer

Quantity Density Resistance Fric P Fan P P1 Z1 A1 VP1 Z2 A2 VP2 Column Velocity Fric Fan P2
m3/s kg/m3 Ns2/m8 Pa Pa Pa m m2 Pa m m2 Pa Pa Pa Pa Pa Pa
Data Data Data Calculate Data Data Data Data Calculate Data Data Calculate Calculate Calculate Calculate Calculate Calculate
Enter Q,p and R Enter Pfan
Pfric = R.Q2
VP1 - VP2
Enter P1, Z1, A1 Pc = p.g.dZ
VP = 0.5.p.V12 VP = 0.5.p.V12 Sum changes

Enter Z2, A2
• Check that the spreadsheet gives the correct answers to

the last two examples
Application To Trailing Hose Surveys
P2 =P1 + ρg(h2-h1) - Pfric
P1 h1
P1#
Pfric
P1# =P2 - ρg(h2-h1) P2 h2

• From 1 to 2 in the airway, there is an increase in pressure due to
change in elevation (ρgh) and a loss due to friction (Pfric) assuming
velocity essentially constant)
• The pressure in the open end of the tube must be exactly the same as
in the airway at point 2 = P2
• From 2 to 1 in the tube, there is no airflow therefore the pressure at the
top of the tube P1# is due to the change in elevation alone (ρgh).
• The pressure measured by the manometer (P1 - P1#) is the frictional
pressure loss from 1 to 2 as the effect of change in elevation cancels.
Click for example
Application To Barometer Surveys
P2 =P1 + ρg(h2-h1) - Pfric
P1 h1
P2 h2
• From 1 to 2 in the airway, there is an increase in pressure due to

change in elevation (ρgh) and a loss due to friction (Pfric), assuming
velocity essentially constant.
• The barometer measures P1 and P2, therefore the difference between
the two values is a measure of both change in elevation and friction.
• To calculate Pfric, the change in elevation and air density must be

accurately determined. Note 1m error = approx 10Pa
Click for example
Application To Orifice Plates And Venturi Meters
• Measure fluid flow by change in velocity through a constriction
D1 D1/2
A1 A2
V1 A3
V2 Q = A1.V1 = A2.V2
P1 V3 D1 D2
P2
Vena contracta
P1 + ρV12 + ρgh1 = P2 + ρV22 + ρg h2 = constant for any section with no losses
2 2
Assuming no change in elevation of density P1 + ρV12 = P2 + ρV22

2 2
Observed pressure differential ∆P = (P2-P1) = ρ(V22 V12) Pa

2
• To account for actual losses that occur, the Coefficient of discharge Cd

is obtained from the coefficient of contraction and coefficient of
velocity (refer notes) Equation 3.6 Orifice Plate Equation
Q = A2.Cd 2 ∆P m3/s, where m = A2 = D2

ρ(1 – m2) A1 D1
Click for example
Pressures - Summary Notes
• When measuring flow in ducts it is common to use gauge pressures.
• Velocity pressures are normally used to calculate shock losses.
• In mine circuits, the change in velocity pressure is normally small and the
effect on static pressure is ignored.
• However, this effect cannot be ignored when dealing with high (>10 m/s)
velocities.
• When using incompressible network simulation programs (Ventsim) the effect

of column pressures are ignored.
• Incompressible flow programs provide frictional gauge pressure relative to

surface datum.
• Be aware that traverse barometer survey data provides absolute pressures.
END OF MODULE
FLUID FLOW - WORKED EXAMPLES
Worked Example - Geometry And Velocity
• What is the cross sectional area and perimeter of a rectangular

airway 5.0 m wide x 3.2 m high ?
– Area = width x height = 5.0 x 3.2 = 16.0 m2
– Perimeter = 2 x (width + height) = 2 x (5.0 + 3.2) = 16.4 m
• What is the velocity in the airway for a quantity of 35.0 m3/s ?
– Velocity = Quantity / Area = 35.0 / 16.0 = 2.19 m/s
– What is the velocity in a 610 mm duct for a quantity of 9.0 m3/s ?

– Area = π . D2 /4 = π x 0.612 / 4 = 0.292 m2
End - Return to slides

Worked Example - Temperatures
• What is the absolute temperature of boiling water ?
• Boiling point = 100 OC = 100 + 273.15 = 373.15 OK
• What is the absolute temperature of air at 25 OC ?
• Air temperature = 25 OC = 25 + 273.15 = 298.15 OK

Worked Example - Mass And Density
• What is the mass of 1.6 m3 of coal (kg) if the density is 1.39 t/m3?
• Mass = Density x volume = 1.39 x 1.6 = 2.224 t = 2,224 kg
• The density of a gas mixture is 1.46 kg/m3. What volume is occupied by 3.5 kg of this
gas at the same density ?
• Volume = mass / density = 3.5 / 1.46 = 2.397 m3
• What is the specific volume of the gas m3/kg?
• Specific volume ν = 1/ density = 1 / 1.46 = 0.685 m3/kg
• What is the relative density of the gas compared to air (density 1.2 kg/m3) ?
• Relative density RD = density of gas / density of air = 1.46 / 1.2 = 1.217

ie heavier

Worked Example - Pressure
• The pressure differential across a 3.0 m x 5.0 m bulkhead is
900 Pa. What is the effective load on the bulkhead in kg ?
– Pressure = Force per unit area therefore 900 Pa = 900 N/m2
– Force = mass x acceleration and therefore mass = force / acceleration
– Mass per unit area = 900 / 9.81 = 91.7 kg/m2
– Area of bulkhead = height x width = 3.0 x 5.0 = 15.0 m2
– Total effective load on bulkhead = 91.7 x 15 = 1,376 kg
• The pressure in an exhaust fan duct is 2000 Pa below atmospheric (101.325

kPa) What is the absolute pressure in the duct ?
– Absolute pressure in duct = 101.325 - 2.0 = 99.325 kPa

Worked Example - Absolute Gauge And Relative Pressure
• If atmospheric pressure is 101,300 Pa. What is the pressure in HPa ?
• 1 HPa = 100 Pa. Therefore pressure = 101,300/100 = 1,013 HPa
• The pressure inside a sealed balloon (A) is 1,500 Pa greater then

atmospheric pressure. What is the gauge pressure and absolute pressure in
the balloon ?
– Gauge pressure = pressure relative to atmosphere = + 1,500 Pa
– Absolute pressure = atmosphere + gauge = 101,300 + 1,500 = 102,800 Pa
• Another balloon (B) has a gauge pressure of + 1100 Pa. What is the relative
pressure of balloon A to B.
– Relative pressure = Gauge A – Gauge B = 1,500 – 1,100 = + 400 Pa

Worked Example - Column Pressure
• What is the gauge pressure at the bottom of a 1.0 m column of air, water
and mercury relative to the surface ?
– Pressure change = ρ.g.h Pa
– For air = 1.2 x 9.81 x 1.0 = 11.78 Pa
– For water = 1,000 x 9.81 x.1.0 = 9,810 Pa
– For mercury = 13,600 x 9.81 x 1.0 = 133,416 Pa
• Surface atmospheric pressure is 101,300 Pa. What is the pressure in units

of mm Hg ?
– Pressure = 101,300 = ρ.g.h Therefore h = 101,300 = 0.7593 m = 759.3 mmHg
– 13,600 x 9.81
• What is the absolute pressure at the bottom of a 250 m deep shaft due to
the column of air at an average density of 1.18 kg/m3 if the surface pressure
is 101,300 Pa?
– Absolute pressure = P + ρ.g.h =101,300 + 1.18 x 9.81 x 250 =104,194 Pa

Worked Example - Manometers
• A water filled manometer reads + 23 mm H2O across the first
stopping in a two hdg gate road ? What is the differential
pressure (Pa) and absolute pressure on the return side if
absolute pressure on intake side is 99.600 kPa ?
– Pressure change = ρ.g.h Pa in the manometer column
– Gauge pressure = 1,000 x 9.81 x 23/1000 = -225.6 Pa
– Absolute return pressure = 99.600 - 0.2256 = 99.374 kPa
23 mm
99.6 kPa

Worked Example - Natural Ventilation Pressure
• The depth of mine workings is 230 m. The average density of intake air is 1.19 kg/m3
and the average density of exhaust air is 1.16 kg/m3 What is the natural ventilation
pressure in this mine ?
• Intake column pressure = ρ.g.h = 1.19 x 9.81 x 230 = 2,685 Pa
• Exhaust column pressure = ρ.g.h = 1.16 x 9.81 x 230 = 2,617 Pa
• Difference = natural ventilation pressure = 2,685 – 2,617 = 68 Pa
• What would the natural ventilation pressure be in a mine four times deeper with the
same average intake and exhaust densities ?
• Column pressures are directly proportional to depth :. NVP = 68 x 4 = 272 Pa

Worked Example - Buoyancy
• The depth of mine workings is 230 m. The average density of intake air is
1.19 kg/m3 and the average density of exhaust air is 1.16 kg/m3 What
would the buoyancy effect be in a goaf drainage hole if the gas is pure
methane ?
– Intake column pressure = ρ.g.h = 1.19 x 9.81 x 230 = 2,685 Pa
– Drain column pressure = ρ.g.h = 0.74 x 9.81 x 230 = 1,670 Pa
– Difference = buoyancy pressure = 2,684 – 1,670 = 1,015 Pa
• If the ventilation pressure of the mine’s workings are –1200 Pa with respect
to surface, what would happen in an open goaf drainage hole ?
– Net pressure applied to hole = +1,015 – 1200 = - 185 Pa
– In this case, although methane is lighter than air, the hole would be
expected to downcast in to the mine and a fan would be required for
drainage.

Worked Example - Static Velocity And Total Pressure
• The static pressure in a 760 mm duct is - 2300 Pa and the quantity is 11 m3/s. What
is the velocity and total pressure (ρ = 1.18 kg/m3)?
– Area = π . D2 /4 = π . 0.762 / 4 = 0.454 m2

– Velocity pressure = 0.5.ρ .V2 = 0.5 x 1.18 x 24.22 = 347 Pa
– Total pressure = SP + VP = -2300 + 347 = -1953 Pa
• The duct cross sectional area increases to 0.6 m2 (no friction). What is the new
velocity and static pressure ?

– Velocity pressure = 0.5.ρ .V2 = 0.5 x 1.18 x 18.32 = 198 Pa
– Total pressure = constant = -1953 Pa
– Static pressure = total - velocity = -1953 - 198 = -2151 Pa
– Note that change in static pressure = change in velocity pressure

Worked Example - Effect Of Friction 1
• Velocity pressure = 50 Pa Consider Section of duct
• Frictional loss in duct = 20 Pa frictional loss = 20 Pa
• Static pressure at start = -100 Pa
Start Change End

• What is and TP at start and SP,VP VPi = 50 0 VPo = 50
TP at end ? SPi = -100 -20 SPo = -120
TPi = - 50 TPo = - 70
Loss = SPo - SPi or TPo - TPi because velocity pressure is constant
Same frictional loss with perfect contraction

• Velocity pressure = 75 Pa in smaller frictional loss = 20 Pa but VP increases
duct
• Frictional loss in duct remains = 20 Pa
Start Change End
• What is SP,VP TP at end ? VPi = 50 +25 VPo = 75
SPi = -100 -20 -25 SPo = - 145
TPi = - 50 TPo = - 70
End - Return to slides Loss = TPo - TPi because velocity pressure changed
Worked Example - Effect Of Friction 2
• The resistance of a 3m high x 5m wide mine airway is 0.11 Ns2/m8 and the
airflow rate is 35 m3/s (ρ = 1.18 kg/m3) What is the frictional pressure loss and
velocity pressure in the airway ?
– Frictional pressure loss = R.Q2 = 0.11 x 352 = 135 Pa

– Area = height x width = 3 x 5 = 15 m2
– Velocity = Quantity / Area = 35/15 = 2.3 m/s
– Velocity pressure = 0.5. ρ . V2 = 0.5 x 1.18 x 2.32 = 3.2 Pa
– Note that velocity pressures in low velocity airways are very small and can
normally be ignored. This is not always the case in ducts, shafts or surface fan
bends.
• If the airway end is 60 m below the start, what is the static pressure if the start
barometric pressure is 99.450 kPa ?
– Column pressure = ρ.g.h = 1.18 x 9.81 x 60 = + 695 Pa
– Absolute static pressure = Start + Column - Friction
– Absolute static pressure = 99.450 + 0.695 - 0.135 = 100.01 kPa

Worked Example - Effect Of Friction And Fans
• Velocity pressure = 500 Pa
• Frictional loss in duct = 2000 Pa
• Static pressure at start = 0 Pa
• Fan located at start of duct = 2000 Pa
• What is SP,VP TP start, fan discharge and end of the duct ?
Start Change Discharge Change End

VP = 0 500 VPi = 500 0 VPo = 500
SP = 0 2000 SPi = 2000 -2000 SPo = 0
TP = 0 TPi = 2500 TPo = 500
Loss = SPo - SPi or TPo - TPi because velocity pressure is constant in duct
In this example, the fan static pressure is numerically equal to the frictional loss
but air also leaves the duct with one velocity pressure - loss to system.

Worked Example - Reynolds Number & Hydraulic Diameter
• What is Reynolds Number in a 3.0 m high x 5.0 m wide airway if the airflow is
5 m3/s (ρ = 1.18 kg/m3 µ = 1.8 x 10-5) ?
Calculate hydraulic diameter (characteristic dimension)
Area = 3 x 5 = 15 m2 Circumference (perimeter) = 2 x (3 + 5) = 16 m
Hydraulic diameter Dh = 4.A/C = 4 x 15/16 = 3.75 m
Velocity = Q/A = 5/15 = 0.33 m/s
Reynolds number Re = ρ . L . V = 1.18 x 3.75 x 0.33 = 81,125

µ 1.8 x 10-5
Only in regimes of extremely low flow rates (leakage) or very large airways (open
stopes/goafs) will flow become less than fully turbulent.
TURBEULENT FLOW NORMALLY ASSUMED - SQUARE LAW APPLIES

Worked Example - Airway And Duct Resistance 1
The friction factor k for a 3.0 x 5.0 m airway profile is 0.012 Ns2/m4 . If the air
density is 1.17 kg/m3, what is the resistance R Ns2/m8 of a 100 m length of the
airway ?
Cross sectional area = height x width = 3.0 x 5.0 = 15.0 m2
Perimeter = 2 x (height + width) = 2 x (3.0 + 5.0) = 16.0 m
Resistance per 100 m R100 = k.C.L. p = 0.012 x 16 x 100 x 1.17 = 0.005547 Ns2/m8
A3 1.2 15.03 1.2
What is the frictional pressure loss when a ventilation rate of 45 m3/s flows through 450 m of
the airway ?
Resistance of 450 m = R100 x Length = 0.005547 x 450 = 0.025 Ns2/m8

100 100
Frictional pressure loss P = R . Q2 = 0.025 x 452 = 51 Pa

Worked Example - Airway And Duct Resistance 2
The friction factor k for a 610 mm and 750 mm duct is 0.0033 Ns2/m4 . If air density is
1.17 kg/m3, what is the frictional pressure loss for 10 m3/s through 100 m of each duct ?
Cross sectional area A = π.D2 A = π. x 0.6102 = 0.292 m2 A = π. x 0.7502 = 0.442 m2

4 4 4
Circumference C = π.D C = π..0.610 = 1.916 m C = π..0.750 = 2.356 m
Resistance R = k.C.L . p R = 0.0033 x 1.916 x 100 x 1.17 = 24.7 Ns2/m8

for 610 mm duct A3 1.2 0.292 3 1.2
R = 0.0033 x 2.356 x 100 x 1.17 = 8.8 Ns2/m8

for the 750 mm duct 0.442 3 1.2
Frictional pressure loss P = R.Q2 P = 24.7x* 102 = 2470 Pa for 610 mm duct
P = 8.8 x 102 = 880 Pa for 750 mm duct

Worked Example - Calculation Of k Factor
Using Figure 4.4, determine the K factor for a 610 mm diameter fibre glass
duct (rough = 0.3 mm) ?
For the duct ratio e/D = 0.0003 / 0.610 = 4.918 x 10-4 k = 0.0025 Ns2/m4
From figure 4.4
Calculate the K factor for a 3.0 x 5.0 m development profile (rough = 125 mm) ?
Perimeter = 2 x (height + width) = 2 x (3.0 + 5.0) = 16 m
Hydraulic diameter = 4.A/C = 4 x 15 / 16 = 3.75 m
Ratio e/D = 0.125 / 3.75 = 0.0333
1 = 1.74 - 2 Log10(2ε ) = 1.74 – 2 Log10 ( 2 x 0.0333) = 1.74 - -( 2.361) = 4.1

√λ
Therefore λ = 1/ (4.1)2 = 0.0595 but K = λ / 6.67 K = 0.0595/6.67 = 0.00892 Ns2/m4

Worked Example - Shock Losses
9.0 m3/s of air flows through an abrupt expansion from 610 mm to 900 mm diameter. Air
density is 1.16 kg/m3 , the static pressure at A is +930 Pa. What is the velocity, static and
total pressure at points A and B ?
Area of 610 mm duct = 0.292 m2 and of 900 mm duct = 0.636 m2 A B
Velocity of air in duct = Q/A At A = 9.0 / 0.292 = 30.8 m/s
A1 A2 A1 A2
At B = 9.0 / 0.636 = 14.2 m/s
Velocity pressure = VP = p.v2 At A = 1.16 x 30.82 = 550 Pa
Expansion A2/A1 Contraction A1/A2
2 2
1.0
At B = 1.16 x 14.22 = 117 Pa
Shock Factor X (Small area velocity)

0.9
2 0.8
Area Ratio A2/A1 = 0.636/0.292 = 2.17 0.7
0.6
Shock loss factor = 0.275 (from graph) applied to 610 duct velocity 0.5
0.4
Shock loss = X . VP = 0.275 x 550 = 151 Pa 0.3

0.2
0.1
Total pressure at A = SP + VP = 930 + 550 = + 1480 Pa
0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6
Change in velocity pressure A to B = 117 - 550 = -433 Pa (slowed down) Ratio Large Area / Small Area
Static pressure at B = 930 – 151 + 433 = 1212 Pa
Total pressure at B = SP + VP = 1212 + 117 = 1329 Pa
Note change in total pressure = 1329 - 1480 = -151 Pa = shock loss

Worked Example - Equivalent Length And Resistance
The K factor for a 3.0 m x 5.0 m airway profile is 0.012 Ns2/m4 . A single bend has a
shock loss factor of X=0.3 and the air density is 1.2 kg/m3. The air quantity is 160 m3/s.
Calculate the pressure loss for 100 m of airway using the equivalent length method ?
Perimeter = 2 x (height + width) = 2 x (3+5) = 16.0 m
Equivalent length of bend = 0.6 . X.A = 0.6 x 0.3 x 15 = 14.06 m

K.C 0.012 x 16
Resistance per 100 m R100 = p = k.C.L. p = 0.012 x 16 x 114.06 x 1.2 = 0.00649 Ns2/m8
A3 1.2 15.03 1.2
Pressure loss = R . Q2 = 0.00649 x 1602 = 166 Pa
Calculate the pressure loss for 100 m of airway using effective resistance method ?
Resistance per 100 m R100 = p = k.C.L. p = 0.012 x 16 x 100 x 1.2 = 0.00569 Ns2/m8
A3 1.2 15.03 1.2
Reff = R + X 1. p = 0.00569 + 0.3 x 1.2 = 0.00649 Ns2/m8 ie the same as above

2. A2 2 x 152

Worked Example - Trailing Hose Survey
The manometer attached to a trailing hose in a mine airway reads 15 mm H2O.

What is the frictional loss between the ends of the hose ?
Frictional loss = observed pressure = ρ.g.h = 1,000 x 9.81 x 0.015 = 147 Pa
What is the resistance of the airway section if the air quantity is 56 m3/s ?
Frictional loss P = R.Q2

Therefore resistance R = P/Q2 = 147/562 = 0.04688 Ns2/m8
Knowing the airway dimensions, this method can then be used to calculate the
airway k factor

Worked Example - Traverse Barometer Survey
A traverse barometer reads 101,250 Pa on surface and 103,890 Pa at the bottom of a
250 m deep access drift. What is the frictional loss in the drift if air density on surface is
1.18 kg/m3 and air density at the bottom of the drift is 1.22 kg/m3 .The surface barometric
pressure increased by 65 Pa between the two readings ?
Correcting second reading for change barometric pressure
P2 = 103.890 – 65 = 103,825 Pa
Actual change in absolute pressure = 103,825 – 101,250 = 2,575 Pa
Change in pressure due to air column = ρ.g.h = (1.18 + 1.22) x 9.81 x 250 = 2,943 Pa
2
Frictional loss in shaft = P2 – P1 – average column pressure
= 103,825 – 101,250 – 2,943 = -368 Pa

Worked Example - Orifice Plates
A 50 mm orifice plate (Cd = 0.605) is being used to measure flow rates in a 100
mm pipe from a gas drainage hole. The manometer reads 16 mm Hg and the
density of the gas mixture is 0.92 kg/m3. What is the flow rate in the pipe (l/s)?
m = D2/D1 = 50/100 = 0.5
Area of orifice = π D22 = π.0.052 = 0.001963 m2

4 4
Observed pressure differential = ρ g h = 13,600 x 9.81 x 0.016 = 2,134 Pa
Gas flow Q = A2.Cd 2 ∆P = 0.001963 x 0.605 2 x 2,134 = 0.093 m3/s = 93 l/s

ρ (1 – m2) 0.92(1 – 0.52)

1.2 FANS AND AUXILIARY VENTIALTION
Introduction
Topic 1.2.1 Types of fans and fan characteristics
Topic 1.2.2 Fan duty and fan laws
Topic 1.2.3 Fan Pressures And Fan Testing
Topic 1.2.4 Auxiliary Ventilation
UNSW-UME-(M1-2 Fans)(R1).ppt Underground Mine Environment © 2003 UNSW School Of Mining Engineering 1
Introduction - Fans
• Fans normally operate below 10 kPa, although higher pressures can be
achieved.
• A fan is a rotary bladed machine maintaining a continuous flow of gas.
• Numerous applications in domestic, civil and mining applications.
• Used to create a flow of air or gas in ducted or primary ventilation

circuits.
• Create a rise in pressure that overcomes circuit frictional and shock

losses
• Range in size from << 1.0 kW (0.1 m) to > 3.0 MW (> 4.0 m)
• There are three types of fans - CENTRIFUGAL or AXIAL or MIXED FLOW
TOPIC 1.2.1 TYPES OF FANS AND CHARACTERISTIC
CURVES
This section describes various fan types used;

– Centrifugal
– Axial
– Mixed Flow
Together with
– Fan characteristic curves
– Fan power and efficiency
– Compressible flow in fans
Centrifugal Fans
General Arrangement
Diffuser Diffuser Electronic
speed
Suction
control
Rotation eye
Back
plate
Collection
Air
scroll or
Inlet
volute Drive Motor
shaft
Blades Impeller Variable
inlet
vanes
Blade Configuration
Plate blades
Radial Blades Backward Inclined Forward Inclined Various discharge

angles available
Aerofoil blades
Axial Flow Fans
General Arrangement Casing Pitch
Tip clearance Spinner

Hub Straighteners
Blades
Blade Types
Variable Impeller solidity
Pitch Pitch
Flat Cambered Aerofoil

Plate Plate Section
Axial Flow Fans - Variations and Mixed Flow Fans
Axial fan with external motor for main
coal mine exhaust application
Back draught
dampers
Bend
Drive shaft
Bifurcated axial
Motor
Rotor(s), hub
Turning and fairing
vanes
Mixed Flow Fans Contra rotating two stage axial
Guide
Blades vanes Motor 2 Motor 1
Outlet Inlet
silencer silencer
Theoretical Fan Performance Curves
Radial Blades Backward Inclined Forward Inclined Axial Fans

Vt Vt Vt
Vr
Vr Vr U Increased
U U
airflow
θ θ Rotation
V V V
θ Ur Us
Ui
Ut
Ua
Ub
Theoretical Theoretical
Theoretical
Theoretical characteristic characteristic
characteristic P
P characteristic P P
Q
Q Q Q
Backward
Forward
Radial
Axial
Bladed
Bladed
Bladed
FansFans
Fans
Fans
In radial
The tangential
fans the
component
tangentialiscomponent
given by blade
is given
tip speed
by blade
andtipradial
speed.
velocity.
The radial velocity is in the same
opposite
direction
direction
as as
rotation
rotation
This radial
The does not
velocity
change
increases
with volume
with quantity
thereforetherefore
theoretical
pressure
pressure
increases.
decreases.
reduces.
is constant.
The swirl component in axial fans can be reduced with pre rotators or guide vanes
Actual Fan Performance Curves
Theoretical
curve Backward
Frictional, shock Radial
Stall and conversion Forward
point losses
Pressure Pa
Pressure Pa
Radial
Power kW
Actual Forward
curve
Power Backward
Quantity m3/s Open circuit Quantity m3/s

capacity
• As quantity increases frictional, conversion and shock losses also increase

• The actual fan pressure falls below the theoretical curve with increasing quantity
• Real P-Q characteristic curves demonstrate a reduction in pressure with quantity

• Backward bladed centrifugal & axial fans have a non overloading power curve
Fan Power And Efficiency
Air power defined as AP = Q.P kW
Pressure
Q - quantity m3/s P - pressure in kPa Fan
efficiency
contours
Fan efficiency (total or static) 80 75
Pressure Pa
η= Air power x 100 %
70
Consumed power
65
AC Electrical power
Power kW
kW = 3. V.I. Cos (θ)/1000 ≈ 3.V.I. 0.8/1000
DC Electrical power kW = V.I/1000 Quantity m3/s
• The fan has a characteristic PQ and power curve

• Note if defined efficiency includes all motor and gear box losses
• Can also be defined as total or static efficiency
Compressible Flow In Fans
• Fans increase pressure and heat gases flowing through them
• Density and volume actually changes from inlet to outlet.
• Losses associated with this effect are described by a compressibility factor K

• Fan efficiency (total or static)
η= K Air power x 100 %

Consumed power
• K ranges 0.99 to 0.92 for absolute pressure ratios of 5 to 30 kPa.
• Fan energy/pressure is used to overcome friction

• Fans do no useful “thermodynamic” work.
• The temperature rise through fans depends on power, quantity and conditions
of the intake air.
• Force auxiliary fans will increase face temperatures.
TOPIC 1.2.2 FAN OPERATING DUTY AND FAN LAWS
This section describes fan operating duty in a system of airways

or ducts
– The effect of fan speed on fan’s characteristic curve

– The effect of gas density on fan’s characteristic curve
– Multiple fans in series or parallel
– Correction for natural ventilation pressure
– Fan performance control
– Fan speeds and fan selection
– Fan noise
Fan Operating Point
X = P Q points
X
Resistance R A
Higher
Pc = R.Q2 B X resistance
3
Pressure Pa
X
Pc Lower
4 1
X resistance
Q System
resistance X
P = R.Q2
2
X
Quantity m3/s
• Frictional pressure loss in the circuit increases with square of quantity

• Operating point occurs where fan pressure equals frictional loss (point 1
Click for example
fan A)
• If the fan characteristic changes (eg speed) then a new operating point is
reached (point 2 fan B)
• If the circuit resistance increases or decreases, then again, a new

operating point is reached (points 3 or 4)
Fan Laws - Speed & Density Change
• There are numerous design laws relating size, geometry, speed, hub size etc.
• In practice, the only changes routinely made are to speed and density
• It is sometimes appropriate to change impeller diameter, width or axial solidity -
consult suppliers
Speed change
Q1 = n1 P1 = n1 2 W1 = n1 3
Q2 n2 P2 n2 W2 n2
Air quantity directly Pressure proportional Power proportional
proportional to speed to square of speed to cube of speed.
Increasing rotational speed provides more quantity at higher pressure and power
Density change
P1 = ρ1 W1 = ρ 1 .
Q1 = Q2 P2 ρ2 W2 ρ 2
No change in Pressure directly Power directly

quantity proportional to density proportional to density
Click for example
Fans In Series Combination
A B
Q
Combined Fan Curve
PA PB
Pc = PA + PB
Pc
Pressure Pa
Usually used with axial fans in ducts A
or to obtain higher pressure on
B
surface
Resistance
Fan curves not necessarily the same
but should be of similar duty.
Q
Quantity
• Calculate combined curve by adding pressure at the same quantity.
• Plot resistance and determine operating point.

• Same quantity through both fans.
Fans In Parallel Combination
A QA
Q = QA + QB
B QB Qc = QA + QB
Pressure Pa
Used with either axialc or
centrifugal fans for surface or Combined
B A Fan Curve
U/G boosters
Resistance
Fan curves not necessarily the same Q

but should be of similar duty. Quantity m3/s
• Calculate combined curve by adding quantity at the same pressure
• Plot resistance and determine operating point.

• Same pressure across both fans.
• Note that one fan will produce more than half total
Click for example
Correction For Natural Ventilation Pressure
• Natural ventilation pressure normally acts in

the direction of flow. Combined Fan Curve
• NVP will vary throughout the year and may,

in some cases, reverse.
Pressure Pa
Resistance
P=RQ2
• NVP can be assumed to act as a constant
pressure booster fan.
NVP = constant
• Correct system resistance by deducting Q

NVP from calculated R.Q2 and not by Quantity m3/s
correcting the fan curve.
Resistance
P=RQ2 - NVP
• With network simulation programs it may
be necessary to correct the fan curve.
Fan Performance Control
P1 P1 P1 P1
Power Power 1
P2 1 Power 1
Power 2 2
P P 3 P 2
3 3
2 1
3 2 1 3 3 2 1
Q Q Q1 Q Q1 Q Q1
Q1 Q2
Damping/Regulation Inlet Vanes Speed Pitch
• Simple regulation of the system • Throttle fan inlet but also • Fan efficiency remains • Only applies to axial fans.
introduce a pre swirl. essentially constant at
various speed settings. • Adjustment at standstill or
• Does not change fan
characteristic curve • More efficient than damping. in motion.
• Higher capital cost.
• Most uneconomical method but • Reduced fan efficiency with • Maintains relatively high
simple for ducts. partial vane closure efficiency.
• Not suitable for main or axial

fans
Fan Motor Drive Speeds
• Synchronous speed of motors Number Of Sychronous Speed Full Load Speed

poles rps rpm Small <1 kW Large > 500 kW
2 50 3000 2700 2985
4 25 1500 1380 1492
rpm = 2 x frequency (50 Hz) 6 17 1000 900 995
8 13 750 680 745
No of poles 10 10 600 550 596
12 8 500 460 496
16 6 375 350 360
• Actual speed lower due to slip
which varies with motor size
5000
• Blade tip speed < 125 m/s for 4000 Limited by blade
tip velocity
mechanical reasons
Fan Speed rpm

3000
2P Limited by
• Aux fans <1.0 m diam - 2 pole 2700 synchronous
2000
to 2900 rpm speeds
4P
1000
6P
• Larger surface fans 6 to 10 pole 500 8P
10 P
to 950 rpm 0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
Impeller Diameter m
Comparison Of Fan Types
Feature Axial Fans Centrifugal Fans
• Size and mass Smaller/compact Larger impeller & profile
• Pressure Single stage limit 5.0 kPa Very high pressures
• Stall point Prone to severe stall More robust impeller
• Efficiency High over wide range Smaller high efficiency range
• Control Blade pitch flexible Guide vanes reduce efficiency

Very little difference if speed control available
• Reversibility 40 - 60 % at low efficiency Requires ducts and doors
• Reliability High rotational speed/tip Robust impeller and lower speeds
• Maintenance Motor in air stream Easier access to motor
• Wear Susceptible to wear Radial blades- arduous applications
• Noise Higher noise levels Quieter at same duty
Fan Noise – Sources Refer to notes for calculation methods
• Vortex Noise
– Due turbulence in shear zones around the trailing edges of blades or
guide vanes.
– This is the most significant noise source.
• Blade Noise
– Caused by periodic variations in pressure resulting from rotation.
• Mechanical Vibrations
– Due to aerodynamics of the system together with mechanical vibration
resulting from imbalance or misalignment of drive components.
• Electrical Components
– Motors, transformers and variable speed drive controllers
– Narrow frequency range or “tonal” noise that can be problematic in
surface applications
• Noise Emission
– Break out through casing or directly through inlet and outlet
Fan Noise - Silencers And Control
Splitter silencer Hollow cylindrical Pod type cylindrical

silencer silencer
• Exhausts silencers normally used on surface fan.
• Ducted fans can have silencers on intake and exhaust side.
• Consider housing motors and drives or lagging casing.
• Sound pressure levels are inversely proportional to the square of

distance from the source.
• Larger diameter – lower rpm – reduces noise

TOPIC 1.2.3 FAN PRESURES AND FAN TESTING
This section covers the definition of fan pressures and fan

testing.
– Fan static, velocity and total pressure.

– Effect of fan location in ducts
– Measuring fan performance
Definition Of Fan Pressures
• It is important to know at exactly which point the fan inlet and fan outlet have
been defined for definition of the fan’s characteristic curve.
Inlet static pressure SPin Outlet static pressure SPout

Inlet velocity pressure VPin Outlet velocity pressure VPout
Inlet total pressure TPin Outlet total pressure TPout
Inlet
Outlet
• Fan Total Pressure – the algebraic difference between the mean total
pressure at the fan outlet and the mean total pressure at the fan inlet
• Fan velocity pressure – the velocity pressure corresponding to the

average velocity at the fan outlet
• Fan static pressure – the difference between the fan total pressure and
fan velocity pressure.
Fan static SP = (TP out - TP in) - VP out
• Other terms are used for calculation but to not alter these definitions
Example Fan Pressure Measurement In A Duct
Velocity pressure in duct = 250 Pa and frictional losses total 1000 Pa
Q Q
- 325 925 - 575 675

Total Total Static Static
Static = Total - VP = Total - 250
• Fan total = TPo - TPi = 925 - (-325) = 1250 Pa

• Discharge velocity = TPo - SPo = 925 - 675 = 250 Pa
• Fan static pressure = Fan TP - VPo = 1250 - 250 = 1000 Pa
Fan at The Start Of Duct
• Inlet total pressure = 0 Pa
Q
• Fan total = TPo - Tpi = 1250 - 0 = 1250 Pa
• Velocity = TPo - SPo = 1250 - 1000 = 250 Pa
• Fan static = TP - VPo = 1250 - 250 = 1000 Pa 0 1250 1000

Total Total Static
• FAN TOTAL PRESSURE = DISCHARGE FACING TUBE
• FAN STATIC PRESSURE = DISCHARGE SIDE TUBE
Fan At End Of Duct
• Discharge static pressure = 0

Q
• Discharge total = discharge velocity pressure
-1000 -1250 250

Total Static Total
• Fan total = TPo - Tpi = 250 - - 1000 = 1250 Pa

• Velocity = TPo - SPo = 250 - 0 = 250 Pa
• Fan static = TP - VPo = 1250 - 250 = 1000 Pa
• FAN TOTAL PRESSURE = INLET SIDE TUBE
• FAN STATIC PRESSURE = INLET FACING TUBE
Testing Surface Fans - Issues To Consider
Shock losses 2 3
VPi VPo
Expansion/contraction losses
SPi SPo Electrical
Change cross sectional area
TPi TPo power kW
Loss = TPi - TPc
Motor, bearing,
gear box losses
1
VPc Q collar
SPc
• Measure or calculate TP SP VP at 2 sections
ρ collar
TPc • Calculate TP SP VP at discharge if required
• Bend loss = TPi - TPc Note velocity change
• Fan static = -TPi
• Check fan quantities using U/G traverses.
Q U/G
ρ U/G • Calculate motor power for efficiency.
• Plot results on density/speed corrected curves.
Click for example
Testing Fans - Air Quantity Measurement
• Locate measurement positions from standards, refer notes.

• Rectangular -25 sections, Circle 3 to 4 zones.
• Measure velocity pressure, calculate V from 0.5.ρ.V2
• Average velocity not velocity pressure.
• Static (side tube) pressure - use piezometer rings.

• Approximate method - use underground anemometer traverse.
– Correct for density change at fan inlet.
TOPIC 1.2.4 AUXILIARY VENTILATION
This section covers issues associated with auxiliary

ventilation.
– Force, exhaust or combined auxiliary circuits.

– Leakage from auxiliary ducts
– Jet fans as boosters or “man coolers”
Auxiliary Ventilation - Force And Exhaust
Force Exhaust
Intake forced to face Exhaust from face
Rigid or flexible duct Rigid duct
Face return via heading Face return via heading

Pros Pros
• Scours face • Contaminants to return
• Fan in intake air • Fan does not heat intake
• Cheaper flexible duct
Cons
Cons • More expensive duct
• Dust heat and gas in access • Rib emission and diesel in
• Fan heats intake intakes
Auxiliary Ventilation - Force/Exhaust and Overlap
Force/Exhaust Force/Overlap
Intake forced to face Intake forced to face
Rigid or flexible duct Rigid or flexible duct
Return via heading Return via heading

Force to face Force to face
Exhaust from face Exhaust from face
Rigid duct Rigid duct
Pros Pros
• Scours face • Scours face
Cons Cons
• Dust heat and gas in access • Dust heat and gas in access
Auxiliary Ventilation - Design Issues
• Contaminant load (seam gas, heat, blasting fumes).
• Minimum quantity to be delivered at the face.
• Fan duty required to meet face requirements (friction and leakage)
• Operational constraints on duct diameter.
• Operational issues when installing or maintaining ducts

– Short rigid lengths with increased leakage.
– Longer flexible ducts - less joints but more prone to damage.
– Duct transport - pods, cassettes
– Degassing after repairing at mid duct point (fan off if flexible)
Auxiliary Ventilation - Fan Duty & Duct Leakage
Frictional loss reduces
Air enters start
pressure in duct
of duct
Fan duty depends on Qend
Leakage higher
duct length/diameter face closer to fan
and leakage quantity
Q leak
Leakage increases with reduced
pressure - higher frictional losses
with more air in duct
Q fan
P fan
The effective resistance of
a given duct is constant.
• Force systems behave in exactly the same way but flow is in the reverse direction.
– Qfan = Qend +Qleak Qfan >> Qend
• Volume increase ratio VIR = ratio of air volume through fan to air volume at end
• Pressure increase ratio PIR = ratio of pressure required to deliver Qend under
leaky conditions to pressure required under leakless conditions.
• Leakage rate specified as m3/s per 100 m per kPa or as resistance Gauls /100 m.
• Nomogram - used to calculate leakage, or develop spreadsheet solution.
Auxiliary Ventilation - Leaky Duct Nomogram
1.01
1.01
6/ Calculate frictional loss 20
1/ Calculate R100 for without leakage. Apply PIR
1.02
1
duct being considered and VIR to calculate fan 5/ Connect
30
points 1.02
duty and read off
40
1.03
2 50
8 PIR & VIR
60
1.03 1.04
7
3 6 70
80 1.04 1.05
4 5
2/ Select leakage coeff for 90
100 1.05 1.06
5 4
6 duct being considered 1.06
1.07
1.08
1 7
8
3 1.07
1.08
1.09
Pressure Increase Ratio PIR

9 1.10
2 1.09
10 200 1.10
4/ Plot duct 1.15
300
20 1 length 1.15
0.9 1.20
0.8 400
0.7 1.20
30 500
0.6
1.3
40 0.5
2 4 600 1.3
Leakage Coefficient m3/s per km at 0.1 kPa
0.4 700
50
Duct resistance Ns2/m8 per 100 m
800 1.4
60 900 1.4
70 0.3
1000 1.5
Volume increase ration VIR

80 1.5
90 1.6
0.2 1.6 1.7
100
1.7 1.8
1.8 1.9
1.9 2.0
2000 2.0
200 0.1
0.09
0.08
3
Length of duct m
0.07 3000
300 0.06 3 3
400 0.05 4000 4
0.04 5000 5 4
500
600 6 5
0.03 6000 7
700 6
800 7000 8
900 0.02 8000 9 7
1000 9000 10
10000
3/ Plot line to centre. This is

Click for example
0.01
specific to the type of duct.
Jet Fans As Partial Boosters
• Using auxiliary fans as airway boosters is common in civil tunnelling
applications, sometimes used in metalliferous mines, but rarely used
in coal mine.
Fan installed High velocity
in roof V2 A2 Q2 jet formed
Air flow in airway is in the V1

correct direction but below
design flow rate
A1
Q1
• High velocity jet leaving fan has thrust of ρ.V22.A2 Newtons

• This thrust is spread over the airway area A1 for ρ.V22.A2 / A1 N/m2 (Pa)
• The pressure developed overcomes frictional losses and increases flow.
• The effect is relatively small compared to surface fans but is adequate for
controlling localised air split eg maintenance bays.
• It is also the reason that recirculation occurs in the last one or two pillars of
multi heading developments.
Jet Fans For Increasing Velocity
• Jet fans are also used to increase localised velocity for improved
cooling or scouring short dead ends.
760 mm diam 5.0 kW 8.8 m3/s.

8m
1.25 m/s
2.50 m/s
5.0 m/s 3.75 m/s

Fan
8m
0 10 20 30 40 50
Distance from fan m
• These smaller units are sometimes known as “man coolers”.

• The profile of the jet formed is used to select the appropriate unit.
END OF MODULE
FANS - WORKED EXAMPLES
Worked Example - Basic Fan Curves (1)
• What is the fan pressure at 200 m3/s ?
Draw line to P-Q curve and across to Y Single fan Power

2500 800
axis - Fan pressure at 200 m3/s ≈ 1300 Pa
2250 700
2000
• What is the fan power at 200 m3/s ? 600
1750
Draw line to power curve and across to
Pressure Pa
500
Power kW
1500
Y2 axis - Fan power at 200 m3/s ≈ 310 kW
1250 400
• What is the air power at 200 m3/s ? 1000 300
750
Air Power = P.Q = 1300 x 200/1000 = 260 kW 200
500
250 100
• What is the efficiency at 200 m3/s ?
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Efficiency = Air power x 100 = 260 x 100 = 84%
Quantity m3/s
Absorbed power 310

Worked Example - Electrical Power (2)
A 1000 V motor is drawing 90 amps

What is the electrical power consumed if the motor is AC ?
Power = 3. V.I. Cos (θ)/1000 = 3 x 1000 x 90 x 0.8/1000 = 124.7 kW
What is the electrical power consumed if the motor is DC ??
Power = V.I = 1000 x 90 /1000 = 90 kW

Worked Example - Fan Operating Point
The resistance of a mine circuit is 0.009 Ns2/m8

What is the operating point using this single fan curve ?
Calculate pressure from P = R.Q2 for range of quantity

Quantity Pressure
m3/s Pa
Single fan Power
2500 800
0 0.0 2250 700
50 22.5 2000
100 90.0 600
1750
150 202.5
Pressure Pa
500
Power kW
200 360.0 1500
250 562.5 1250 400
1000 300
Plot line and estimate point of 750
200
intersection ? 500
250 100
Operating point (estimated)
0 0
205 m3/s at 1200 Pa 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Quantity m3/s
Worked Example - Speed And Density Laws
A fan is operating at 360 rpm with a duty of 120 m3/s at 1400 Pa, the efficiency
is 81 %. What is the new duty and power consumed if the speed is changed to
515 rpm ?
Power at 360 rpm W1 = (Q1 x P1/1000) W1 = (120 x 1400/1000) = 207.4 kW

(ε/100) (81/100)
New quantity Q2 = Q1 x n2 / n1 Q2 = 120 x 515 / 360 = 171.7 m3/s
New pressure P2 = P1 x (n2 / n1)2 P2 = 1400 x (515 / 360)2 = 2865 Pa
New power W2 = W1 x (n2 / n1)3 W2 = 207.4 x (515 / 360)3 = 607 kW
What is the duty if the density then changes from 1.20 kg/m3 to 1.15 kg/m3 ?
New quantity Q2 = Q1 Q2 = 171.7 m3/s
New pressure P2 = P1 x ρ2 / ρ1 P2 = 2865 x 1.15 / 1.20 = 2745 Pa
New power W2 = W1 x ρ2 / ρ1 W2 = W1 x 1.15 / 1.20 = 582 kW

Worked Example - Multiple Fans And Fan Laws
A fan’s characteristic curve is described by the following P-Q points.

Single fan Power
2500 800
Quantity Pressure 2250 700
m3/s Pa 2000
100 2200 1750
600
145 2000
Pressure Pa
500
Power kW
1500
190 1500
1250 400
215 1000
1000 300
235 500
750
250 0 200
500
250 100
Plot the curve on graph paper ? 0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Quantity m3/s
Calculate and plot the combined curve for two units in series ?
For each data point on the single unit curve calculate the combined pressure
(series).
Single Curve Series Curve Single fan Two in series

5000
Quantity Pressure Quantity Pressure 4500
m3/s Pa m3/s Pa 4000
100 2200 100 4400 3500
Pressure Pa
145 2000 145 4000 3000
190 1500 190 3000 2500
215 1000 215 2000 2000
235 500 1500
235 1000
1000
250 0 250 0
500
0
0 100 200 300
Same Twice Quantity m3/s
quantity pressure
Calculate and plot the combined curve for two units in parallel ?
For each data point on the single unit curve calculate the combined
quantity (parallel).
Single Curve Parallel Curve Single fan Two in series Two in parallel
Quantity Pressure Quantity Pressure 5000
m3/s Pa m3/s Pa 4500
4000 Series
100 2200 200 2200 3500
Pressure Pa
145 2000 290 2000 3000
190 1500 380 1500 2500
215 1000 430 1000 2000
235 500 470 Parallel
500 1500
250 0 500 0 1000
500
0
Twice Same
0 200 400 600
Quantity m3/s
quantity pressure
If the original speed was 500 rpm and density was 1.2 kg/m3 calculate and plot
the parallel curve for a speed of 600 rpm and a density of 1.15 kg/m3 ?
Speed correction Density correction

= 600/500 = 1.2 = 1.15/1.2 = 0.958
Parallel Curve Speed Correction Density Correction
Quantity Pressure Quantity Pressure Quantity Pressure
m3/s Pa m3/s Pa m3/s Pa
200 2200 240 3168 240 3036
290 2000 348 2880 348 2760
380 1500 456 2160 456 2070
430 1000 516 1440 516 1380
470 500 564 720 564 690
500 0 600 0 600 0
Single fan Two in parallel
New speed New density
3500
3000 Speed &
Q = Q x 1.2 P = P x 1.2 2 Same density
P = P x 0.958 2500
Pressure Pa
quantity 2000
Parallel
1500
1000
500
0
0 200 400 600 800
Quantity m3/s
Worked Example - Testing Surface Fans
The following data is obtained from a site survey of two surface fans on an exhaust shaft;
SHAFT DATA Diameter = 4.8 m Average density = 1.15 kg/m3 Collar VP = 77 Pa SP = -1780 Pa
FAN DATA Two 2.1m diam fans Equal distribution of air Inlet VP =509 Pa SP = -2560 Pa
MOTOR DATA 1000 Volts AC 420 Amps power factor = 0.8
U/G DATA Shaft depth 300 m and measured quantity = 197 m3/s at a pressure of 103,250 Pa
What ventilation quantity is indicated by the surface shaft and fan data ?
Shaft Collar Fan inlet

Area = π.D2/4 = π.4.82/4 = 18.09 m2 = π.2.12/4 = 3.46 m2
Velocity = (2. VP/ ρ) = 2 x77 / 1.15 = 11.57 m/s = 2 x 509 / 1.15 = 29.75 m/s
Quantity = V.A = 18.09 x 11.57 = 209 m3/s = 3.46 * 29.75 = 103 m3/s
Total for fan inlets = 2 x 103 = 206 m3/s therefore data is consistent.
Calculate the total pressure at shaft collar and fan inlet

What is the fan static pressure and loss around the inlet bend ?
Total pressure at collar TPc = SP + VP = -1780 + 77 = -1703 Pa
Total pressure at fan inlet TPi = SP + VP = -2560 + 509 = - 2051 Pa
Total pressure at fan inlet = facing tube = fan static pressure = 2051 Pa
Loss around bend = TPi - TPc = -2051 - - 1703 = -348 Pa
Calculate the motor power and fan efficiency ?

Motor power = 3.V.I.08 /1000 = 3 x 1000 x 420 x 0.8 / 1000 = 582 kW
Air power = P.Q/1000 = 2051 x 206/1000 = 423 kW
Efficiency of combined installation = 423/582 x 100 = 73 %
What quantity would be expected at the collar from underground measurements ?
Calculate effect of expansion in the shaft
Pressure at bottom = 103,250 Pa

Column pressure in shaft = ρ.g.h =1.15 x 9.79 x 300 = 3,378 Pa
Pressure at collar = 103,250 - 3,378 = 99,872 Pa
Measured underground quantity = 197 m3/s
Quantity at collar = Q . P1/P2 = 197 x 103,250 / 99,872 = 203.7 m3/s
This indicates that in relatively shallow shafts (<500 m) an approximate result

can be obtained by measuring underground quantities, shaft collar and fan inlet
side tube pressures.

Worked Example - Leaking Auxiliary Ducts
A 350 m long exhaust duct is required to ventilate a face with 8.0 m3/s . The
installed leakage coeff = 0.6 m3/s per 100 m per kPa. What will the fan duty be
with 610 and 750 mm duct (assume k= 0.0033, density = 1.17 kg/m3)?
Calculate the resistance per 100 m (R100) for each duct.
Cross sectional area A = π.D2 A = π. x 0.6102 = 0.292 m2 A = π. x 0.7502 = 0.442 m2

4 4 4
Circumference C = π.D C = π..0.610 = 1.916 m C = π..0.750 = 2.356 m
Resistance R = k.C.L . p R = 0.0033 x 1.916 x 100 x 1.17 = 24.7 Ns2/m8

for 610 mm duct A3 1.2 0.292 3 1.2
R = 0.0033 x 2.356 x 100 x 1.17 = 8.8 Ns2/m8

for the 750 mm duct 0.442 3 1.2
Now plot data on nomogram to find PIR and VIR for each duct
1.01
1.01
20
1 1.02
30
1.02
40
2
750 mm VIR = 1.080
50
1.03
8
7
PIR = 1.065
60
1.03 1.04
3 6 70
80 1.04 1.05
4 5 90
100 1.05 1.06
5 4 1.07
6 1.06 1.08
7 3 1.07
1
8
750 mm 1.08
1.09
Pressure Increase Ratio PIR

9 1.10
2 1.09
10 200 1.10
4 300
1.15
20 1 1.15
1 0.9
0.8 2 400
1.20
1.20
30 0.7
500
0.6
0.5
3 4 600
1.3
40
610 mm 2 1.3
Leakage Coefficient m3/s per km at 0.1 kPa
0.4 700
50
Duct resistance Ns2/m8 per 100 m
800 1.4
60 900 1.4
70 0.3
1000 1.5
Volume increase ration VIR

80 1.5
90
100 0.2 610 mm VIR = 1.130 1.6
1.6
1.7
1.7 1.8
PIR = 1.110 1.8 1.9
2.0
1.9
200 0.1
3 2000 2.0
0.09
0.08
Length of duct m
0.07 3000
300 0.06 3 3
400 0.05 4000 4
0.04 5000 5 4
500
600 6 5
0.03 6000 7
700 6
800 7000 8
900 0.02 8000 9 7
1000 9000 10
10000
0.01
Resistance of ducts Rtotal = Length x R100 No leak pressure loss = Rtotal x Qface2
100
610 mm duct Rtotal = 350 x 24.7 = 86.5 Ns2/m8 No leak pressure loss = 86.5 x 82 = 5,536 Pa
100
From nomogram VIR = 1.13 Fan quantity = VIR . Qface = 1.13 x 8 = 9.04 m3/s
PIR = 1.11 Fan pressure = PIR . Pnoleak = 1.11 x 5536 = 6,145 Pa
Fan duty for 610 duct = 9.04 m3/s at 6,145 Pa
750 mm duct Rtotal = 350 x 8.8 = 30.8 Ns2/m8 No leak pressure loss = 30.8 x 82 = 1971 Pa
100
From nomogram VIR = 1.08 Fan quantity = VIR . Qface = 1.08 x 8 = 8.64 m3/s
PIR = 1.065 Fan pressure = PIR . Pnoleak = 1.065 x 1971 = 2099 Pa
Fan duty for 750 duct = 8.64 m3/s at 2,099 Pa

1.3 VENTILATION NETWORK ANALYSIS

4
M2
A 1 B 2 C 3 D 6 E
M1
5
Introduction
Topic 1.3.1 Airways in series and parallel
Topic 1.3.2 Network analysis
Topic 1.3.3 The Hardy Cross method
Topic 1.3.4 Computer simulation programs

UNSW-UME-(M1-3 Networks)(R1).ppt Underground Mine Environment © 2003 UNSW School Of Mining Engineering 1
Introduction - Ventilation Network Analysis
• A network is an interconnected group of discrete airways of known
dimensions.
– The resistance of each airway is known or can be calculated.
– The pressure drop in each airway is a function of the quantity assigned to it.
– The pressure drop is calculated from the relationship P = R.Q2
– Fan characteristic curves and location within the network are defined
• A solution is obtained when there is a balance of quantity and

pressure.
• The pressure lost due to friction and regulators balances pressure

gains due to fans and natural ventilation pressure.
• The solution is therefore steady state for a given network geometry
Introduction -Why Use Ventilation Network Analysis
• Questions to be answered by network analysis
– What configuration of airways & fans are required to meet design requirements?
– How will various design options effect circuit performance?
– How will the circuit perform as it expands?
– What ventilation devices should be in place to control ventilation distribution?
– Can observed pressure differentials and quantities be reconciled with the model?
• It is important to note that network analysis does not just mean using
simulation software. Many network problems can be solved directly.
TOPIC 1.3.1 SERIES AND PARALLEL AIRWAYS
This section deals with the calculation of frictional losses in

series and parallel airways.
– Calculate the effective resistance of multiple airways

– Resolve mine circuits into simple series and parallel airway
groups
– Obtain a definitive solution that does not require iterative
methods
Ventilation Network Analysis - Basic Terminology
Network - connected airways describing the ventilation circuit
Branch or airway - discrete airway between two nodes

6
A E
Node or junction - where two or more airways meet
1
Airways can be 5
Free flowing eg B to D No.2

B 2 D
Fixed flow eg C to D No.4
Contain fans eg D to E No.5 R
3
4
Further terms are provided in the network analysis section
Airways In Series And Parallel - Series Airways
• For each series airway, the resistance is known
RTOT.Q2
Q R1.Q2 R2.Q2 R3.Q2 Q
• The quantity flowing in each airway is the same

• The frictional pressure drop in each airway is given by P=R.Q2
• The pressure drop is given by the sum of pressure drops in each airway.
Therefore
RTOT.Q2 = R1.Q2 + R2.Q2 + R3.Q2
But Q is the same for each airway, therefore
RTOT = R1 + R2 + R3
RTOT = n.R1 for n identical airways
Click for example
Airways In Series And Parallel - Parallel Airways
• The quantity flowing in each airway
is different but all add up to QTOT
P= RTOT.QTOT2 Because the all pressure drops are the same
RTOT.QTOT2 = R1.Q12 = R2.Q22 = R3.Q32
R1.Q
Q12
But QTOT = Q1 +Q2 + Q3 and Q = P/R
R2.Q
Q22 Qtot
Qtot
R3.Q
Q32 Therefore P = P + P + P
RTOT R1 R 2 R3
P cancels 1 = 1 + 1 + 1
• The frictional pressure drop in each
RTOT R1 R2 R3
airway is given by P=R.Q2
For n identical airways RTOT= R / n2
• The pressure drop across every
airway must be the same
Q in airway = RTOT Q2TOT
Rn
Click for example
Airways In Series And Parallel - Reducing Networks
• Most mine networks, or parts of the network, can be reduced to series
and parallel airways.
• Solutions can then be directly calculated without iterative techniques
• This often provides a much clearer understanding of the problem than

by analysis of each and every mine airway.
• Using spreadsheets, numerous scenarios can be presented graphically
• The solution provided is as valid as that from simulation programs for

the same input data.
• Even if simulation programmes are used, this method can greatly

simplify the network modelled for improved clarity.
The first step is to redraw the circuit to make series and parallel airways
more apparent.
For example if the actual network looked like this;
It could be redrawn like this

6
7
7
5 3
5
1 4 1 4 6
3 2
2
Making parallel and series groups easier to see eg
Airways 2 and 3 are in parallel
Airways 5 and 7 are in series
Airways 5 and 7 are also in parallel with 6
• In addition to parts of a network, it is often possible to reduce entire
mine circuits to effective parallel and series combinations.
• This is particularly the case in coal mines where recirculation or

series ventilation are not employed.
Consider the example given in the notes

Longwall
Gateroad 11
7 8
Shaft
R
Mains
R 6 9 10
5 4 3 2
Airways In Series And Parallel - Drawing Networks
The first step is to redraw the circuit Longwall

Gateroad 11
7 8
The main intakes are already in series
Shaft
R
The main returns are also in series Mains
R 6 9 10
The longwall can be drawn between
4 and 9 5 4 3 2
Followed by gate road and mains 1
6 9 10 11
The purpose of re drawing the
circuit is to make series and
parallel paths clearer
8
R R
2
5 4 3
1
What is the distribution for a total ventilation rate of 110 m3/s ?
Follow
110 m3/sthe calculation
must for other
be in these airways
airways ? from the notes ?
Pressures are then calculated from surface intake 0 Pa ?

-337 65.6 -391 110 -542 110 -579
6 9 10 11
Check P = Rtot.Q2
44.4
P = 0.04785 x 1102 = 579 Pa
8
R R
44.4
27.7 37.9
7
44.4 42.7
2 0
5 4
-222 3
65.6 -199 110 1 0
-131
67.3
TOPIC 1.3.2 VENTILATION NETWORK ANALYSIS
This section deals with the fundamental description of

networks and the methods required to obtain a balance
of quantity and pressure.
– Description of ventilation networks

– Kirchoff’s laws for quantity and pressure balance
– Application to “simple” networks
Ventilation Network Analysis - Basic Terminology
Network - connected airways describing the ventilation circuit
Branch or airway - discrete airway between two nodes

6
A E
Node or junction - where two or more airways meet
1
Airways can be 5
Free flowing eg B to D No.2

B 2 D
Fixed flow eg C to D No.4
Contain fans eg D to E No.5 R
3
4
Ventilation Network Analysis - Mesh Rules
Mesh - any closed loop within the network 6

A E
1
• All airways must be in at least one mesh. 5
B 2 D
• Airways can be in more than one mesh eg B to D No.2
R
3
• Every mesh must have one airway that is only in that mesh 4
• This is known as the Chord of the mesh and defines the mesh direction.
• Fans or fixed quantity airways must be the chord of a mesh.
• The minimum number of meshes required to describe a network Nm = Na - Nj +1

• In this example Nm = 6 - 5 + 1 = 2
Ventilation Network Analysis - Mesh Incidence
The mesh incidence matrix describes how network 6

airways lie in meshes formed. A E
The incidence is +1 if in mesh and same direction 1

M1
5
-1 if in mesh and opposite direction
0 if the airway is not in the mesh
B 2 D
Consider airway incidence in mesh 1

2 M2 R
3
4
Airway No. M1 M2
A to B 1 1 0 Only in mesh 1 C
B to D 2 1 -1 In both meshes - opposite direction to mesh 2
B to C 3 0 1 Only in mesh 2
C to D 4 0 1 Chord of mesh 2
D to E 5 1 0 Chord of mesh 1
E to A 6 1 0 Only in mesh1
This matrix will be required later for further network analysis
Ventilation Network Analysis - Kirchoffs Laws
Two “laws” are used to describe a balanced network
Kirchoff’s first and second laws.
6
A E
Kirchoff’s First Law

1
The first states that the algebraic sum of quantity 5
150
at a junction is zero (total in = total out)
B 105 2 D
45
45
3
4
For example C
If the flow in airway 1 is 150 m3/s and the flow in airway 2 is 105 m3/s
The flow in airway 3 and 4 must be 45 m3/s (150 - 105)
Ventilation Network Analysis - Kirchoffs Laws
Kirchoff’s Second Law
The sum of frictional loss and fan pressures in each
closed mesh (with consideration to direction of the 6
mesh) must be zero in steady state conditions. A E
1
For example, in the mesh formed by airways 2,3 5
and 4 the chord is airway 4 and the mesh direction
is anti clockwise. B -250 2 D
If the pressure loss from B to D in airway 2 is - 250 Pa R

-200
3
Then the pressure drop from B to D via airways 3 and 4 -50
4
must also be -250 Pa.
C
A possible solution would be -200 and -50 Pa
Using the incidence factors, the mesh balance is 1 x DP3 + 1 x DP4 -1 x DP2
-200 - 50 - (- 250) = 0 Pa
Ventilation Network Analysis - Fans And Regulators
A possible balance for mesh 2 is shown. The quantity distribution would then
be determined from the airway resistances.
B -250 2 D
If the quantity in airway 4 is then reduced by fixing
a lower flow the pressure drop B to C to D would R
be less than 250 Pa -100
-200 4
3
-25
-50
For example if the lower pressure drop was -125 Pa
C
A regulator would be required with a DP = 125 Pa
If the quantity in airway 4 is then increased by fixing B -250 2 D

a higher flow the pressure drop B to C to D would be
more than 250 Pa
-375
-200 4
3
-175
-50
For example if the lower pressure drop was -550 Pa
A fan would be required with a DP = 300 Pa C
TOPIC 1.3.3 NETWORK ANALYSIS BY ITERATIVE
SOLUTIONS
This section deals with ventilation network analysis

using simulation programs and iterative solutions.
– The Hardy Cross method
Network Analysis - The Hardy Cross Method
An alternative method for solving ventilation networks is required for two
reasons
Even if the network can be resolved into series and parallel groups, this
becomes overly complex in larger networks.
If the network cannot be resolved into series and parallel airways, for example
This circuit can be resolved into series and parallel airways
A 1 B 2 E
3 7 5
C 4 D 6 F
But it can not be solved if an additional airway is inserted from C to E
The Hardy Cross method is used to solve this problem and is equally valid for
non compound circuits
Network Analysis - The Hardy Cross Method
• The Hardy Cross method is is applied as follows (refer to the notes for
complete explanation);
• Estimate the initial distribution of quantity that satisfies Kirchoff’s first law.
• Sum the frictional pressure loss and fan pressures for each airway in each
mesh - with consideration to the mesh incidence.
Calculate the mesh correction = - Sum (RQ2 - Pfan - Pnvp) m3/s

Sum( 2RQ - Sf)
Sf = slope of the fan curve 2RQ = slope of resistance curve
• Apply the mesh correction, then consider the next mesh using corrected
airway quantities.
• Repeat the process until the correction is small (< 0.5 m3/s for example)
TOPIC 1.3.4 COMPUTER SIMULATION PROGRAMS
This section describes use of simulation programs.
– Developing and reconciling a network

– Effect of compression
– Natural ventilation pressure
– Contaminant spread
Ventilation Network Analysis - Developing A Network
• Establish a systematic junction numbering system - reflect locations.
• Decide exactly what answer is being sought - keep network simple but
representative
• Use accurate resistances for key airways (shafts etc) where main pressure
losses occur. Do not forget the surface fan inlet elbow.
• Use default values for other internal airways but check sensitivity.
• To initiate model, fix fan airways to obtain a correct distribution. Add fan
curves later.
• When comparing simulation results with observed data consider the accuracy
of both data sets. Eg survey data may be ±10 %.
• Because significant airflow can occur at low pressure differentials make sure
that the model and observed pressures reconcile.
Click for example
Ventilation Network Analysis - Limitations
• As identified in the previous example, it is often impracticable to provide a
steady state solution that matches each and every airway in the network.
• The dynamics of a mine circuit (cage movement, climate changes) will effect
observed data.
• In most mines, and particularly deep mines, the volumetric flow rate varies
throughout the circuit due to heating and pressure changes (downcast and
upcast shafts).
• It is important to quantify these effects and determine if the assumption of

incompressible flow is appropriate.
• In addition to changing volumetric flow rates, varying density in intake and

exhaust shaft will result in a natural ventilation effect.
• Most simulation programs do not calculate density variations. It is either

assumed to remain constant or has to be specified for individual airways.
Limitations - Compression And Natural Ventilation
Exhaust Intake
Exhaust air usually hotter and shaft shaft
less dense than intake.
Pressure applied depends on Less dense More
differential density and depth. warmer dense
air ρ2
NVP = ( ρ1 - ρ2 ) .g.h Pa cooler air
ρ1 Depth of
R workings
h
Pressure of
workings
Quantity of intake air underground also reduces due to compression in

downcast shaft DP = ρ1.g.h Pa
An approximate solution is to use an airway with a fixed percent of intake

volume and correct surface fan curve for natural ventilation
Network Simulation - Contaminant Spread
A number of programs have been developed to predict the spread of
contaminants
These include heat, products of combustion and seam gas.
The most simplistic approach is to assume the contaminant enters as a point
source, then travels at the same speed as the ventilation.
Fresh air enters via 1,2 and 3 25 Regulator

6
R
Consider a source in 4
Fan
This spreads to 5 and 6 D 5 E 7 F 8 G
15 125 150
Dilution occurs at junction E 40 150
110
4 3 9
The time taken to reach each
point depends on air velocity
40
C 2 B 1 A
150
Specialist software is required when the contaminant growth has a time
dependency(radon) or other function ( heat from temperature
differentials)
END OF MODULE
NETWORKS WORKED EXAMPLES
Worked Example - Series Airways
Airway 1 has a resistance of 0.09 Ns2/m8 and airway 2 has a resistance of 0.08
Ns2/m8 .
What is the frictional pressure loss for one of each airway in series and an air
quantity of 85 m3/s?
• Total resistance Rtot. = R1 + R2 = 0.09 + 0.08 = 0.170 Ns2/m8
• Frictional pressure loss = R. Q2 = 0.170 x 852 = 1228 Pa
• What is the frictional pressure loss for four of airway 1 in series and an air
quantity of 25 m3/s?
• Total resistance Rtot. = 4 x R1 = 4 x 0.09 = 0.36 Ns2/m8
• Frictional pressure loss = R. Q2 = 0.36 x 252 = 225 Pa

Worked Example - Parallel Airways(1)
Airway 1 has a resistance of 0.09 Ns2/m8 and airway 2 has a resistance of
0.08 Ns2/m8 . What is the frictional pressure loss for one of each airway in
parallel and an air quantity of 85 m3/s ?
1 = 1 + 1 = 1 + 1 = 3.333 + 3.536 = 6.869

Rtot. R1 R2 0.09 0.08
Rtot = 1 / 6.8692 = 0.0212 Ns2/m8

Frictional pressure loss = R. Q2 = 0.0212 x 852 = 153 Pa
How much air is in each airway ?
QA = Rtot.Q2tot = 0.0212 X 852 = 41.3 m3/s
RA 0.09
P = 153 Pa
QB = Rtot.Q2tot = 0.0212 X 852 = 43.7 m3/s
43.7
RB 0.08 85 85
Check 43.7 + 41.3 = 85 m3/s 41.3
Worked Example - Parallel Airways(1)
What is the frictional pressure loss for four of airway 1 (R=0.09) in parallel
and an air quantity of 85 m3/s?
Total resistance Rtot = R/n2 = 0.09/42 = 0.00563 Ns2/m8
Frictional pressure loss = R. Q2 = 0.00563 x 852 = 40.6 Pa

Worked Example - Simple Network Reduction
If the airway resistances are as shown, what is the total resistance of the
circuit ?
R = 0.02
R = 0.22
R = 0.03 7
3
5
1 4 6
R = 0.01 R = 0.09 R = 0.10
2
R = 0.12
Step 1 - calculate the resistance of airways 2 and 3 in parallel ?

1 = 1 + 1 = 1 + 1 R23 = 0.0397 Ns2/m8
R23. R2 R3 0.12 0.22
Step 2 - calculate the resistance of airways 5 and 7 in series ?

R57 = R5 + R7 = 0.03 + 0.02 = 0.05
Ns2/m8
The resistances calculated so far are
R = 0.02 R = 0.02
R = 0.22 R = 0.22
R = 0.03 7 R = 0.03 7
3 3
5 R = 0.0397
5 R = 0.05
1 4 6 1 4 6
R = 0.01 R = 0.09 R = 0.10 R = 0.01 R = 0.09 R = 0.10
2 2
R = 0.12 R = 0.12
Step 3 - calculate the resistance of airways 5&7 in parallel with 6 ?

1 = 1 + 1 = 1 + 1 R56_7 = 0.01716 Ns2/m8
R57_6. R57 R6 0.05 0.10
Step 4 - calculate the total resistance of the circuit ?

Rtot = R1 + R23 + R4 + R57_6
Rtot = 0.01 + 0.0397 + 0.09 + 0.01716 = 0.15686 Ns2/m8
If the quantity of air in airway 1 is 100 m3/s, calculate the quantity in each
airway and the pressure at the start and end of each airway ?
R57 = 0.05
R23 = 0.0397 The quantity in airways 1 and 4 must be
R = 0.02
R = 0.22 100 m3/s
.03
7
3 Q1 = 100 m3/s
=0
100 m3/s 5
R
Q2 =
1 4 6
R = 0.01 R = 0.09 R = 0.10 Q3 =
2 Q4 = 100 m3/s
R = 0.12 R57_6 = 0.01716
Q5 =
Q6 =
Calculate the quantity in airway 2 and 3 Q7 =
Q3 = R23 x Q2 Q3 = 0.0397 x 1002 Q3 = 42.5 m3/s

R3 0.22
Therefore the quantity in airway 2 = 100 – 42.5 Q2 = 57.5 m3/s
R57 = 0.05
R23 = 0.0397
R = 0.02
Q1 = 100.0 m3/s
R = 0.22 Q2 = 57.5 m3/s
.03
7
3
=0
5 Q3 = 42.5 m3/s
R
1 4 6 Q4 = 100.0 m3/s
R = 0.01 R = 0.09 R = 0.10 Q5 = 58.6 m3/s
2
R = 0.12 R57_6 = 0.01716 Q6 = 41.4 m3/s
Q7 = 58.6 m3/s
Calculate the quantity in airway 5,6 and 7
Q6 = R56_7 x Q2 Q6 = 0.01716 x 1002 Q6 = 41.4 m3/s

R6 0.10
Therefore the quantity in airway 5 and 7 = 100 – 41.4 Q2 = 58.6 m3/s
Using the quantity distribution calculate the frictional loss in each airway and
the pressure at the start and end of each airway ?
-1500
Q==0.22
R 42.5
The quantity distribution is 7
3 QR == 58.6
0.03 0.02 -1569
R == 58.6
The pressure distribution is Q
5
0 -100 -497
1 4 6
R
Q == 0.01
100 -1397 -1569
R
Q == 0.09
100 R
Q == 0.10
41.4
2
R
Q == 0.12
57.5
Note that end airway 6 and 7 are at the
P= R.Q2
Pend=Pstart - same pressure
Quantity Resis Friction Start P End
Airway m3/s Ns2/m8 Pa Pa Pa
Check from total resistance and flow
1 100.0 0.010 100 0 -100
2 57.5 0.120 397 0.15686 x 1002 = 1569 Pa
-100 -497
3 42.5 0.220 397 -100 -497
4 100.0 0.090 This distribution could be obtained by a
5 58.6 0.030
900 -497 -1397
103 -1397 -1500 single force fan in airway 1 with a duty
6 41.4 0.100
171 of 100 m3/s at 1569 Pa
7 58.6 0.020 -1397 -1569
69 -1500 -1569
Worked Example - Check On Example Mesh Balance
From an analysis point of view, airway 10 to 11 is fixed at 110 m3/s and the question is -
what fan pressure would be required ?
The mesh airways are -337 65.6 -391 110 -542 110 -579
The pressure drops are 6 9 10 11
The incidence factors are 44.4

The mesh pressure is 8
R R
Airway DP M M x DP 44.4
27.7 37.9
2 to 3 -131 1 -131
3 to 4 -67 1 7
-67
4 to 7 -25 1 -25 44.4 42.7
7 to 8 -59 1 -59 2 0
8 to 9 -109 1 -109 5 4
-222 3
9 to 10 -151 1 -151 65.6 -199 110 1 0
-131
10 to 11 -36 1 -36 67.3
Total = -578 Pa
The total mesh loss is -578 (rounded to 1 Pa) . Therefore
a fan with this pressure is required ie -578 +578 = 0 Pa.

Worked Example - Initial Balance
Minimum number of meshes required 6
Number airways = 9 R Regulator
Select meshes and balance the following network
Number of junctions = 7 M2
Fan
Number of meshes = 9 - 7 +1 = 3
D 5 E 7 F 8 G
Airway 6 and 8 must be chords 4 M3 3 M1

9
Airway 2 or 4 can be a chord (say 2) C 2 B 1 A
The mesh incidences are

Airway No. M1 M2 M3 Q Q Q Q
Set all quantities to 0 m3/s 150 150 150
A to B 1 +1 0 0 0
Estimate Airway 8 = 150 m3/s B to C 2 0 0 +1 0 0 0 40
and correct mesh 1 B to E 3 +1 0 -1 0 150 150 110
C to D 4 0 0 +1 0 0 0 40
Estimate Airway 6 = 25 m3/s D to E 5 0 -1 +1 0 0 -25 15
D to F 6 0 +1 0 0 0 25 25
and correct mesh 2
E to F 7 +1 -1 0 0 150 125 125
F to G 8 +1 0 0 0 150 150 150
Estimate Airway 2 = 40 m3/s
G to A 9 +1 0 0 0 150 150 150
and correct mesh 3
Worked Example - Initial Balance
The initial balance for the network is
Airway No. Q 25 Regulator

6
A to B 1 150 R
B to C 2 40 Fan
B to E 3 110
C to D 4 40 D 5 E 7 F 8 G
15 125 150
D to E 5 15 150
D to F 6 25 40 110
E to F 7 125 4 3 9
F to G 8 150
G to A 9 150 40
C 2 B 1 A
150
In this case the quantity in 9 airways is determined by only estimating 3

This method can also be applied to survey data using measured values instead

Worked Example - Hardy Cross Method
This circuit is not compound, but is used to demonstrate how the Hardy Cross
method works.
4 R = 0.70
R = 0.01 R = 0.12 R = 0.20 R = 0.01

A 1 B 2 C 3 D 6 E
60 m3/s
5
R = 0.50
If 60 m3/s enters the network through airway 1
First, calculate the distribution within the network using series and parallel airways ?
Second, calculate the distribution within the network using the Hardy Cross method ?
Worked Example - Using Series And Parallel Method
12.7 4 R = 0.70
R = 0.01 R = 0.12 R = 0.20 R = 0.01

A 1 B 2 C 3 D 6 E
36.6 23.9 60
60 m3/s
5 23.4
R = 0.50
Calculate Resistance of airway groups
Quantity in airways 1 and 6 = 60 m3/s
Airway 3 parallel with 4 = 0.0849 Ns2/m8
Quantity in 5 = 0.0762 x 602 = 23.4 m3/s
R34 in series with airway 2 = 0.2049 Ns2/m8 0.5
Quantity in 2 = 36.6 m3/s
R34_2 parallel with airway 5 = 0.0762 Ns2/m8
Quantity in 3 = 0.0849 x 36.62 = 23.9 m3/s
0.2
Total = 0.01 + 0.0762 + 0.01 = 0.0962 Ns2/m8
Quantity in 4 = 12.7 m3/s
Now use the Hardy Cross Method
For this example it is assumed that 60 m3/s enters airway 1,either airway 1 or 6 are fixed
The problem is to determine the distribution between junction B and D
4 R = 0.70
R = 0.01 R = 0.12 R = 0.20 R = 0.01

A 1 B 2 C 3 D 6 E
5
R = 0.50
Step 1 select meshes
There are 3 junctions (BCD) and 4 airways (2 3 4 5) :. Number of meshes = 4 - 3 +1 = 2
None of the airways are fixed so any of them can be the mesh chord
One possible set of meshes are
4
M2
A 1 B 2 C 3 D 6 E
M1
5
4
60 m3/s
M2
A 1 B 2 C 3 D 6 E
M1
5
The mesh incidence matrix (assume airways 5 and 4 are the chords) is
Estimate quantity in airway 5 = 30 m3/s and airway 4 =15 m3/s. The initial balance is
Sum RQ2 and 2RQ for meshes 1 and 2 in turn
M1 M2 M1 M2
Airway M1 M2 R Q Q Q Q Q
B to C 2 -1 0 0.12 30 36.9 36.9 36.6 36.6
B to D 5 +1 0 0.50 30 23.1 23.1 23.4 23.4
C to D 3 -1 -1 0.20 15 21.9 24.0 23.7 23.9
C to D 4 0 +1 0.70 15 15.0 12.9 12.9 12.8
Calculations
Calculations
Calculations
Calculations
Calculations
Calculations - -mesh
-mesh
-mesh
-mesh
-mesh
mesh
112first
2first
1first
2first
second
second
iteration
iteration
iteration
iteration iteration
iteration
correction
correction
SOLUTION
Sum
Apply
Sum
Apply
Sum
Sum
After
RQ RQ2correction
2two
=2=-1
correction
RQRQ 2= iterations
-1=x-1 -6.875
-1
x0.12-2.077
x0.20
x0.12
0.20 the
x x30 x2all
tox21.9
to 12airways
+2airways
x2+1
distribution
all
36.9
+23.7 0.5 xxin
+1x1x0.70is
0.5
30 2essentially
inmesh
0.70 x-1212.9
xmesh
x+15
23.1 1x=22-0.2
+-2 with
with
61.8 =the
-1 2 = x297
respect
x15respect
x4.572same
0.2 to2direction
asto
24 that
=direction
by direct methods
-10.53
eg
Sumeg
B
Sum Note
C
Sumto2RQ
Sum
2RQ to
C
2RQ D
that
=airway
2RQ =airway
2x(
== the
2x( 2x(20.20
0.12
2x(last
3
quantity
quantity
xpressure
0.12
0.20
x30x21.9 =0.5
x+36.9
23.7 =
30+
+ error
21.9
x++0.5
0.70
30(-1)x(-6.875)
0.70+in
x+ (-1)x(-2.077)
xmesh
x 15)
0.2
23.112.9)
= 10.2
x +15) =was
29.75 =27.57
x36.9
=10.5
43.2
24)24.0
m3/s
= Pa m3/s
and 4.5 Pa in mesh 2
41.56
Correction
Correction
Correction
Correction = =-297/43.2
=-61.8/29.75
=- -4.572/27.57
-10.53/41.56
= -6.875 = -2.077== -0.166
0.253
Worked Example - Reconciling Models
The k factor for a 1000 m long 3 m x 5.4 m airway is 0.00807 Ns2/m4
Calculate the airway resistance and pressure drop for a flow of 15 m3/s and 35
m3/s ?
Resistance = k C L = 0.0807 x 16.8 x 1000 = 0.03189 Ns2/m8
A3 16.23
In this example an error of pressure differential = 22 Pa would have more

than doubled the airflow in the airway from 15 m3/s to 35 m3/s.
It is therefore important to reconcile both quantity and pressure to

avoid spending inordinate amounts of time trying to match flows to a
tolerance that may not be obtained from the input data used.


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University Of New South Wales - School Of Mining Engineering

UNDERGROUND MINE ENVIRONMENT

1.1 FLUID FLOW

A MTEC - Minerals Education Australia Initiative

• A fluid is a substance that cannot support shear stresses without

• A liquid is bound together by intermolecular forces so that it has the

• A gas or mixture of gases comprises molecules that are free to move

• Temperature and pressure define the thermodynamic state of a liquid

This section deals with the fundamental units and

Units Of Geometry And Flow

For cross sectional A m and velocity V m/s

Click for example

• By experimentation, absolute zero is found to occur at -273.15 OC

• Kelvin scale is based on absolute zero and is required when

•Absolute zero = O degrees Kelvin = -273.15 degrees celcius

Click for example

• Density is defined as the mass of a substance per 1.0 m3 units ρ kg/m3

• Specific volume is the volume occupied by unit mass and is therefore

Click for example

Change in fluid temperature Same mass of fluid in smaller

• The change in volume of liquids is very small - incompressible

Standard pressure = 1 atmosphere = 101.325 kPa = 1013.25 HPa

• Absolute pressure - relative to zero e.g. atmospheric 101.325 kPa.

• Gauge pressure - typically relative to atmospheric pressure + or -

• Relative pressure - between any two points.

Click for example

• Pressure due to a fluid column = ρ.g.h Pa

• Height is the vertical difference in elevation

• Applies to liquids or gases

• Applies to static or moving columns

• Use average density when considering gases

Click for example

In inclined limb manometers the

• Use mercury for higher pressures

• Water does not have a well defined hm

Click for example

• Natural ventilation pressure = ( ρ1 - ρ2 ) .g.h Pa

1 2 Click for example

• Velocity pressure - or dynamic pressure is a result of the

SP1 SP2 < SP1

• Total pressure is measured by the facing tube

Click for example

Frictional loss reduces static pressure

• Friction results in a loss of pressure from the system.

• For constant velocity, friction results in an equal reduction in static

• The frictional pressure loss is determined by resistance R and square

• The fan pressure Pfan is determined by the fan characteristic curve

• Same rules apply to ducted or mine ventilation circuits

Click for example

This section deals with the calculation of airway

– Shape and length of the airway or duct.

Less viscous fluids moving faster are more Turbulent

Turbulence is associated with energy/pressure losses

In laminar conditions pressure loss is proportional to P ∝ V2

In turbulent conditions pressure loss is proportional to Pressure

Cylindrical e.g smooth Rectangular e.g coal Semi rectangular

• Normally, the equation is written in terms of quantity although the

The resistance of an airway, pipe or conduit depends primarily on;

The general formula for resistance is Atkinson’s Equation (1854)

k = factor depending on surface roughness Width m

It can be convenient to characterise mine airways using resistance per 100 m or

Click for example

• Observed leakage rates through concrete seals indicates a transitional

• Leakage resistance should be measured by site surveys, the following

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