American Association of Stratigraphic Palynologists, Inc.

Phytolith Analysis for a Wet Tropics Environment: Methodological Issues and Implications
for the Archaeology of Garua Island, West New Britain, Papua New Guinea
Author(s): W. E. Boyd, C. J. Lentfer, R. Torrence
Source: Palynology, Vol. 22 (1998), pp. 213-228
Published by: American Association of Stratigraphic Palynologists, Inc.
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3687629
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PHYTOLITHANALYSIS FORA WET TROPICS
ENVIRONMENT:METHODOLOGICALISSUES AND
IMPLICATIONSFOR THEARCHAEOLOGYOF GARUA
ISLAND, WEST NEW BRITAIN,PAPUANEW GUINEA

W. E. BOYD
C. J. LENTFER
SouthernCross University
Lismore,New South Wales
Australia

R. TORRENCE
AustralianMuseum
Sydney, New South Wales
Australia

Abstract
Thearchaeology of prehistoricoccupation of theislandof Garua,
WestNew Britain,is beginningto providea detailedpictureof
humanadaptation to a highly volatileenvironment in which
periodiccatastrophic destruction of vegetation,
soilsand,presum-
ably,humanhabitation, is countered,apparently, by thehuman
abilityto recoloniseandadaptto changingcircumstances. How-
ever,ourabilityto fullyidentifythesehumanresponsesis pres-
ently limitedby a lack of paleoenvironmental data.This wet
tropicalregion presentsspecific problemsin obtainingand
analysingsuchdata.Inthiscasetheseproblemsarein partbeing
overcomeby theuseof fossilphytolithanalysis.However,to put
thistechnique intouse,severalmethodological issueshavehadto
be addressed. Thispaperconsidersseveralof these,describing
experiments testingpreparation techniques, introducingkeyele-
mentsinfluencing assemblage compositions inthisenvironment,
andoutliningtheformof statisticalanalysesadapted andadopted
tointerrogate thelargemultivariate dataset.Resultsaredescribed
fromtestsusingmodemanaloguesamples,whichindicateprom-
ise in the abilityof the analyticaltechniquesto identifyand
differentiate
keyindicators of thecomplexanddynamicenviron-
mentof prehistoric WestNew Britain.
INTRODUCTION
Paleoenvironmentaland ArchaeologicalSetting
GaruaIslandlies withinthe wet tropics,some 5? southof
the equator,off the east coast of the WillaumezPeninsula
in West New Britain,P.N.G. (Text-Figure1). The island
has a documentedprehistoricoccupationfor some 6,000
years(Torrence,1994; Torrenceet al., 1997); neighboring
areasprovide evidence for humanpresence well into the
lastglacialperiod(Spechtet al., 1988;PavlidesandGosden,
1994;Spriggs,1997). The occupationappearsto be reason-
ably long term,albeitwith possible shortperiodsof human
absence.However,it is temperedby periodicnaturalcata-
strophicevents. The island is part of the volcanic region
alongthe southernmarginof the BismarckSea, andas such
is tectonically unstable (Heming, 1974; Machida et al.,
1996). It has been subjected,duringlate Quaternarytimes,
to successive volcanic tephra fall events, and probable
verticaltectonicmovements.A recenttectonicupliftevent,
for example, is reflectedin the presenceof coral reef, of a
radiocarbonmodem age, whose surfacelies a little above
presenthigh tide. That uppersurfaceis now being eroded
and is supplying coral debris into the beach, inter-coral
areasandbeachzone;thereis similarsedimentaryevidence
for this havinghappenedduringat least one mid-Holocene
periodon the island.Thereis also good evidencefor atleast
19 majorvolcanic eruptionsin the region (Machidaet al.,
1996) duringthe Holocene, at least four of which resulted
in the substantialdeposition of tephra(ash) on the island,
with deposits from individualeruptionsbeing in excess of
60 cm depth (probably originally much deeper) being
widely distributedacrossthe island'slandsurface.Thetwo
processes of tectonic uplift and tephra deposition have
combinedto effectively createa landscapehistoryin which
the land surface of the island has been fluctuating in
elevation in relationto the sea level. Independentof any

Palynology, 22 (1998): 213-228

? 1998 by AASP Foundation ISSN 0191-6122
214
Text-Figure1. Locationmapshowingsamplinglocationsin WestNewBritain.(Note:KaulaandGaralaIslandsarenotshown.
Theyaresmallrockislandsadjacentto GaruaIsland.Likewise,NaveRiveris on theWillaumezPeninsulabetweenGaruand
GaruaIs.).
eustaticsea-level changesaffectingthis coastalregion,the
island has, with periodic rises in its land surface, been
exposed to the equivalentof periodicsea-level drops.Both
the supra-tidalcoastal platformand lower catchmentland
surfacesin partsof this island are mantledwith sediments
variously deposited as sub- or inter-tidal tephras, and
elsewhere there is sedimentaryevidence for the periodic
deposition of colluvium, derived from both tephra and
weatheredrhyolitic bedrock, indicatingthat downcutting
has occurred.
The effects of these periodic events are still unclear,
althoughprobablycomplex and inter-related.In general,
however, thereare threeimportantlikely impacts.
1. Soil erosion is a likely effect of the variousdisruptions
to base level and land surfacestability.Indeed,in many
PALYNOLOGY,VOLUME22 - 1998
placesthereis evidenceof thetruncationof thepaleosoils
developedon the formertephralandsurfacesor,in some
cases, the absenceof distinctivetephralayersindicating
the erosion and removal of this material.Research is
continuingto establish the exact temporal,spatial and
processual relationshipsthat may exist between what
appear to have been distinct and discrete periods of
catchmenterosion and other environmentalfactors in-
cluding land-sea-level fluctuations, climate, and the
possibly periodicpresence of prehistoricpeople (Boyd
and Torrence,1996).
2. Disruptionof the island's vegetation - naturallywet
tropicalrainforest,but probably also cultivationcom-
munities and forest regrowthcommunities- is prob-
able due to periodicdestructionor at least partialdam-
age, andthe subsequentrecolonisationandformationof
W.E. Boyd, C.J. Lentfer,& R. Torrence:Phytolithanalysis for a wet tropicsenvironment
replacement communities. The degree and nature of
such disruption will reflect a complex of processes.
These includetiming and intensityof ash fall, the struc-
ture and composition of the pre-existing vegetation,
prevailingweatherconditions,intensityanddistribution
of soil erosion associated with the ash fall, and the
availabilityanddistributionof seed sourcesandcommu-
nityremnantsavailableto contributeto the regeneration
of a new rainforest.Otherthan,at present,being able to
suggest that each successive regeneratingrainforestis
likely to have beendifferentfromthepreviousone, little
moreis able to be statedaboutthe vegetationresponses
to these events.
3. Finally, it is very likely that both ash deposition and
vegetationalchange had importantimpacts on the hu-
mancommunitiesandtheirabilityto survivethe effects
of these catastrophicevents. Naturalsoil andvegetation
conditions may have predeterminedthe type, distribu-
tion andextentof agriculturalor horticulturalpractices,
which in turnmay have respondedin differentways to
successive ash falls. The ability to utilise volcanically
disturbedareas would thereforebe dependenton rates
and patternsof reforestationand the prevailingsubsis-
tence strategiespractisedat any one time.
The archaeologicalinterpretationof the island is pres-
ently basedon an investigationof a largenumber(c. 100) of
(usually) 1 m2 trial excavation pits representinga wide
rangeof the island's environments.Fromthese, a pictureis
emergingof a periodicoccupationcharacterizedby chang-
ing patterns of landscape usage (scatteredto nucleated
settlement, and changes in the coastalinland focus) plus
some indicationof the naturalresourceusage of the island
andits neighboringdistrict,especially in termsof access to
materials for tool manufacture(Torrence et al., 1997).
Furthermore,there is an emerging history of widespread
regionalcontactandexchange(Torrence,1992).However,
the archaeologicalinterpretationis impeded by a lack of
understanding of thepaleoenvironmental parameterswithin
which to set the humanoccupation.Priorto this research
program,therewas no paleoenvironmentalorenvironmen-
tal dataavailable.Fundamentalissues regardingthehuman
occupation of this particularlandscape can only be ad-
dressedby identifyingthe following:
1. the natureof past vegetationalconditions;
2. the responses of the past vegetationto the catastrophic
effects of majorvolcanic eruptions;
3. the degree of forest clearanceimpactof the past human
occupants;
4. the form of agriculturalor horticulturalpractice;
5. the form and distributionof settlementtypes; and
215
6. the extent and degree of soil erosion attributableto
humanactivity.
Until these issues can be addressed,the archaeological
interpretationof the prehistoricoccupationof the region
will remainincomplete.
METHODOLOGICALCONSIDERATIONS
Phytolith Analysis as a Solution to Palynological
Constraints
Given the archaeologicalproblems, the paleoenviron-
mentalstudyof the island is of paramountimportanceand
the issues above are currentlybeing addressedwithin the
Prehistoryof Garua archaeologicalprogram.This study
has been, and will continue to link emerging analytical
techniques,understandingsof contemporaryenvironmen-
tal processes, and analysis of prehistoricsediments and
theirpalynological content, in additionto adoptingtradi-
tional archaeologicaltechniques. Several approachesare
being adopted,including a sedimentologicaland edaphic
study of the archaeologicalsediments.This provides evi-
dence of depositionand erosion historyand of soil devel-
opment.To addressthe vegetationalissues, palynological
methods are seen as being most appropriate.However,
therearea numberof impediments.The regionis typically
wet tropical,with a very high rainfall(4,000 - 5,000 mm/
year)andseasonalfluctuationof thewatertableoveratleast
severalmeters.The island's sedimentscomprisestacksof
tephras,whichhaveto alargeextentbeendeeplyweathered
to sticky red clays. This providesan environmentin which
fossil pollen is poorly preserved.Furthermore,otherthan
very few andsmallremainsof charcoal,thereis little in the
way of macroscopicorganic remains in any of the soils.
Thereis, however,anddespitethe intensityof silica disso-
lution in this wet tropicalenvironment,an abundantpres-
ence of fossil phytoliths within these sediments;in some
cases these may be up to 8% by weight. This provides an
opportunityto investigate the paleoenvironmentalcondi-
tions. However,adoptingthis approachprovidesa number
of methodological challenges especially given the sedi-
mentaryconditions and the wet tropical environmentof
West New Britain.These include:
1. adapting sample preparationmethods to suit the de-
mandsof extractingusablematerialfromclay-richsedi-
ments;
2. developing a databaseof phytolith assemblages from
moder environments by which to compare assem-
blages derived from paleoenvironments;
216
3. developing an appropriatemorphotypecategorisation
methodto practicallymanagethe extremelydiverseand
large assemblageof phytoliths;
4. overcomingthe effects of differentialpreservation;and
5. developing an appropriatestatisticalprocedureto deal
witha largedatamatrixusuallycharacterised by variables
with large varianceandhigh numbersof zero values.
Progressin the developmentof these technical areasis
reportedhere. Since this is a pragmaticstatement,discus-
sioncommenceswiththelaboratoryextractionof analysable
phytolith assemblages. Key interpretivetechniques are
then discussed; these techniques should not be seen as
exhaustive, but are regardedas the key elements to the
paleoenvironmentalinterpretationof the region. The dis-
cussion here is based on the analysis of moder analogues
representedby 29 soil samples collected from a numberof
differentenvironments- beach, foreshore,closed forest,
regrowthforest,old gardensites, new gardensites, coconut
plantationsites, village sites andhouse sites - throughout
West New Britain(Text-Figure1). Habitatdescriptionsof
sites are shown in Table 1.
Extractionof Phytolithsfrom Soils
There have been several methodological problems to
overcome in this work. The first of these concerns the
extraction of clean samples from extremely tenaceous
clays which typify most of the sediments from Garua
Island.To overcome this and identify a suitableextraction
procedurean experimentwas conducted, in which com-
parisonwasmadebetweentwo techniquesof deflocculation
andclay removal- one usingcentrifugation(Brown1960;
Bates et al., 1978) andthe otherusing fine sieving (Cwynar
et al., 1979; Dricot andLeroy, 1989)- generallyused for
pollen extraction (Lentfer and Boyd, in press b). In the
experiment, methods used commonly for pollen extrac-
tions were applied to phytolith extraction. Residues ex-
tractedusing differentpreparationtechniqueswere com-
paredby referenceto several attributes:
1. the time and efficiency in the preparationmethod,
2. the weight of residueresultingfrom each method;
3. phytolithcomposition;
4. clarityof the phytolithsandothersiliceous microfossils
on the slides; and
5. measuresof differentialloss and selection by phytolith
shape and size.
The results were also discussed in relation to the still
settling technique which is most commonly used for
PALYNOLOGY,VOLUME22 - 1998
phytolithextraction(Piperno,1983; 1988;Lentferet al., in
press). It was concluded that centrifuging is a reliable
method for removalof clays from fine grainedsediments
andsince it can greatlyreduceextractiontimeit was chosen
as the preferredmethodfor the currentresearch.
Thesecondmethodologicalproblemconcernedthechoice
of a suitablepreparationtechniqueto maximisetheconcen-
trationof fossil phytolithsand producean optimal condi-
tion for effective examination.Thereis an abundantlitera-
ture on phytolithextraction(see Piperno, 1988; Pearsall,
1989; Lentfer, 1997). However, unlike pollen preparation
for which there is now a limited range of standardand
widely adopted techniques, there is some considerable
diversityof opinion andpracticeregardingoptimalprepa-
ration of samples for the extraction of phytoliths. This
resultsin theproductionof datawhichin manycases cannot
be directly compared.In this study, three methods com-
monlyusedto extractfossil phytolithsfromsedimentswere
compared(Lentfer,1997; LentferandBoyd, in press a). A
basic procedureusing heavy liquid flotationandoxidation
was comparedwith two otherproceduresacrossa rangeof
sediment types commonly encounteredin archaeological
studies.The threeproceduresare:
1. a heavy liquid flotation method (HLF), similar to
Piperno's (1988) and Pearsall's (1989) methods;
2. a burning method (POW) adapted from the method
describedby Powers and Gilbertson(1987); and
3. anotherheavy liquidflotationmethod(HLFPol)similar
to HLF,butadaptedto allow the extractionof pollen and
sporesas well as phytolithswithin a single process (see
Table 2).
Comparisonof the resulting output using these three
techniques on the same group of samples showed that
differentmethods can produce differentresults, and fur-
thermorethatbasic techniquesshouldbe modifiedaccord-
ing to thecharacteristicsof the sedimentsfor whichtheyare
used. All the methods were shown to have advantages,
althoughsome wereclearlyunsuitablefor certainsediment
types. While all the techniques showed similarities in
assemblage results, there were problems associated with
disaggregationand effective separationof light andheavy
fractions,in particularwith the POW procedure.The evi-
dence suggests thatmorphotypeselection occurredwithin
this latter method, although it was difficult to suggest a
solution to the problem. The results show clearly that
advantagesgainedby using the POWprocedurearelargely
outweighedby the problemsencounteredwith its use, and
because of possible size/shape selection, it is not recom-
mendedfor generalextractionprocedure.The heavy liquid
flotation procedures,on the other hand, produced more
W.E. Boyd, C.J. Lentfer,& R. Torrence:Phytolithanalysis for a wet tropicsenvironment
concentratedresidueswith higherlevels of clarityandhave
less potential than the POW procedurefor sample bias.
Therefore,sincetheuse of a non-toxicheavyliquid,sodium
polytungstate,now allows the processto be used in relative
safety, heavy liquid extractionprocedureswith chemical
treatmentsspecific to sediment requirementshave been
adoptedfor West New Britainsediments.
PhytolithAssemblages from Modem Environments
The ultimate intention of this research programis to
identify prehistoric landscapes in terms of their vegeta-
tion communities and dynamic effects of human and
naturaldisturbance.Hence, if phytolith analysis is to be
used, it is necessary to assess its ability to differentiate
between different vegetation communities and levels of
disturbance, and therefore it is considered essential to
establish a reference collection of modern analogues.
This is the major focus of the research presented here.
Analysis of modern materialcan:
1. help determinethe relative contributionsof species to
phytolithassemblages;
2. assess the relative importance of certain types of
phytolithsin assemblages;
3. identify signaturespecies within certainenvironments;
4. identifypast environmentsrepresentedin modem land-
scapes; and
5. allow differentanalyticalproceduresto be tested under
known conditions before being applied to
paleoenvironmentalreconstruction.Futureresearchwill
extend this analogue approachfocusing on interpreta-
tion of paleoenvironmentaldata.
Categorizationof Phytoliths
There are some fundamentalproblems in categorizing
phytolithdatasets. Unlike pollen, where thereis a reason-
ably limited taxon list, even in rich samples,because each
species produces only one pollen type, and many pollen
types may represent large groups of species or genera,
phytolithassemblagescan be very large. Individualplants
can producenumerousphytolithmorphologicaltypes de-
termined by cell structure e.g. long cells, short cells,
bulliformcells and trichomes.This is referredto as multi-
plicity. Also, the same types of phytolithscan often occur
in differentplantsand thereforecannotbe used for differ-
entiatingplants (redundancy).Phytolithscan thereforebe
categorizedas individualtypes or groupsof similartypes,
regardlessof plant derivationor they can be categorized
217
accordingto singularspecies, genera, families or broader
plantgroups.The first approachcan be problematicespe-
cially for very diverse assemblages, where assignmentof
phytoliths to types is open to high levels of subjectivity
involving 'lumping'phytolithtypes into broadcategories
or 'splitting'them into groups(Pearsalland Dinan, 1992).
This can often lead to misleading and unreliableresults.
Assigningphytolithsto plantcategoriesis thereforeprefer-
ablebutnevertheless,becauseof multiplicityandredunancy
it is often necessaryto use a combinationof categorization
procedures.Furthermore,such an approachis necessitated
since compilationof referencematerialis very laborinten-
sive and costly and while several researchersaroundthe
world are in the process of compiling materialuseful for
world-wideapplication,(e.g., Runge, 1996;Kealhoferand
Piperno, in press) comprehensive informationfor most
regions is not as yet available.
PhytolithPreservation
As analysisin theexperimentprogressed,it becameclear
that preservation variability of the phytoliths, even in
modem soils, may exert a controlon assemblagecomposi-
tion. It is necessary for reliable assessment of
paleoenvironmentalconditions and vegetational change,
therefore,to considerthe effects of weatheringand differ-
entialdissolutionon the microfossilassemblages.Dissolu-
tion of phytolithsis dependentuponsoil conditionsandthe
characteristicsof the fossil types including their relative
densitiesandmorphologies.Obviouslythin,platytypes are
more proneto weatheringand dissolutionthansolid types
(Pipero, 1991) and the resultantassemblagespresent in
sedimentsare likely to be biased towardsthe solid types.
Such bias would be accentuatedwith increasingalkalinity
and would be expected to increasewith age. Thereis also
the possibility that types with ornamentation,spines or
other projectionsmay be misidentified,having lost these
featuresthroughweatheringand dissolution. It is impor-
tant, therefore,to establish base-line data sets by way of
reference materialfrom both plant materialand moder
soils withina rangeof environments.Potentialfor dissolu-
tion of individual types within assemblages can then be
assessed. It is also importantto investigate presence of
othermicrofossils within each sedimentassemblageespe-
cially as different microfossils (e.g., pollen, spores and
starchgrains)can documenta differentspectrumof plant
taxa and can be used to complement phytolith analysis.
This approachcan be particularlyuseful for identifying
erodedphytoliths.For example, highly weatheredspheri-
cal forms could either be derived from a range of
magnoliopsid (dicotyledonous) trees and shrubs or from
218
palms (the spines being worn smooth). The presence of
Euphorbiaceaepollen in the same assemblage, however,
wouldsuggestthatthewornspherewouldbe representative
of Euphorbiaceaeratherthanpalms (Arecaceae).Since it is
often assumedthatpollen and spores are not preservedin
drylandsedimentsit is useful to use extractionprocedures
that allow their presence to monitored during phytolith
counts.Adoptionof thistypeof opportunisticstrategyneed
not be detrimentalto phytolith assemblage data (Lentfer
1997; Lentferand Boyd, submitted)and can facilitatethe
recognitionof pollen and spores that might otherwise be
overlooked.
StatisticalMethods
Given the complexityof a typical phytolithassemblage,
it is recognisedthatmultivariateanalysisis the most useful
analyticalmethod for showing relationshipsbetween as-
semblagedata(Pentice, 1986; Birks, 1986; Baxter, 1994).
However, the applicationof this type of analysis to fossil
phytolith assemblages that are usually characterizedby
largenumberof types (variables),withlargevariances,low
frequencies or zero values across a data set of multiple
samplescan be problematicalfor both absolutecountsand
compositional(percentage)data.Forexample,in principal
components analysis (PCA), variables with the greatest
magnitudes and variances can dominate analyses, and
overshadowless common variables or variableswith the
least variance(Baxter, 1994). Therefore,to limit the num-
ber of PCs requiredto fully investigate patternsof varia-
tions within assemblages it is necessary to treatdata in a
way thatdown-weightsabundantand more variabletypes
andup-weightsless commontypes.Forcompositionaldata
this can be achievedby eithertransformingpercentagesto
square-root,arc-sinvalues or log ratiosandusing a covari-
ance matrixfor PCA or giving variablesequal weights by
standardisingdata, therebyusing a correlationmatrixfor
PCA (Prentice, 1986; Baxter, 1994; Lentfer, 1997). Vari-
ance-stabilizingtransformationcan likewise be appliedto
absoluteconcentrationscalculatedby way of markergrains
in assemblages.Datacanbe transformedusing a numberof
different methods including logarithmictransformations
andarc-tantransformation(Gordon,1982;Prentice,1986;
Birks, 1986). The same transformationscan be appliedto
correspondenceanalysis(CA). Analysingdatain thisman-
nerensuresthatinterestingdifferencesin assemblagescan
be detected in analyses ratherthan being overriddenby
patternsdominatedby types (variables)with the greatest
variance.This is particularlyrelevant to paleoecological
studies such as this, where the most significantindicators
may indeed be the occasional and low-value taxa which
PALYNOLOGY,VOLUME22 - 1998
would normally be omitted or overlooked in standard
statistical analyses. The choice of PCA, CA, or other
multivariatetestsforanalysisof datasets is dependentupon
the abilityof any one methodto best illustratethe patterns
of assemblage variationand provide the means for most
reliableinterpretation.
RESULTS:EXPERIMENTALEVALUATION
To evaluate the potentialfor resolutionof the method-
ological problemsdiscussed above, resultsfromthe analy-
sis of the modern reference samples are described here.
With the exception of the beach and foreshore samples
from GaralaIsland (G2 and G1), heavy liquid extraction,
described above (see Table 2), produced phytolith rich
residuesfrommostof the twenty-nine5g samples.Percent-
age residuerangedfrom 1.3%to 8%by weightof bulksoil.
Alnus pollen was addedto the residuesandused for calcu-
lation of absolute frequencydata. Phytolithswere exam-
ined at x400 magnificationand examples of types were
drawnto scale using a CameraLucida at x600 magnifica-
tion (see Text-Figure2). Over500 phytolithswere counted
fromall assemblageswith the exceptionof G1 andG2 (see
Table 1). In the absence of a comprehensive reference
collection for the region, types were categorizedprimarily
on thebasis of morphology,although,wherepossibletypes
were assignedto plantfamilies using informationobtained
from referencematerialfrom otherregions (e.g., Piperno,
1988; Kealhofer, 1994; Runge, 1996).
Initially, 189 differentmorphologicaltypes were identi-
fied fromthe assemblages.These were categorizedinto 29
majorgroupsrepresenting5 families(Poaceae,Cyperaceae,
Arecaceae,ZingiberaceaeandMusaceae)and8 othergroups
thatcould notbe assignedto anyparticularplantgroup(see
Text-Figures2 and 3). PCA with Euclideandistancemea-
sures using the correlation matrix for both percentage
composition and absolute abundance data with arc-tan
transformation recommendedby Birks(1986) was usedfor
the initial analyses. The employmentof PCA ratherthan
CA in this case allows the importance of taxa in each
analysisto be readilyassessedby thelengthof theh-vectors
(distancefrom point of origin to variablesas depicted by
vectorplots - see Text-Figure4B). The same information
is notreadilyavailablein correspondenceanalysisconfigu-
ration(Gordon,1982).
The resultsfrom the PCA using the absolutefrequency
datawere problematical,and are not shown here. Cluster-
ing of sites usingthis datamay reflectvariationin phytolith
assemblages attributableto geomorphological and soil
formationprocesses more so thanvariationattributableto
the vegetationcontributingto the assemblages.It is consid-
W.E. Boyd, C.J. Lentfer,& R. Torrence:Phytolithanalysis for a wet tropicsenvironment 219

Phytolithtype Phytolithtype
(Code) (Code)

Bilobate
o >< ,'<P Smallspinysphere
/ ~ TR P
(bilob) A (ssps)

Trilobate Mediumspinysphere I;
(trilob) 1' 3 (msps) 4: 4

..
Cross 2 t (3:~ Largespinysphere
(cross)^ (t1o3
/c? Go(Isps)

Tallsaddle
(saddle) . A
Decoratedspheroid
(ds) u
!:tr-;-

Tower
(tower) O
(

Angulartrapezoid
(trap) $

Largeprickle
(lpr) "'

Point A j
(pt) (
Bulliform Nodularsphere
(bull) (ns) ?D
^

Bulliform2 Smoothsphere
(bul2)

Bulliform3 Amorphous/irregular .'

(bu13) (am)

Elongate | Cystolith s j
(long) F-74 (cys)

Cyperaceae Facetedblock
(Cyp) (fac) \

I
(misc)
-0~
Text-Figure2. Scale drawingsof examples of phytolithtypes in each of the categoriesdefined in the analysis.
 i,I .

Poaceae Arecaceoe
--Areca Oter Other Grou

:?P~~~~~~~o 0yf 4
i~ `..
/ ,..... .. . . . .. . . . ~c' '1?e~
. ... ... ... ... ... ..........................................................
, , . . .. ...................................,.,:.........
. : . . . .....--....._....
........

G13
G14 i
i
K1
K2

GMH6
GMH2
GMH3
GFSZ
i
GBL
OFYS
CO
(:D
CO Gul
Gu3
Gu5 I i 7
Gu6 2.
Gu7o
Gu7b
Gu7c
Gu8
Gu9
Gul1
Nv I
Yo2
Yo3
rr ~~ ~ ~
.. .. .. .
m ,,,I

KmA ........... ...... ...I.

Km6 .

2O 20 20 40 20 20 ' 1''.I)n -. .n
-I I . .In. . . . "I. I ' l.1l --?A -
-.,--1
zb ' 40
'' 20"?rb ' $o 20' 2 40 2U 4U Z 40 60 20

Text-Figure3. Phytolithassemblages showing percentagecompositionof types and group summaries.(Note: Types with < 1%presenceare
W.E. Boyd, C.J. Lentfer,& R. Torrence:Phytolithanalysis for a wet tropicsenvironment
ered, therefore,thatfurtherresearchis necessaryto enable
reliableinterpretationof these results.The resultsfromthe
analysis using the percentagecompositionaldata, on the
other hand, show clear differentiationbetween the major
habitattypes that representdifferent levels of anthropo-
genic disturbance(Text-Figure4).
The first two PCs account for almost 30% of the total
assemblagevariation(Table3). This level of explanationis
relativelypoor,butnevertheless,the sampledistributionas
shown by the sampleplot for PC1 andPC2 (Text-Figure4)
show distinctclusteringof sites. These clustersrelateto the
relative contributionto each assemblage of a suite of
indicatorphytoliths,includingthose derivedfromgrasses,
palms, gingers, and some othertypes includingtracheids,
blocks and cystoliths, possibly derived from herbaceous
andarborealvegetation,but yet to be identified.Fourmain
categorieshavebeen definedaccordingthe analysis.These
are describedbelow:
Highly disturbed sites with minimal regrowth. These
includethe house site (Yo2), village sites (Yo3, Gu 11),and
othersites withgrassdominatedgroundcover,includingan
old gardensite (Km6), a regrowthforest site (GMH2),and
a coconutplantationsite (FEK).The vectorplot (see Text-
Figure 4B) shows that these sites have relatively high
concentrationsofpanicoid grasstypes (trilob,bilob,cross),
types which may be representativeof bambusoidgrasses
(tower, trap), and finally, a palm type (lsps), probably
representingCalamuswhich is commonly used as thatch-
ing materialfor houses andfor makingbasketsandhunting
equipment.The swept village site (KmA) is also included
in this category but is dominatedby small spiny spheres
(spss) that are thoughtto be derived from coconut palms,
ratherthan grasses.
Small island sites with low levels of disturbance.
These sites occur on Garalaand KaulaIslands (Gll, G13,
G14,K1, K2). They arecharacterizedby closed forestwith
palm understoreydominatedby CaryotarumphianaMart.
The vector plot shows that these assemblages have rela-
tively high concentrationsof decorated spheroids (ds),
probablyrepresentingCaryota,small spinyspheres(ssps),
tall saddles which are typical of bambusoidgrasses, and
tracheidswhich may be derived from a wide variety of
monocotyledonous (liliopsid) and dicotyledonous
(magnoliopsid)herbs,shrubsand trees. It shouldbe noted
that the beach sample (G12)contained no phytolithsand
was deleted from the analysis.
Disturbed sites associated with small forest clearings
and long forest fallow. These includetwo forestsites (Gu8
and Gu9) with ten years regrowth,an adjacentsite freshly
clearedfor gardening(Gu7c), an old gardensite (Gu6', and
a new garden site (Gu5). These sites are associated with
phytoliths derived from gingers (zing), cystoliths (cys),
221
miscellaneoustypes(misc), anda verydistinctivebulliform
type (bu13)of unknown derivation.There are compara-
tively low contributionsfrom grasses and palms, particu-
larly the small spiny spheres thoughtto be derived from
coconuts, in these assemblages.This suggests that distur-
banceatthese sites hasbeenon a relativelysmallscale, with
a regrowthpatterntypical of small forest clearings,which
are dominatedby herbaceous,ratherthan grassy vegeta-
tion,particularlyin theearlystagesof regeneration(Lentfer,
1995).
Disturbed sites associated with large clearings and
substantial regrowth. Withexceptionof one logged forest
site at Nave River (Nv), this groupis composed of sites at
GaruaIslandandGaru.Oldgardensites(Gu , Gu3,GMH5),
new garden sites (GFSZ, GMH6, Gu7b, Gu7a), one re-
growthforest site (GMH3), one foreshoresite (GBL), and
finally, one coconut plantationsite (GFYS) are included.
These assemblagesare characterisedby having relatively
high contributionsof phytolithsderivedfrom grasses and
palmsas well as a diverserangeof otherphytolithspossibly
derivedfromherbaceousand woody regrowthvegetation.
The inclusion of the Nave River site in this category is
somewhatanomalous,althoughthe extent of disturbance
caused by the logging operationat the site is unknown.It
should be noted however, that this site, togetherwith the
regrowthforest site at Garu (Gu9) are clearly separated
from the other sites by PC4 where they are shown to be
associatedwith angularblock forms (block).
DISCUSSION
The resultspresentedherelay the groundworkfor future
interpretationofpaleoenvironmentaldata.Some important
patternsthat differentiatea numberof differentenviron-
ments in West New Britainhave emerged,and reflect the
natureof gardencommunitiessuperimposedon landscapes
originally dominatedby tropical forest communities. In
additionto this, some importantindicatortypes for differ-
ent environmentshave been recognised.It is certainhow-
ever, that multiplicityand redundancyfactors, as well as
"lumping"phytoliths of unknown derivationinto broad
categories,contributedtowardsthe relativelylow level of
variationin thetotaldataset being explainedby thefirsttwo
PCs (see Table3). The degreeof errorimposedon analyses
by restrictedknowledge should neverthelessbe reduced,
once a phytolith reference collection for the region is
compiled.This will allow morephytolithsto be assignedto
family groups, and enable more informeddecisions to be
made about inclusions and deletions of phytolith types
within the analysis. Also, reduction of noise factors by
deletingredundanttypes fromthe analysiswill allow better
222 PALYNOLOGY,VOLUME22 - 1998

3
Disturbedsites
-
associatedwith small Gu7e
forestclearingsand ,C
long torest fallow ,' i
2' i
I +n I
I I
I
i
I Higetsllydisturbedsites
Gu6C0 G withhminiml
regrrowth
I'1 .-
Code
Disturbedsites .Gu7a*-
* Viage
associatedwith large -- * GFSZ' Yo2 %
clearingsand oGut Gu3 4
substantialregrowth I Sweptvillage
A 0
I
I + Regrowthforst
Go G14 do
GMH6~GFYS I
1 Gu7b
Yq3 6 Oldgaden
GBL 0FF-K
Kil' +,* I 4
K2~~~~~ 4A Newgrden
K2
1 %% I GMH2 I
-l 0 Y House
1
% A Foreshorm
.0I
Small island sites with /Kin6
KmA * Closedforest
low levels of
disturbance
-2 * Coconut planaon
-3 -2 -1 0 2

PCI

aa
-R.

I
cys
.6
bu13 I
V
v I
I am
long V
v
.4 misc zmg
V
I

.21 asmusaces
I 33

I blockv ?!
mps bull cyp tw
B tmrcheid
fac - ns TV
. -buffl
I
.hb-.
y
- - -V-- -- - --
trap
IV I ~~~V
iddl
I trilob
v bilob
Isps I
-.2N v
I cross
v
I
I
t
I
I
5: ups
v
I

0. -.6 - I
-6 -.4 -.2 -.0 .2 .4 .6

PCIV1.2

Text-Figure4. Biplot of phytolith analysis showing sample plots (A) and vector plot (B) for the first and second principal
componentsusing percentagecompositionaldata.Clustersin the sampleplot are defined accordingto the degree of association
of eachsamplewiththe phytolithtypes (variables)showninthevectorplot.(Note:Vectorsfromthepointof originto eachphytolith
type arenot shown on the vectorplot. Lengthof vectorsindicatesthe importanceof each phytolithtype to the analysiswith more
assemblagevariationbeing explainedby longer vectors.The closer a samplepoint (see plot A) is to a particularvector (plot B),
the strongerthe associationbetween the phytolithtype and site).
W.E. Boyd, C.J. Lentfer,& R. Torrence:Phytolithanalysis for a wet tropicsenvironment 223

interpretationand identification of signaturespecies for ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

specific environments.
To increase the potential of this analysis to further We acknowledgewith thanksgrantaid fromthe Austra-
differentiateenvironments,it is importantto considerthe lian ResearchCouncil,the AustralianMuseumand South-
applicationof different analyticaltechniquesto the data. ern Cross University. We also thank Lisa Kealhofer for
For example, where indicator species are poorly repre- assistingwiththephytolithcategorizationandOwenDavis,
sented in phytolithassemblages,due to poor preservation FrancescaSmithandLindaScottCummingsforthehelpful
and/orcomparativelylow levels of phytolithproduction, commentsthey provided.
presence/absencedataratherthanfrequencydatashouldbe
employed to aid their detection. This is particularlyrel- ReferencesCited
evant in the context of West New Britain,wherethe staple
crop is taro, a memberof the Araceae family and a non- BATES,C.D.,COXON,P., andGIBBARD,P.L.
phytolithproducer,thus making the detection of gardens 1978 A newmethodforpreparation of clay-richsediment
dependenton other species associated with gardencrops samples for palynological investigation. New
e.g., otherfood crops such as bananas,cucurbitsand sugar Phytologist, 81: 459-463.
cane, as well as grasses and weeds. Charcoal analysis BAXTER,M.J.
shouldalso be undertaken,since charcoalconcentrationin 1994 ExploratoryMultivariateAnalysis in Archaeology.
sediments is likely to be importantin differentiatingbe- EdinburghUniversityPressLtd.,Edinburgh, 307
tween levels of anthropogenicdisturbanceand volcanic pgs.
disturbance.Finally, to allow finer differentiationof habi- BIRKS,H.J.B.
1986 Numericalzonation,comparison andcorrelationof
tats, the possibility of obtaining additional information Quaternary data.In:Berglund,
pollen-stratigraphical
fromothertypes of microfossils (e.g., starchgrains,pollen B. E., Handbook of Holocene Palaeoecology and
and spores), shouldbe investigated.By increasingknowl- JohnWiley& Sons,Chichester,
Palaeohydrology.
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approach,and applyingthis informationto paleosediment BOYDW.E.,andTORRENCE, R.
analysis, reliable reconstructionsof paleoenvironments 1996 Periodicerosionand humanland use on Garua
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274.
BROWN,C.A.
CONCLUSIONS 1960 Palynological techniques. Baton Rouge, La, 188
pgs.
The archaeologyof prehistoricoccupationof the island CWYNAR,L.C.,BURDEN,E., andMcANDREWS, J.H.
1979 An inexpensivesievingmethodfor concentrating
of Garua, West New Britain, represents a picture of
pollen and spores from fine-grainedsediments.
humanadaptationto a highly volatile environmentchar- Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, 16: 1115-
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Peptization purposes.
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ited by a scarcity of appropriatedata, in part related to GORDON,A.D.
1982 Numericalmethodsin Quaternary palaeoecology.
specific problemsin obtainingand analysing such datain
this wet tropicalenvironment.This paperdescribes some V. Simultaneousgraphical of thelev-
representation
els and taxa in a pollen diagram.Review of
of the methodological developments associated with the
Palaeobotanyand Palynology, 37: 155-183.
application of phytolith analysis to overcome this scar- HEMING,R.F.
city. By careful use of preparationtechniques and statis- 1974 Geologyandpetrologyof RabaulCaldera,Papua
tical analysis, results using modern analogues have suc- New Guinea. Geological Society of AmericaBulle-
cessfully differentiated between phytolith assemblages tin, 85: 1253-1264.
representinga range of vegetation communities, largely L.
KEALHOFER,
on the basis of levels of anthropogenicdisturbanceand 1994 Modernreferencephytolithsfor southeastAsia. Ms
modification. Hence, this researchprovides the promise on file, ColonialWilliamsburg, of Ar-
Department
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Virginia.
KEALHOFER, L., andPIPERNO, D.R.
possible, and that ecological aspects of the prehistoric in press Phytolithsfrom moder SoutheastAsian flora.
human-environmentalinteraction on the island are dis- SmithsonianContributionsto Botany.
cernible.
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PALYNOLOGY, VOLUME 22 - 1998
22-1998

LENTFER,C.J. Palaeohydrology.John Wiley & Sons, Chichester,

1995 Ethnobotanicalresearch in WestNew Britain and New York, p. 775-797.
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N.S.W. East African plants. University of Paderborn,
1997 Extraction of phytoliths and other palynomorphs Paderborn,Germany.Departmentof Geography.
from sediments.Unpubl.M. App. Sci. thesis, School SPECHT,J., FULLAGAR,R., TORRENCE,R., andBAKER,N.
of Resource Science and Management, Southern 1988 Prehistoricobsidianexchange in Melanesia:A per-
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PAVLIDES,C., and GOSDEN, C.
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demic Press, Inc., San Diego, 470 pgs.
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1992 Developing a phytolith classification system. In:
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1983 The application of phytolith analysis to the recon-
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1988 PhytolithAnalysis.AnArchaeologicaland Geologi-
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1991 The status of phytolith analysis in the American
tropics.Journalof WorldPrehistory,5: 155-183.
POWERS,A.H., and GILBERTSON,D.D.
1987 A simple preparationtechniquefor the studyof opal
phytolithsfromarchaeologicalandQuaternarysedi-
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W.E. Boyd, C.J. Lentfer,& R. Torrence:Phytolithanalysis for a wet tropicsenvironment 225

TABLE1. Description
of the29 sitesusedintheanalysis.

Site No. phytoliths

code Location Habitat description counted
GI1 Garala Island Foreshore under trees and palms 150
G12 Garala Island Sandy beach with Ipomoea pes-caprae Roth. 0
G13 Garala Island Closed forest with understorey of gingers and palms 659
G14 Garala Island Closed forest with understorey of gingers and palms 513
K1 Kaula Island Closed forest with palm understorey 507
K2 Kaula Island Closed forest with palm understorey 554
GMH5 Garua Island Old garden with singapore taro 541
GMH6 GaruaIsland New garden site withburntbreadfruittrees 530
GMH2 Garua Island Open regrowth forest with grass ground cover 541
GMH3 Garua Island Closed regrowth forest with understorey of ginger 560
GFSZ Garua Island New garden with taro 515
GFEK Garua Island Coconut plantation with grass and weedy understorey 529
GBL Garua Island Littoralwith grasses, Ipomoea pes-caprae Roth. and 500
legumes
GFYS Garua Island Coconut plantation with ground cover dominated by 566
Imperata cylindrica Beauv. and ferns
Gul Garu Cultivated garden, one year old, with singapore taro 525
Gu3 Garu Overgrown garden with bananas, cassava and weeds 509
Gu5 Garu New garden with sweet potato, singapore taro and 504
sugar cane
Gu6 Garu Old garden with sweet potato, singapore taro and 513
weeds
Gu7a Garu Newly prepared garden 502
Gu7b Garu Newly prepared garden 505
Gu7c Garu New garden planted with taro 549
Gu8 Garu Freshly cleared forest after 10 years regrowth 501
Gu9 Garu Forest with 10 years regrowth and ready for clearing 504
Gu 1 Garu Village area with grasses under palms 506
Nv Nave River Logged closed forest with ginger understorey 508
Yo2 Yombon Inside men's house 500
Yo3 Yombon Outside men's house 515
KmA Kumbun/Apelo Swept village area dominated by coconut palms 520
Km6 Kumbun Abandoned garden with Imperata cylindrica Beauv. 530
TABLE 2. Descriptionof threephytolithextractionproceduresHLF, POW and HLFPol.

HLF POW HLFP

1. sediment crushed using pestle and mortar sediment crushed using pestle and mortar sediment crushed using p

2. 5g sediment measured 5g sediment measured 1cc sediment measured

3. shaken in 5% Calgonsolutionfor 12 shaken in 5% Calgon solutionfor 12 hours, shaken in 5% Calgon solu

hours, centrifuged@ 3000 rpmfor 2 mins. centrifuged@ 3000 rpmfor 2 mins. and centrifuged@ 3000 rpmf
and supernatantdecanted supernatant decanted supernatant decanted

4. sediment washed twice in distilledwater sediment washed twice in distilled sediment washed twice in
(centrifuged@ 3000 rpmfor 2 mins.; water(centrifuged@ 3000 rpmfor 2 mins.; (centrifuged@ 3000 rpm
supernatantdecanted after each wash) supernatantdecanted after each wash) supernatantdecanted aft

5. organicmatterremovedin 30ml of 15%to carbonatesremovedin 30ml 15%HCLheated humiccolloids disaggrega

30% H202heated to 70?C in hot waterbath
for 20 mins. or untilreactionfinished;
dilutedwithdistilledwaterto 50ml;
centrifuged@ 3000 rpmfor 2 mins.;
supernatant decanted
to 70?C in hot waterbathfor 20 mins. or until 10%KOHfor 5 minutes;d
reactionfinished;dilutedwithdistilledwater to waterto 50ml;centrifuge
50ml;centrifuged@ 3000 rpmfor 2 mins.; mins.; supernatantdecan
supernatantdecanted

6. washed twice as above washed twice as above washed twice as above

7. carbonates removedin 30ml 15%HCL
heated to 70?C in hot waterbathfor 20
mins. or untilreactionfinished;diluted
withdistilledwaterto 50ml;centrifuged@
3000 rpmfor 2 mins.;supernatant
decanted
sample sieved through250 mm mesh carbonates removedin 30
to 70?C in hot waterbathf
reactionfinished;dilutedw
50ml;centrifuged@ 3000
supernatant decanted

8. washed twice as above defloculationusing 5% Calgon solution @ 70?C; washed twice as above
clays removedby centrifuging@ 2000 rpmfor 1
min. 30 secs and decanting supernatant
(process repeated untilsupernatantcleared)
TABLE 2 (continued). Descriptionof three phytolithextractionproceduresHLF, POW and HLFPol.

HLF POW HLFPol

9. sample sieved through250 mm mesh washed twice as above sieved
sample through250

1 0. deflocculationusing 5% Calgon solution dehydrationusing 50% and 100%ethanol deflocculationusing 5% Ca

@ 70?C;clays removed by centrifuging@ (centrifuged@ 3000 rpmfor 2 mins. after 70?C;clays removed by cen
2000 rpmfor 1 min.30 secs. and ethanol treatments) rpmfor 1 min.30 secs.and
decanting supernatant (process repeated supernatant(process repea
untilsupernatantcleared) supernatantcleared)

I1 . washed three times as above samples transferredto ceramic crucibles, washed three times as abov
covered with 100%ethanol and burnt

12. 10ml heavy liquid(Cdl2KI)added, sample ash crushed 10ml heavy liquid(Cdl2KI)a
shaken and centrifuged@ 2000 rpmfor 5 shaken and centrifuged@ 2
mins.

1 3. lightfaction pipetted into clean centrifuge crucibleplaced on its side and gently tapped so lightfaction pipetted into cle
tube and flotationprocess repeated to that ash is tippedonto slide; slide invertedand and flotationprocess repea
ensure complete separation of light gently tapped to remove excess ash complete separation of ligh
fraction

1 4. distilledwater added to lightfractionat samples mountedin benzyl benzoate distilledwater added to ligh
ratioof >2.5:1 to lower specific gravityof >2.5:1 to lower specific gra
solution to <1.5g/cc; centrifuged @ 2500 <1.5g/cc; centrifuged@ 250
rpmfor 10 mins.; supernatantdecanted supernatantdecanted

1 5. residues washed twice as above residues washed twice as a

1 6. dehydrationusing 50% and 100%ethanol dehydrationusing 50% and

(centrifuged@ 3000 rpmfor 2 mins. after (centrifuged@ 3000 rpmfor
ethanol treatments) ethanol treatments)

1 7. mounted in benzyl benzoate mountedin benzyl benzoate

228
228 PALYNOLOGY, VOLUME
PALYNOLOGY, 22 - 1998
VOLUME 22-1998

TABLE 3. Eigenvalues >1 and %variationexplained by the first 11 principalcomponents. Eigenvalues relateto the proportion
of variance explained by the principal components. (e.g.: The sum of squaredvariable loadings for a principal component
equals the eigenvalue. This numberdivided by the total numberof PCs requiredto explain 100%of the assemblage variation
and converted to a percentage is the percentage variation explained by that PC).

Principal Eigenvalue % variation Cumulative %

component (PC) scores > 1 explained by PC variation explained
1 4.622 16.5 16.5
2 3.724 13.3 29.8
3 2.726 9.7 39.5
4 2.324 8.3 47.8
5 1.994 7.1 55.0
6 1.678 6.0 61.0
7 1.579 5.6 66.6
8 1.491 5.3 71.9
9 1.249 4.5 76.4
10 1.160 4.1 80.5
L 11 1.033 3.7 84.2