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The Environmental Impacts of the Disposal of

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Northern Ethiopia.

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 Sacha Journal of Environmental Studies
tudies
Volume 2 Number 1 (2012) pp. 81-94
ISSN 2045-8479 (Print)
ISSN 2045-8487 (Online)
www.sachajournals.com

THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF THE DISPOSAL OF PLASTIC BAGS AND

WATER BOTTLES IN TIGRAY, NORTHERN ETHIOPIA

ASGEDOM,, Abraha Gebrekidan1 and DESTA, Mulu Berhe1

1
Department of Chemistry,
Mekelle University, Mekelle, Ethiopia

ABSTRACT

In many developing countries such as Ethiopia, most people show little regard for the
environment resulting in pollution. Lack of awareness coupled with poverty motivated
people to reuse the non biodegradable plastic water bottles and bags. Poor waste disposal
mechanism cause environment worse and encircled living organisms at risk. Reusing
plastic materials with poor cleaning system result leaching of chemical pollutants, such
as bisphenol A, phthalates and antimony that causes serious toxicological
toxicolog impacts on
humans and reduce the aesthetic values of the environment. Annually, over 23 million
plastic water bottles and bags are consumed in Tigray. Most plastic materials are reused
and end up in the solid waste stream. Now, plastic materials constitute
const the biggest
challenge to solid waste management in Mekelle, the capital of Tigray and home to more
than 215 thousand people. Poor handling, reusing and disposal of plastic waste, which are
major causes of environmental pollution, becomes carcinogenic to human, breeding
grounds for pathogenic organisms, the spread of infectious diseases and loss of
environmental aesthetics. This study examines the adverse impacts of reusing plastic
water bottles and bags on people and the environment; and initiates the governments and
municipalities at a regional and national level to change consumers’ behaviour regarding
plastic materials in line with their sustainable waste management’s. Creating awareness
through education among communities coupled with improving access to solid plastic
waste management will help to achieve sound public and environmental health in
Mekelle, Tigray.

Keywords: Environment,
nvironment, Plastic Materials, Toxicology, Waste Management
anagement.

1. INTRODUCTION

The typical, everyday habits of most people give little regard for the environment and
result in increased pollution and other negative environmental consequences (Albino
( et al.
2009; Andrady 2011; Cassells and Lewis 2011; Moore 2008; Torres et al. 2011; Wabnitz and
Nichols 2010; Yamashita and Tanimura 2007). ). This indifference raises concern among
environmentalists and has become particularly serious in developing countries such as Ethiopia.
Some environmentalists state that despite recycling efforts, millions of plastic bags and water
bottles take decades
es or centuries to decompose. Plastics are used throughout the world for a
broad number of applications. However, there are many environmental concerns associated

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 Sacha Journal of Environmental Studies, Volume 2 Number 1 (2012); pp. 81-94

with its use. The fact that plastic is durable means it degrades slowly. In addition, burning
plastic can sometimes result in toxic fumes (Boettner et al. 1973; Forbid et al. 2011; Fu and
Kawamura 2010; Valavanidis et al. 2008). Aside from trying to eliminate waste plastic, its
production is also costly to the environment. It takes large amounts of chemical pollutants to
create plastic, as well as significant amounts of fossil fuels. Although Plastic activists argue
that, plastic bags can be reused, all plastic materials find their way to landfills. Hence this is not
a robust defense when it comes to the environment (Alston and Arnold 2011; Pruter 1987;
Saquing et al. 2010).
Currently, there is a boom of plastic material production of mainly polyethylene,
polystyrene, polyvinylchloride and polypropylene. Common polyethylene products include
jugs, bottles, buckets, plastic bags and packaging film with plastic bags and bottles representing
the largest growth area of all plastic industries (Doria 2006; Pruter 1987; Moore et al. 2001).
Plastic water bottles are often used as an easy way to drink water on the go and plastic bags are
given by retailers to their customers because they are cheap, strong, lightweight, functional, as
well as a clean and hygienic means of carrying goods. Unfortunately, such products are one of
the main sources of pollution (Adane and Muleta 2011). For example, it is common to find
countless plastic materials washed ashore, which poses a serious problem to the natural
environments. Plastic takes much longer to decompose than many other types of garbage that is
typically thrown away.
Consumption of plastic similar to production shows an exponential increase with more
plastics being produced in the first decade of the present century than in the entire preceding
century (Bowmer and Kershaw 2010; Thompson et al. 2009 a, b; 2011). The increase in
numbers of plastic industries and subsequently discarding the wastes by consumers has only
resulted in making the environment worse and encircled living organisms in danger. Plastics are
extremely diverse in terms of chemical composition, properties and possible applications, and
are widely distributed in the society and the environment. While annual production and use
statistics are not available from industry sectors, environmental groups estimate that between
500 billion and 1 trillion plastic bags are used globally each year (CBC News 2007). Several of
the chemicals used to produce plastics are hazardous for human health and the environment
(Lithner et al. 2011; Tinnerberg and Mattsson 2008; Van Rooij et al. 2008). Besides the sheer
number of plastic bags and bottles produced each year, the energy required to manufacture and
transport these bottles to market severely drains limited fossil fuels. For example, bottled water
companies, due to their unregulated use of valuable resources and their production of billions of
plastic bottles have presented a significant strain on the environment.
WWF Report (2001) suggested that water bottles be washed and reused in order to
lessen their negative impact on the environment. Unfortunately, reusing plastic bags and bottles
further compromises the quality of the water due to leaching of more and more hazardous
chemicals into water; such as bisphenol A (BPA), phthalates, antimony and other organic
contaminants as the bottle gets older (Andra et al. 2011; Earth Talk 2012; Schmid et al. 2008,
Widen et al. 2005; 2012). Studies have indicated that food and drinks stored in such containers
can contain trace amount of BPA, a synthetic chemical that interferes with the body’s natural
hormonal messaging system. The same studies found that repeated re-use of such bottles, which
get dinged up through normal wear and tear and while being washed, increases the chance that
chemicals will leak out of the tiny cracks and crevices that develop over time (Groff 2010;
Huang et al. 2011; Lang et al. 2008; Lee et al. 2008; Oehlmann et al. 2008; Rubin et al. 2001;
Sajiki 2001; Sajiki and Yonekubo 2004; Vandenberg et al. 2007; Woodruff et al. 2010). Other
studies also indicated that a toxic chemical, phthalates, also leaches from plastic material
containers which affects living organisms (Al-Saleh et al. 2011; Chen et al. 2008; Heudorf et al.
2007; Martino-Andrade and Chahoud 2010; Montuori et al. 2008; Sajiki and Yonekubo 2003;
Schettler 2006; Wagner and Oehlmann 2009; 2011). Antimony is regulated as a drinking water
contaminant because it may cause health problems, such as nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea,

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 Sacha Journal of Environmental Studies, Volume 2 Number 1 (2012); pp. 81-94

when exposure exceeds the maximum contaminant level (MCL) for relatively short periods.
Long-term exposure can lead to increased blood cholesterol and decreased blood sugar.
However, research shows that antimony and arsenic, a proven carcinogen, are similarly toxic
(Gebel 1997). Previous reports suggest that polyethylene terephthalate (PET) plastics used for
water bottles in Europe and Canada leach antimony (Shotyk and Krachler 2007; Shotyk et al.
2006; Westerhoff et al. 2008) and recycled plastic bottles leach antimony upon treatments
(Cheng et al. 2010). Some studies also indicate that styrene and other organic contaminants
leach from plastic water bottles (Ahmad and Bajahlan 2007; Loyo-Rosales et al. 2004).
Plastic in the garbage is not only an issue because it could have been recycled. When
plastic is just thrown away, the plastic absorbs organic pollutants that were already in existence,
thus increasing the overall pollution in a variety of ways. These pollutants get into our soil and
water, and eventually get into animals' systems when the animals ingest the water (Arnould and
Croxall 1995; Barnes et al. 2009; Boerger et al., 2010; Derraik 2002; Fendall and Sewell 2009;
Laist 1987; Moore 2008; Moore et al. 2001).
In developed countries waste management has become a large problem with landfills
growing to enormous sizes and recycling rates remaining minimal or even unknown. Blockage
of sewerage systems is becoming a common problem in cities and towns (Adane and Muleta
2011). This, in turn, creates foul smells and favorable habitats for mosquitoes and other vectors
that could spread a large number of diseases such as encephalitis, dengue fever and malaria
(Ellis et al., 2005). If plastic bags get access to agricultural fields, they reduce percolation of
water and proper aeration in soil. This results in reduction of productivities of such fields (Njeru
2006). Furthermore, in several poor and developing countries, these bags are frequently used to
carry food items. This practice can cause serious health problems since some carcinogenic
agents could be generated during the chemical reactions that take place in plastic materials (for
example, coloring agents) and the food items due to temperature variations (Narayan 2001). In
recent reports, it has been mentioned that reuse of plastic bags can cause cross contamination of
foods by microorganisms (Cliver 2006; Gerba et al. 2009; Maule 2000). Moreover, plastic bags
are also used for disposing of human and other domestic wastes which makes human health
more risky as compared to “open” disposal of these wastes (Njeru 2006; Subramanian 2000).
This paper gives emphasis on the current understanding of the benefits and concerns
surrounding on the reuse of plastic water bottles, plastic bags and looks to challenges,
opportunities and priorities for the future in Tigray in particular and Ethiopia in general. In
addition to papers published to this theme issue on plastics, the study took into considerations
of the impact of plastic materials on human, animal health and environment based on the direct
observations of reusing plastic materials among the local communities, waste management
systems of the region as original sources of information. Therefore, the present study was,
initiated to assess usage of plastic water bottles and bags, their disposal and adverse impacts on
human and environment in Mekelle City, Tigray, Northern Ethiopia.

2. METHODS AND MATERIALS

2.1 THE STUDY AREA

Ethiopia is located between latitude 3o N and 15o N and Longitude 33o E and 39o E. The
study was conducted in Tigray, Mekelle City, the northern most National State of Ethiopia,
located between 12.15o N and 14.50o N and 36.27o E and 39.59o E (see figure 1).

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 Sacha Journal of Environmental Studies, Volume 2 Number 1 (2012); pp. 81-94

Figure 1

Figure 1: Study Area of Tigray, Northern Ethiopia

The different types of water bottled industries and their geographical locations in the
region are indicated in Table 1. According to the Summary and Statistical Report of the
2007 Population and Housing Census Results the Tigray Region has a total human
population of 4.3 million and Mekelle city has a total human population of 215,546 of which
104,758 were men and 110,788 were women (FDREPCC 2008). Various forms of
Christianity (Orthodox, Protestant and Catholic), Islam and other beliefs are commonly
practiced in the city. The main economic activities are commerce (trading and catering
service) and manufacturing enterprises.

Table 1: Geographical locations of Water Bottled Industries in Tigray, Northern Ethiopia

/No Name Place Specific Universal Latitude Latitude Longitude Longitude
of location Transverse (WGS (WGS 84) (WGS 84) (WGS 84)
plant Mercator 84)
(UTM)
1 Merci South Adi Gura, EQ53 12:983 12 59’ 00” 39:550 39 33’ 00”
Tigray,
Alage
2 Dera Eastern Endasilasi DR56 14.122 14 07’ 18” 38.597 38 35’ 48”
Tigray, e Church
Atsbi
Dera
3 Spa Eastern Fluhti ER66 14.187 14 11’ 14” 39.564 39 33’ 50”
Tigray,
Edaga
Hamus
4 Right Eastern Enda ER57 14.283 14 17’ 00” 39.487 39 9’ 14”
Tigray, Yohannes
Adigrat (Goli’a)

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2.2. SAMPLING TECHNIQUES AND DATA ANALYSIS

The durable, lightweight and easy to go of the non-biodegradable plastic water bottles
and bags are becoming unavoidable to use in many day-to-day activities of the societies (Ritch
et al. 2009) of developing countries like Ethiopia, and of which is often re-used many times and
discarded, would cause problems for human, animal and the environments where it deposited.
This study uses the content analysis of relevant literature on the toxicological impacts resulting
from pollution caused by the disposal of used plastic materials, to human health and the
environment, giving emphasis on re-use of plastic bags and water bottles in Tigray, Northern
Ethiopia.
In addition, information obtained from site visits with physical observations coupled
with unstructured interviews administered on some consumers and open waste dumps in
Mekelle and other parts of Tigray, Ethiopia confirmed the severity of this problem. This
situation of improper reuse of plastic wastes and their disposal is carefully analysed and
evaluated to determine current and potential eco-toxicological impacts on human in particular
and the environment in general.
Although this study did not involve chemical analyses of the waste plastics or involve
toxicological analysis with emission measurements, it builds strength on the fact that plastic and
many organic compounds from anthropogenic source when re-used for different household
activities especially as a food and beverage storage leaches significant amounts of toxic
substances. This is in agreement with reviewed the literature obtained with collection of
available data reporting emissions of organic toxic chemicals from improper re-usage of plastic
bags and water bottles and poor plastic waste management’s. It further assumes that huge mass
of plastic materials (water bottles and plastic bags) pollutes the environment depending on the
poor waste management systems and finally reach to landfills. Applying the precautionary
principle, a preventive action approach to avert perceived potential impacts resulting from such
contaminations is fundamental to the control of hazardous waste and dangers of improper re-use
of waste plastic materials.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

3.1 PLASTIC MATERIAL CONSUMPTIONS

Plastic bags have been introduced in the 1970’s (Williamson 2003) and gained an
increasing popularity amongst consumers and retailers. They are available in huge numbers and
varieties across the world. It is estimated that around 500 billion plastic bags are used every
year worldwide (Bowmer and Kershaw 2010; Spokas, 2007), and then discarded as wastes
usually after a single use (Adane and Muleta 2011). The shortage of safe and accessible
drinking water is also becoming a major challenge in many parts of the world. In the wake of a
boost in the general awareness about health and hygiene, there is growing concern for the safety
and quality of drinking water. A solution to this problem has come in the shape of bottled
drinking water which is widely available in both industrialized and developing countries with
significant cost to the consumer, but the consumers buy it for various reasons such as taste,
convenience or fashion, emergency or necessity, but for many consumers, safety and potential
health benefits are important considerations (Mahajan et al. 2006).
In Tigray, northern Ethiopia, bottled drinking water plants has been on the increase
since 2002 because of shortage of water supply, hygiene problems and availability of market.
Most of the bottled water is produced from springs and passed through some physical and
chemical processes. From time to time the numbers of consumed water bottles are increasing
(Table 2) and leaving a lot of plastic bottles as a serious problem to the environment. Small
plastic bags are also tremendously increasing and become easy friends of retailers and

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 Sacha Journal of Environmental Studies, Volume 2 Number 1 (2012); pp. 81-94

consumers because of their less cost, light weight and handiness. These plastic bags and water
bottles are reused by some communities and finally disposed on landfills.

Table 2: Total annual consumptions of water bottles in Tigray, Northern Ethiopia

Type Size Total Total per Total per Total Year of Remark
per day month year consumption established
per year
Merci Small (0.6 L) 17, 000 510,000 6,120,000 16,560,000 Nov., 2003
Medium (1.0L) 15,000 450,000 5,400,000
Large (2.0 L) 14,000 420,000 5,040,000
Spa Small (0.5 L) 2,374 71,220 854,640 1,991,520 Apr., 2002
Medium (1.0L) 1,807 54,210 650,520
Large (2.0 L) 1,351 40,530 486,360
Dera Small (0.6 L) 1,560 46800 561600 1,468,800 Apr., 2002
Medium (1.2L) 1,320 39,600 475,200
Large (2.0 L) 1,200 36,000 432,000
Right Small (0.6 L) 1,380 41,400 496,800 1,339,200 Feb. 2003
Medium (1.2L) 1,260 37,800 453,600
Large (2.0 L) 1,080 32,400 388,800
Maylomin - - - - Recently
closed
Abyssinia Small (0.6 l) 2,285 6,8568 822,816 1,932,768 From
Medium (1.0 l) 2,416 7,2480 869,760 Addis
Ababa
Large (2.0 l) 667 2,0016 240,192
Total 23,292,288

3.2 THE CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF THE USE OF DISPOSABLE PLASTICS

The durable, lightweight and easy to go of the non-biodegradable plastic bags and water
bottles are becoming unavoidable to use in many day-to-day activities of the societies of
developing countries like Ethiopia, and of which is often re-used many times and discarded
causing problems for human, animal and the environments where it deposited. Some of the
major sources of environmental problems like Ethiopia include sewage and run-off related
plastics, materials from recreational/social gathering users, and materials disposed of at open
landfills from each household activity.
Plastic materials originating from each source is either transported by wind, flood and
human drains toward water bodies, or is mixed with the farm (agricultural) lands. In developed
countries, poor awareness of societies on plastic materials, poor collection of waste materials
and their treatments, high run-off and floods due to rain are important pointed sources of plastic
materials, namely plastic bags and water bottles, from/to the environment (agricultural
farmlands, surface waters) which undermines soil and water qualities and threatens human and
biodiversity.

3.3 TOXICITY IMPACT OF PLASTIC BAGS AND WATER BOTTLES

Accumulation of plastic bag wastes causes environmental pollution that can be

manifested in number of ways such as deterioration of the natural beauty of an environment
(Andrady 2003), death and entanglement of marine animals (Azzarello and Van Vleet 1987;
Hofmeyr et al. 2006; Lithner et al., 2009), blockage of sewerage systems of cities and towns in
developing countries (Adane and Muleta 2011) which in turn creates foul smells and favorable
habitats for mosquitoes and other vectors that could spread various diseases like mosquitoes
(Ellis et al. 2005), reduce percolation of water and proper aeration of agricultural soils which in
turn results in a reduction of productivities of such fields (Njeru 2006).

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 Sacha Journal of Environmental Studies, Volume 2 Number 1 (2012); pp. 81-94

Furthermore, in several poor and developing countries like Ethiopia, plastic bags are
frequently used to carry food items and plastic water bottles as storage of different beverages
like “Tella”, “Teg”, water, and soft drinks; food items like oil, milk, honey and other local food
items and petroleum products such as benzene, Kerosene and naphtha. This practice can cause
serious health problems due to some carcinogenic agents and cross contamination by
microorganisms (Cliver 2006; Gerba et al. 2009; Kontominas et al. 2006; Lin et al. 2009).
Moreover, it is common to use plastic bags for disposing of human and other domestic wastes
which makes human health more risky as compared to “open” disposal of these wastes (Njeru
2006).
In Ethiopia some studies showed that plastic bags are causing severe environmental
pollutions to human and animal health in urban and rural areas of the country (Bjerkli 2005;
Ramaswamy and Sharma 2011; Tadesse et al. 2008). Besides the toxicity effect of plastic bags
the overflowing of water is also a common problem during rainy seasons as a result of blockage
of drains. Such problems are also expected to be common in Tigray such as Mekelle City due to
the aforementioned reasons.

3.4 LEGAL FRAMEWORK

The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia has ratified several international

conventions that have meaningful implication to solid waste management in the country (Forum
for Environment 2010). The solid waste management proclamation (Solid waste management
proclamation 2007) gives emphasis of its essential in community participation in order to
prevent the adverse effects and to enhance the benefits resulting from solid wastes. In order to
ensure the community participation the solid waste management action plan is designed by, and
implemented at the lowest administrative units of urban administrations. Article 8, sub-article
(2) of the proclamation indicates that it shall be unlawful to put on the market any plastic bag
that is not labeled to how whether it is biodegradable or not. But most plastic bags which are
used are under the requirements of the country proclamation and thus endangering the
environment. Like the other cities of developing countries, due to the lack of waste
management information and implementation of the proclamation most of the towns of Ethiopia
are suffering from the adverse effects of the plastic materials (Gebremichael 2002; Kassa 2008;
Kuma 2004; Tadesse 2009; Tadesse et al. 2008).
Although the country, Ethiopia, ratifies solid waste management on plastic bags, the
proclamation doesn’t clearly indicate the adverse effects of plastic water bottles after their use.
Therefore, due to lack of awareness on the adverse effects of plastic materials it is common that
most of the societies are re-using those water bottles as storage for different food and liquid
beverages such as oil, milk, water, soft drinks and local foods. Given the direct toxic or eco-
toxic infectious threats posed to the environment and human beings by these wastes, it becomes
imperative to adopt precautionary and preventive measures with respect to waste dumping and
proper disposal.
When the above mentioned hazardous plastic waste materials are re-used many times
without care and poor waste dump management, this poses a high health risk to the society and
the environment. Hence, according to Probst and Beierle (1999), the following major stages
characterizing the evolution of hazardous waste management (HWM) programmes need to be
applied in managing waste and waste disposal sites in Tigray in particular and Ethiopia in
General:

• Environmental problem identification should be followed by the enactment of

legislations to address it
• A lead agency empowered with authority to draft, implement and enforce
enacted regulations is required

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 Sacha Journal of Environmental Studies, Volume 2 Number 1 (2012); pp. 81-94

• Rules and regulations establishing the legal basis for the regulatory programme
involving waste characterization, identification of specific technical, procedural
and information requirements for waste treatment, storage and disposal should be
clearly defined
• Developing treatment and disposal facilities using public funds or private
investments or both with relevant incentives should be considered
• Creating a mature compliance and enforcement programme which influences
public participation of generators of hazardous waste (HW) and operators of
HWM facilities to focus on waste reduction, recycling and energy recovery to
minimize treatment and disposal costs.

Besides to the implementation of the countries proclamation on waste management

systems, the development and implementation of waste management (WM) programs with
SMART (Specific, Measurable, Affordable, Realistic, Timely) goals in Tigray in particular and
Ethiopia in general requires the creation of an information database on type, quantity and
disposal of plastic wastes produced by every consumer. Finally, planning and construction of
the WM facility must consider the different types of wastes and their treatments giving
emphasis to use plastic water bottles and bags with respect to their severe cost to human health
and aesthetic values of the environment. Such a programme should integrate economic
incentives and non-market strategies encouraging waste reduction and recycling, promotion of
public information exchange and implementation of subsidy schemes for waste handling
equipment. In addition to the aforementioned waste strategies, the regional and national
governments must incorporate the waste management strategies in curriculums of all their
academic levels which can be a good means of creating awareness among the young
generations to give care of their health and environments.

4. CONCLUSIONS

A study was carried out on the risk assessment of reusing plastic materials on human
health and the environment in Tigray, Northern Ethiopia. Environmental exposures have been
linked to health problems and affect future generations. These exposures have more
significance at critical points in an individual’s lifespan especially in developing countries.
People exposed to the reuse of plastic water bottles and bags might be under risks due to the
leaching of hazardous chemicals of BPA, phthalates and antimony. Therefore, regional and
national governments and environmentalists must give emphasis on creating awareness on the
reuse of plastic materials among the societies and discourage the use of small plastic materials
during the shopping.
The local municipal authorities should provide a means to avoid these used plastics by
introducing biodegradable materials; and give educations on the hazardous effect of re-using
plastic materials to their residents, and adapt waste management on their environments.
Therefore, local governors and municipalities should become aware of risks in their
community, work with community groups and policy makers to reduce exposure levels on
reusing plastic materials.
To raise public awareness, the regional and national different levels of educational
curriculums must include the waste management systems from the grass-roots as information
resources. In addition to creating public awareness on the importance of a healthy environment,
mechanisms of controlling the generation of wastes at the source, alternative disposal ways,
establishing additional drop-off areas (landfills) and incineration mechanisms, plastic recycling
facilities are also recommended. Helping communities to reduce their exposures to health
toxicants will increase the likelihood for a healthy society and clean environment for the
coming generations.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENT

We greatly appreciate Mr. Kibrom Mehari (Mercy water bottling factory), Mr. Hadgu (Dera
water bottling factory), Mr. Leake (Spa water bottling factory), Mr. John (Abyssinia water
distributor in Mekelle) and Mr. Hadgu (Dliet Cleanig Plc.) for their kind assistance and
providing information on the presented data. We are also grateful to the Local drink, Milk, soft
drink and plastic sellers for allowing us to take pictures.

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