UNIT-1

ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS
BASIC DEFINITIONS:
Network element: The individual components such as resistor, inductor, capacitor, diode,
battery etc that are used in a circuit are called as Network Elements.

Electric Network or Electric Circuit: A group of network elements interconnected in a manner

so as to perform a desired function is known as a Electric network or Electric circuit.

Branch:A Branch is an element of a network which has only two terminals.

A circuit with 4 branches

Passive Element: The element which receives energy (or absorbs energy) and then either
converts it into heat (in Resistor) or stored in it as Electric field (in Capacitor) or as Magnetic
field (in Inductor) is called passive element.

Active Element: The elements that supply energy to the circuit is called active element.
Examples of active elements include voltage and current sources, generators etc.

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Linear Element: In an electric circuit, a LINEAR ELEMENT is an electrical element with a
linear relationship between input current and output voltage. Resistors capacitors, inductors are
example of a linear element.

Bilateral Element: In this element there will be Conduction of current in both directions
Example: Resistor; Inductor; Capacitor etc

Unilateral Element: In this element there will be Conduction of current only in one direction, so
it is termed as Unilateral Element. Example: Diode, Transistor etc.

Node: The junction point of two or more branches is known as a NODE. This point is usually
marked with dark circle or dot.
Loop: Any closed path formed by branches in a network is known as a LOOP.

Mesh: Mesh is a kind of loop which does not contain any other loop in it.

EXPLANATION:

HERE A, B, C, D are NODES.

HERE AB, BC, CD, AD are BRANCHES.

HERE ABCDA is LOOP.

HERE (i) ABDA (ii) BCDB is MESH.

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OHMS LAW: It states that the current flowing through the Electric circuit is directly
proportional to the P.D (Potential Difference) across the circuit and Inversely Proportional to the
resistance of the circuit, provided the TEMPERATURE remains CONSTANT

It is not applicable to non-linear devices such as diodes etc.

Unit of current I is ampere, unit of voltage V is volts and that of resistance R is ohms.

The ohms law can be represented in three different forms for the purpose of calculations

1. I=V/R (or)
2. V=IR (or)
3. R=V/I

TYPES OF NETWORK ELEMENTS:

1) Resistor
2) Inductor
3) Capacitor

1) Resistor: Resistance is the property of the material to offer opposition to the flow of current
The energy dissipated in overcoming that opposition appears as heat .The device whose
electrical characteristic is Resistance is called as (RESISTOR).

Resistance of a material can be written as shown below

Where R indicates Resistance

ρ indicates resistivity (Specific Resistance)

L indicates Length

A indicates Area of Cross section

Power absorbed by the resistor is given by

P=VI

P= (I R) I = 𝐼 2 R Watts
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Conductance:The inverse of Resistance is called as Conductance.It is indicated with G.

Conductance(G)= 1/R. Its units are mhos ( )

2) Inductor: The electrical element which stores energy in the form of magnetic field is known
as Inductor. It opposes the sudden change of current through it. This property is called as
Inductance.
The unit of Inductance is Henry, denoted by H.
The voltage across the Inductor is given as shown below

V=L (di/dt) Where i indicates Current through the Inductor

Power absorbed by the Inductor is as shown below

P= V I = L (di/dt) I

= L I (di/dt)

The energy stored by the inductor is as shown below

1
W= 𝐿 𝐼 2 Joules.
2

3) Capacitor: The electrical element which stores energy in the form of electric field is known
as Capacitor. It opposes the sudden change of voltage through it. This property is called as
Capacitance. Any two conducting surfaces separated by an insulating or dielectric medium
form a CAPACITOR. The conducting surfaces are called as Electrodes.
Capacitance is given as shown below
C= q / v Where C indicates Capacitance
q indicates amount of charge stored in the capacitor
v indicates Potential Difference.
As i= dq/dt , The above equation can be written as shown below

i=C dv/dt (Since q=Cv) where v is the voltage across the capacitor
i is the current through the capacitor
Power absorbed by the capacitor is as shown below
P=vi = v C dv/dt watts
The energy stored by the capacitor is as shown below
1
W= 𝐶 𝑣 2 Joules.
2

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KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS: Kirchhoff’s laws are basic analytical tools in order to obtain the
values of currents and voltages for any electric circuit whether it is DC supply or AC supply.

Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL): It can be stated in either of the following forms.
1. In a circuit the sum of currents entering into any node is equal to sum of the currents leaving
that node.
2. The algebraic sum of the currents at a node is equal to zero. Here currents entering the node
must be assigned (+ve sign) and currents leaving the node must be assigned (-ve sign).
For example consider five conductors carrying currents I1, I2, I3, I4, I5 and meeting at point O as
shown in the figure below.

So from the figure we can also write the equation as I1 + I4+ I5 = I2+ I3
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL): It states that in a closed circuit, the algebraic sum of all
source voltages must be equal to the algebraic sum of all the voltage drops. Voltage drop is
encountered when current flows in an element (resistance or load) from the higher-potential
terminal toward the lower potential terminal. Kirchhoff’s voltage law is explained with the help
of figure as shown below.

For the above circuit voltage drop across R1 is V1, R2 is V2 , R3 is V3 , R4 is V4 , R5 is V5.

The source voltage is V.
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Therefore sum of all source voltages must be equal to the algebraic sum of all the voltage drops.

Therefore V = V1 +V2 +V3 +V4 +V5.

(Or) - V + V1 +V2 +V3 +V4 +V5 = 0. Where V1 = I1 R1 , V2 = I2 R2 , V3 = I3 R3 ,

V4 = I4 R4 , V5 = I5 R5

RESISTIVE NETWORKS:
1) Resistors in Series: Consider three resistors connected in series against a DC source (V)
Volts as shown below.

By applying KVL , V = VR1 +VR2 +VR3 , Where VR1 , VR2 , VR3 being the voltage drops
against individual resistances)

Assuming (I) to be the current in the circuit and R being the equivalent of all the series
resistance. So the above equation can be written as

I R = I R1 + I R2 + I R3

R = R1 + R2 + R3
This proves that in series circuit of resistances equivalent resistance is sum of individual
resistances.

Total power loss is given by

P= 𝐈𝟐 R1 + 𝐈𝟐 R2 + 𝐈𝟐 R3

P=𝐈𝟐 (R1 + R2 + R3)

If there are ( N) Resistances in series, then equivalent Resistance is

Req = R1 + R2 + ----------------------+ RN

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2) Resistors in parallel: The below figure shows the three resistors connected in parallel across
a DC voltage source (V).

Let the source current be I amps while the branch currents are IR1 , IR2 , IR3 respectively.

The voltage drop in each branch is being same as they are connected in PARALLEL.

So V= IR1 * R1 = IR2 * R2 = IR3 * R3

From the diagram applying KCL at point A we can write as

I = IR1 + IR2 + IR3

R being the equivalent resistance of the three resistances in parallel. It is given by

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= 𝑹𝟏 + +
𝑹 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑

Total power loss is given by

P = PR1 + PR2 + PR3 Where PR1 , PR2 , PR3 being the individual power losses in the resistors R1,
R2 , R3 respectively.

P= ( 𝐈𝟐 R1 * R1 + 𝐈𝟐 R2 * R2 + 𝐈𝟐 R3 * R3 ) Watts.

If there are ( N) Resistances in series, then equivalent Resistance is

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= 𝑹𝟏 + + ………
𝑹 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝑵

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INDUCTIVE NETWORKS:
1) Inductances in series: Let two inductances L1 and L2 be in series with a voltage of (V) as
shown below.

The supply voltage V = V1 + V2

V = L1 (di/dt) + L2 (di/dt)
di
V = ( L1 + L2 )
dt

di
V = Leq i.e., Leq = ( L1 + L2 )
dt

If there are N inductances in series, then equivalent inductance is

Leq = L1 + L2 + ----------------------+ LN
2) Inductances in Parallel: Let two inductances L1 and L2 are in parallel with a voltage of (V)
as shown below.

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The branch currents are i1 , i2 respectively flowing through inductors L1 , L2 .

The voltage drop in branch is being same as they are connected in PARALLEL.

V= L1 (di1/dt) = L2 (di2/dt)

By applying KCL at point A we can write as

i= i1+ i2
1 1 1
𝑣 𝑑𝑡 = L1 𝑣 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑣 𝑑𝑡
Leq L2

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= 𝐋𝟏 +
𝐋𝐞𝐪 𝐋𝟐

𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐
(Or) Leq =
𝑳𝟏+𝑳𝟐

CAPACITIVE NETWORKS:

1) Capacitance in Series: Let two capacitances C1 and C2 be in series with a voltage (V) as
shown below.

The supply voltage V = V1 + V2

1 1
= 𝑖 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑖 𝑑𝑡
C1 C2

1 1
= { + } 𝑖 𝑑𝑡
C1 C2

1
= 𝑖 𝑑𝑡
Ceq

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐
.i.e., = + (or) Ceq =
𝐂𝐞𝐪 𝐂𝟏 𝐂𝟐 𝑪𝟏+𝑪𝟐

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2) Capacitance in Parallel: Let two capacitances C1 and C2 be in Parallel with a voltage (V) as
shown below. The branch currents are i1 , i2 respectively flowing through capacitors C1 , C2.

By applying KCL at point A we can write as

i= i1+ i2
dv dv dv
Ceq = C1 + C2
dt dt dt

Ceq = C1 + C 2

CONVERSION BETWEEN ∆ AND Y NETWORKS

1) Delta (∆) to star(Y) Transformation: It is one of the useful transformation techniques for
solving complicated networks.

The below figure indicates the Delta connected network with impedances Z1 , Z2 , Z3

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The below figure indicates the Star connected network with impedances ZA , ZB , ZC

In order that the above two networks are equal if their respective impedances from the terminals
(1, 2) (2, 3) (3, 1) are EQUAL.

For Delta network the impedance between the terminals 1 and 2 in delta network is
Z1 ( Z2 +Z3 )
=
Z1 +Z2 +Z3

For star network, the impedance between the terminals 1 and 2 in delta network is

= ZA + ZB.
Z1 ( Z2 +Z3 )
Therefore ZA + ZB = ----------- (1)
Z1 +Z2 +Z3

For Delta network the impedance between the terminals 2 and 3 in delta network is
Z2 ( Z3 +Z1 )
=
Z1 +Z2 +Z3

For star network, the impedance between the terminals 2 and3 in delta network is

= ZB + ZC.
Z2 ( Z3 +Z1 )
Therefore ZB + ZC = ----------- (2)
Z1 +Z2 +Z3

For Delta network the impedance between the terminals 3 and 1 in delta network is
Z3 ( Z1 +Z2 )
=
Z1 +Z2 +Z3

For star network, the impedance between the terminals 2 and3 in delta network is

= ZC + ZA
Z3 ( Z1 +Z2 )
Therefore ZC + ZA = ----------- (3)
Z1 +Z2 +Z3
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Now subtracting equation (1) – equation (2) we get
Z1 ( Z2 +Z3 )
ZA + ZB = equation (1)
Z1 +Z2 +Z3

Z2 ( Z3 +Z1 )
ZB + ZC = equation (2)
Z1 +Z2 +Z3

Z1 ( Z2 +Z3 ) Z2 ( Z3 +Z1 )
→ ZA – ZC = -
Z1 +Z2 +Z3 Z1 +Z2 +Z3

Z1 Z3 – Z2 Z3
= equation (4)
Z1 +Z2 +Z3

Now add equation (3) & (4)

Z3 ( Z1 +Z2 )
ZC + ZA = equation (3)
Z1 +Z2 +Z3

Z1 Z3 – Z2 Z3
ZA – ZC = equation (4)
Z1 +Z2 +Z3

2 Z3 Z1
→ 2 ZA =
Z1 +Z2 +Z3

𝐙𝟑 𝐙𝟏
Therefore ZA =
𝐙𝟏 +𝐙𝟐 +𝐙𝟑

Similarly by Subtracting equation 2 & 3 you are going to obtain an equation which is being
added with equation 1, then
𝐙𝟏 𝐙𝟐
ZB =
𝐙𝟏 +𝐙𝟐 +𝐙𝟑

Similarly by Subtracting equation 3 & 1 you are going to obtain an equation which is being
added with equation 2, then
𝐙𝟐 𝐙𝟑
ZC =
𝐙𝟏 +𝐙𝟐 +𝐙𝟑

2) Star(Y) to Delta (∆) Transformation: The same general approach is being used to obtain
star to delta network conversion.
𝐙𝟑 𝐙𝟏 𝐙𝟏 𝐙𝟐 𝐙𝟐 𝐙𝟑
As we know that ZA = , ZB = , ZC =
𝐙𝟏 +𝐙𝟐 +𝐙𝟑 𝐙𝟏 +𝐙𝟐 +𝐙𝟑 𝐙𝟏 +𝐙𝟐 +𝐙𝟑

𝐙𝐀 𝐙𝟑
If ZA is divided with ZB ,then = ---------(1)
𝐙𝐁 𝐙𝟐

𝐙𝐁 𝐙𝟏
If ZB is divided with ZC ,then = --------- (2)
𝐙𝐂 𝐙𝟑

𝐙𝐀 𝐙𝟏
If ZA is divided with ZC ,then = --------- (3)
𝐙𝐂 𝐙𝟐
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Now consider (1) & (3) and substitute in ZA , Then
ZA Z2 ZA Z2

ZA = ZA Z2 ZB ZC
ZA Z2
+Z2 +
ZC ZB

ZA 2 ∗ Z2
ZA = ZA ZB +ZB ZC +ZC ZA

𝐙𝐀 𝐙𝐁 + 𝐙𝐁 𝐙𝐂 + 𝐙𝐂 𝐙𝐀
Therefore Z2 =
𝐙𝐀

Now consider (1) & (2) and substitute in ZB , Then

ZB Z3 Z3ZB

ZB = ZB Z3 ZC Z3 ZBZA
+ +Z3
ZC ZA

ZB 2 ∗ Z3
ZB = ZA ZB +ZB ZC +ZC ZA

𝐙𝐀 𝐙𝐁 + 𝐙𝐁 𝐙𝐂 + 𝐙𝐂 𝐙𝐀
Therefore Z3 =
𝐙𝐁

Now consider (2) & (3) and substitute in ZC , Then

Z1 ZC Z1ZC
ZA ZB
ZC = Z1 ZC Z1ZC
Z1+ +
ZA ZB

ZC 2 ∗ Z1
ZC = ZA ZB +ZB ZC +ZC ZA

𝐙𝐀 𝐙𝐁 + 𝐙𝐁 𝐙𝐂 + 𝐙𝐂 𝐙𝐀
Therefore Z1 =
𝐙𝐂

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DELTA TO STAR CONVERSION
𝐙𝟑 𝐙𝟏
ZA =
𝐙𝟏 +𝐙𝟐 +𝐙𝟑

𝐙𝟏 𝐙𝟐
ZB =
𝐙𝟏 +𝐙𝟐 +𝐙𝟑

𝐙𝟐 𝐙𝟑
ZC =
𝐙𝟏 +𝐙𝟐 +𝐙𝟑

STAR TO DELTA CONVERSION

𝐙𝐀 𝐙𝐁 + 𝐙𝐁 𝐙𝐂 + 𝐙𝐂 𝐙𝐀
Z1 =
𝐙𝐂

𝐙𝐀 𝐙𝐁 + 𝐙𝐁 𝐙𝐂 + 𝐙𝐂 𝐙𝐀
Z2 =
𝐙𝐀

𝐙𝐀 𝐙𝐁 + 𝐙𝐁 𝐙𝐂 + 𝐙𝐂 𝐙𝐀
Z3 =
𝐙𝐁

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