CHAPTER–II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Drying and storage of mango

In Pakistan, there is lack of storage facilities for perishable fruits and

vegetables. Overproduction of mango fruits and post harvest losses due to various

factors occur particularly in Sindh, Pakistan. The mango fruit losses are due to early

picking by the growers and dieseased fruits. These all factors related to the losses of

the fruit demand the use of appropriate technology for its preservation using different

dehydration methods. Processed mango products are fast gaining markets and

commanding better prices than other tropical fruits (De la Cruz Medina and Garcia,

2003) as the import of other dried tropical fruits is increasing. Focussing on a second

problem besides the improvable fruit marketing in the region, the vitamin A-

deficiency, which is widespread in Southeast Asia and is a severe risk especially for

infants and children younger than 5 years, should be mentioned in this context.

Malnutrition and limited intake of vitamin A and provitamin-A cause several serious

health problems, mostly during child- and motherhood. Beside the well-known night-

blindness and blindness, the weakening of the immune system and keratinisation of

mucous membrane is followed by high morbidity and mortality rates among young

children (Stephensen, 2001). Mangoes can be classified as provitamin A-rich fruits.

Depending on cultivar, the carotenoid content of mangoes ranges from 800 to 11,000

µg/100g (Nanjundaswamy, 1997). About 50 to 80% of the total carotenoids are

available as β-carotene (Mercandante and Rodriguez Amaya, 1998).

6
 Sun drying is the most common method used to preserve agricultural

products in most tropical and subtropical countries. However, being unprotected from

rain, wind-borne dirt and dust, infestation by insects, rodents and other animals,

products may be seriously affected to the extent that sometimes become inedible and

as the result loss of food quality in the dried products may have adverse economic

effects on domestic and international markets. Some of the problems associated with

open-air sun drying can be solved through the use of a solar dryer which comprises of

collector, a drying chamber and sometimes a chimeny (Madhlopa et al., 2002). The

conditions in tropical countries make the use of solar energy for drying food

practically attractive and enviromentally sound. Dryers have been developed and used

to dry agricultural products in order to improve shelf life (Esper and Muhlbauer,

1996). Most of these either use an expensive source of energy such as electricity (El-

Shiatry et al., 1991) or a combination of solar energy and some other form of energy

(Sesay and Stenning, 1997). Most projects of these nature have not been adopted by

the small farmers, either because the final design and data collection procedures are

fequently inappropriate or the cost has remained inaccessible and the subsequent

transfer of technology from researcher to the end user has been anything but effective

(Berinyuy, 2004). Solar dryers are usually classified according to the mode of air flow

into natural convection and forced convection dryers. Natural convection dryers do

not require a fan to pump the air through the dryer. Quoting the example of Sudan,

since the rural or remote areas of Sudan are not connected to the national electric grid

and remote areas of Sudan facing energy crisis, especially West Darfur state. The use

of solar technology has often been suggested for the dried fruit industry both to

reduce energy costs and economically speed up drying which would be beneficial to

7
final quality (El- Shiatry et al., 1991), In Sudan grapes, mango slices, okra, tomato

and onion are dried using solar energy.

The food dehydration is one of the common used food conservation

processes for increased shelf life, reduction of costs of packings, transport and storage

and modification of sensorial attributes (Queiroz, 2003). The most applied technique

of dehydration in the production of dry fruits is the drying using hot air. This drying

consists of displaying the material to be dehydrated, normally in the form of pieces or

slices, to a hot airflow. In this case, two simultaneous processes occur: heat

transference and mass transference. The factors that conduct the speed of these

transference phenomena determine the drying tax, such as water vapor pressures of air

and in the material, temperature and air speed, speed of diffusion of the water in the

material, thickness and surface displayed for drying. Mathematical modeling of the

dehydration process is very useful in designing and optimization of dryers. According

to Rizvi (1986) many authors have used the Fick’s second law to estimate the average

time of drying during the falling drying rate period. The analytical resolution of Fick`s

second law was given by Crank (1975) for various regularly shaped bodies, such as

rectangular, cylindrical and spherical. The effective diffusivity proposed in this

solution involves the several effects that could interfere the dehydration process.

However the water removal leads to a serious loss of nutrients and the sensorial

quality of the products (Lenart, 1996). Much work has been done to increase the

efficiency of the drying by convection, mainly using heat pumps. Use of driers with

heat pump was suggested as an alternative method to dry foods with lower values in

consumption of energy, relative humidity and temperatures. Preliminary studies on

dried products quality comparision between the dried products using heat pump and

8
the dry products with only heating of air, proved that the color and aroma of the first

ones are better (Prasertsan & Saen-saby, 1998).

For dietary carotenoid mixtures, it is generally acknowledged that in

terms of vitamin A, 6 µg of β-carotene is converted into 1 µg of retinol. The daily

intake of retinol equivalent (RE) for healthy adults and children under six years is 800

and 500 RE, respectively, (FAO, 1988). Besides the great relevance of carotenoids as

provitamin A in developing countries, the importance of these micro-nutrients is

additionally proved more and more as natural antioxidants, protecting human against

certain types of cancer and cardiovascular diseases (Byers and Perry, 1992).

Osmotically pre-treated and sulphite treated mangoes are dried in cabinet dryers,

mostly powered by gas burners at 50 to 60°C for 18 to 25 h. This results in high

energy consumption and dried, sugared fruit pieces with low micronutrient but

remarkable sulphite contents. Boynton et al. (2002) evaluated the effects of high

pressure processing (300 and 600 MPa for one minute) on sensory quality and

stability of mango cubes kept for up to 9 weeks at 3oC. Fresh mango flavor declined

and off-flavor increased during storage, but color and other sensory attributes

changed very little. They also found that high pressure prevented increases in

microbial load that were noted in the control. Tovar et al. (2001) concluded that a

short osmotic dehydration treatment (sucrose at 65 Brix at 30oC) under vacuum (211

mbar) together with low temperature (5oC) storage may be used to extend the shelf-

life of minimally processed ‘Kent’ mango slices for 20 days.

The techniques of dehydration are used to remove active water

biologically for reduction in growth of microorganisms. Fruits and vegetables during

on-seasons can be purchased at affordable prices in bulk and then can be preserved for

9
their off-season use. In doing so, their dehydration has to be carried out (Sreekumar et

al., 2008). In case the fruits are kept without employing dehydration, due to

biologically active water, the growth of microorganism is enhanced and the stored

fruits or vegetables will spoil. An effective approach to dehydrate and preserve the

perishable fruits and vegetables are drying at low temperature so that the food should

remain preserved in its natural texture (Esper and Muhlbauer, 1998). The slow drying

can very easily be carried out by open sun drying but it needs longer period of time to

reach required moisture level, but rain, dust, insects, pollution and contamination

from the surrounding environment may adversely affect the quality of the products.

Furthermore, products dried in open environments may not meet the recognized food

standards (USDA, 2007). Thus solar drying of fruits and vegetable not only shortens

the drying time but also meets hygienic standards and retains the colour, texture and

food value of the product. The solar driers are of two types; direct and indirect

(Forson et al., 2007). In a direct type solar dehydrator, air is heated in box type

chamber covered from top with glass or transparent polythene sheet. In the indirect

type dehydrator, air is at first heated convectionally by solar energy in a separate heat

collecting unit (Forson et al., 2007), then this hot and less humid air from this unit is

circulated through the main drying chamber, where product is spread on perforated

trays. The hot dry air stream while passing through this unit removes moisture of the

product. A steady state of evaporation is achieved when the heat required for

evaporation and the heat losses are equal to the total heat absorbed (Henry et al.,

1999). When they assessed the performance, in the direct solar dryers the color of the

dried end product was different than that was at the beginning than indirect ones

(Bolin et al., 1978). This may be caused by the solar radiations, which produce heat

within the bulk of the product upon penetration through its porous skin and change the

10
colour (Sreekumar et al., 2008). It is also observed that the surface of the dried

product gets withered, which reduces its appealing look necessary for its marketing;

whereas, in the indirect type solar dehydrator, colour and texture of the dried product

remains un-changed. Commonly available fruits and vegetable at affordable costs in

their peak season may be used for certain processing and their practical importance is

even greater for the villages, where there is no regular supply of fruits and vegetables

throughout the year (Hussain et al., 2008).

The dehydration techniques may differ in different countries, but there is

no dissimilarity in the objectives of the practice. Dehydration spray drying is one of

the most important techniques used in some of the food industries and under optimal

processing conditions which has proved to be an effective method to obtain several

products (Ayoob, 2004). The transformation of these products into powder particles

implies in a considerable reduction of volume and is effective method of prolonging

shelf life, besides presenting an excellent reconstitution quality, since the products are

difficultly submitted to temperatures above 100°C. However, fruit juice powders

obtained by spray drying present problems in their functional properties, stickiness

and solubility, making their packaging and utilization substantially difficult (Kerr,

1999). These problems are due to the fact that the materials have high contents of low

molecular weight sugar such as fructose, glucose and sucrose that make drying

difficult. Dehydration of raw and ripened mango has a great potential to be used in the

later season (Buchanan, 2008). The fallen raw fruit other wise would have been

wasted, could be converted in the product form and can be used in many different

ways. This will also help in earning income to the farmers. Where as the ripe dried

slices could be kept for longer time for use. (Bhandari et al., 1997). The

11
crystallization of Mango powder is the most stable state, having the lowest free

energy (Bunn, 1972).

Plotto et al. (2006) concluded that, due to inconsistent results, ethanol

(5g/kg) vapor applied for 20 hours to whole Kent mangoes prior to processing for

fresh-cut is not a practical approach to delay ripening. However, at lower doses (10

hours) it could be a safe microbial control in a fresh-cut production sanitation system.

Ngarmsak (2007) found that treating fresh-cut mangoes with 80 mM vanillin

solutions before packing and storage at 5oC or 10oC significantly delayed the growth

of spoilage yeast and fungi in the freshcut mangoes. Although there was a noticeable

faint vanilla odor immediately after processing, it was no longer evident after 7 days

of storage. Acidified sodium chlorite is a sanitizing agent recently approved by the

FDA for dip or spray treatment of food items, including fresh and fresh-cut fruits and

vegetables, and has shown a strong ability to control pathogens. He et al. (2008)

related the anti-browning action of sodium chlorite to its inactivation of polyphenol

oxidase directly and the oxidative degradation of phenolic substances. Thus, the

potential effects of sodium chlorite on quality and safety of fresh-cut mangoes merit

evaluation (Hussain et al., 2008).

The increasing air temperature causes shorter drying times and the

combined effect of drying temperature and time on colour and re-hydration ratio

could be measured from the surface. Moreover, the total colour change, chroma

(colour saturation), hue angle and browning index (BI) are determined (He et al.,

2008). The drying time has significant effect on colour change and rehydration ratio.

The lowest total colour change and highest rehydration ratio were obtained at drying

air temperature of 80◦C than 70◦C and finally 60◦C with drying time of 3, 5 and 7

12
hours, respectively. In contrast to common practice, drying at elevated air temperature

(80◦C), instead of 60◦C for a longer time, was optimal, since significant colour

changes of mango slices were not observed. Moreover, at increased temperature,

drying time was considerably shortened from about 7 h to 3 h, resulting in significant

extension of drying capacity (Akoy et al., 2008).

Drying of agricultural products under direct sunlight is the traditional

way of preserving many fruits and vegetables. Traditional sun drying involves either

storing the product under direct sunlight or in indirect sunlight by putting it under

transparent plastic films, glass or non-transparent covers. The use of the sun to dry

foods has the advantage of small or negligible installation and energy costs. However,

the running costs may be high due to intensive labor and slowness of the process.

Moreover, several factors make solar drying less attractive, such as: climatic

conditions, product pollution from dust or from animal contamination, and other types

of infestation and microbial or mould contamination in humid environments

(Karathanos and Belessiotis, 1997). For this reason, the use of solar stoves is

advantageous, making use of the sun as energy source without some disadvantages of

the direct open-air exposure. In Portugal, over the years, dried fruits have been

traditionally produced harvested in late August. The traditional solar-drying method

involved the direct sun exposure of the fruits, in a multi-step operation (Barroca et al.,

2006). In the last years some investigation has been taking place in order to, on one

way, better understand this product, its characteristics and production methodology,

and, on the other way, to propose alternative production processes conceived to

achieve a product with good sanitary and organoleptic quality with better yields and

lower costs. El-Sebaii et al. (2002) used an indirect solar dryer to dry fruits and

vegetables and from the experimental data calculated the drying constants for grapes,

13
figs, green peas, tomatoes and onions. Tripathy and Kumar (2009) proposed a

methodology for the determination of moisture diffusion and convective mass transfer

coefficients for the solar drying of potato using variable drying parameters (lag factor

and drying coefficient) and found out that both diffusion and convective mass transfer

coefficients tend to increase with increasing temperature. Dissa et al. (2008) studied

the thin layer solar drying of mango slices using a solar dryer and determined the

drying rates with correction for shrinkage and the critical water content. The thin layer

drying model they used made it possible to simulate suitably the solar drying kinetics

of mango slices and their study contributed to the setting of solar drying time and to

the establishment of solar drying rates’ curves for mango. Nourhène et al. (2008)

studied the drying kinetics of Tunisian olive leaves in an indirect forced convective

solar drier and observed that the air temperature had a significant effect on drying

kinetics. However these works do not focus on the close relation between the air and

the material properties or on the evolution of drying (Tripathy and Kumar, 2009;

Raquel et al. (2010).

Effect of maturity stage on pulp quality of different varieties

In most production areas, mangoes reach their best eating quality when

allowed to ripen on the tree. However, mangoes are usually picked mature-green so

that they can withstand the postharvest handling system when shipped for long-

distance. Most currently used maturity indices are based on a compromise between

those indices that would ensure the best eating quality to the consumer and those that

provide the needed flexibility in marketing. Ripening is the composite of the

processes that occur from the mature-green stage through the early stages of

senescence and that results in the desirable color, textural, and flavor (taste and

14
aroma) quality. Mangoes produce relatively small quantities of ethylene (0.1 to 2

microliters per kilogram per Fresh Cut Mangoes) in association with their ripening,

and exposure to ethylene treatment (100ppm for 1-2 days at 20 - 25°C) will result in

faster and more uniform ripening. Once fruits are ripened, they require more careful

handling to minimize bruising. Mangoes must be ripened, at least partially (almost

ready-to-eat), before cutting to enssure better flavor quality in the fresh-cut products.

Limbanyen et al. (1998) reported that ‘Tommy Atkins’, ‘Haden’, and ‘Palmer’

mangoes with yellow flesh color (no green color remaining) were at optimum

maturity for fresh-cut in terms of maintenance of acceptable appearance, texture, and

taste. Post-cutting life of fresh-cut mango at 5oC was 8 to 10 days and was limited by

flesh browning and loss of firmness. Peeling to a depth of at least 2mm and trimming

flesh near the stem was necessary to minimize browning (Limbanyen et al., 1998).

They also concluded that mangoes with slight to moderate anthracnose symptoms on

their peel can be used for fresh-cut. Tovar et al. (2000) reported that partially-ripe

‘Kent’ mango slices continued to ripen after cutting, but did not reach the same level

of ripeness as whole mangoes did after 5 to 7 days at 13oC or 23oC. Allong et al.

(2000) found that fresh-cut slices made from half-ripe (12.5 to 14% soluble solids)

and firm-ripe (14.5 to 17% soluble solids) ‘Julie’ and ‘Graham’ mangoes had a shelf-

life of 8 days at 5ºC or 4 days at 10oC. They concluded that half-ripe (13-16% soluble

solids) mangoes are ideal for fresh-cut purposes in terms of maintenance of

acceptable appearance, texture, and taste during post-cutting life at 5oC.

Rattanapanone et al. (2001) recommended that ‘Tommy Atkins’ and ‘Kent’ mangoes

should be 13 to 27 N (3 to 6 lbf) firmness (penetration force with an 11mm probe)

when cut to have an acceptable quality and reasonable shelf-life as a fresh-cut

15
product. Marketability was limited by development of watery condition, slight

darkening, and microbial growth on the cubes.

Beaulieu and Lea (2003) compared volatile and quality changes in

stored fresh-cut mango cubes prepared from firm-ripe (86-92 N = 19-20.5 lbf flesh

firmness as penetration force with 11-mm probe and 9-10% soluble solids) and soft-

ripe (27-29 N = 6-6.5 lbf flesh firmness and 12.5-14% soluble solids) ‘Keitt’ and

‘Palmer’ mangoes. They found that most soft-ripe cubes were unmarketable by day 7

at 40C and that firm-ripe cubes were not ripened enough to deliver an optimum

product to consumers, even though their storage-life was greater than soft-ripe cubes.

DeSouza et al. (2005) reported that fresh-cut ‘Tommy Atkins’ mango had a shelf-life

of 10 days at 3oC. They also found that naturally-ripened mango presented the best

flavor and consumer preference as compared with mature-green mangoes that were

ripened with ethylene for 12 hours at 25-300C before cutting.

Dea et al. (2008) concluded that the hot water quarantine treatment

(dip in 460C water for 65 to 110 minutes depending on cultivar and fruit size) of

whole mangoes does not significantly affect the quality of fresh-cut ‘Kent’ mango

slices stored at 50C. However, if the temperature and/or duration limits of hot water

treatment are exceeded resulting in heat damage, the mangoes will not be useable for

fresh-cut processing. Cooling after heat treatments reduces the potential for heat

damage. Ngarmsak et al. (2005) reported that washing whole ‘Chok Anun’ mangoes

in warm (500C) or cold (120C) chlorinated (100 ppm) water for 5 minutes

significantly reduced total microbial populations on the skin and stem end of the

mangoes. Microbial populations on fresh-cut mango slices prepared from unwashed

fruit were significantly higher than those prepared from washed fruit immediately

16
following preparation and after 7 days at 50C. Wounding increases rates of water loss,

softening, and browning. Using very sharp tools to peel mangoes and cut their flesh

limits cellular damage and reduces leakage of cellular contents and enzymatic

browning mediated by the enzymes polyphenol oxidase and phenol oxidase. Also,

packaging in rigid containers is essential to reduce water loss and mechanical damage

during distribution. Chantanawarangoon, (2000) found that mango peels had the

highest respiration and ethylene production rates followed by whole mangoes and

mango cubes,respectively . Peeled whole mangoes had lower respiration and similar

ethylene production rates as compared to mango cubes. The C2H4 and CO2

production rates of whole mangoes were about 1.5-2 times higher than peeled whole

mangoes. Gil et al. (2006) recommended complete removal of the mango skin (peel)

with a very sharp knife or peeler to avoid brown discoloration of the remaining peel

tissues, which appears faster than flesh tissue browning of fresh-cut mango products.

Mango fruit peeling and flesh cutting by hand can result in less damage than

mechanical peeling and cutting if the sharpness of the cutting tools is similar, but the

latter will likely be more consistent in the extent of wounding. These factors plus

efficiency and relative cost should be considered when comparing hand vs mechanical

peeling and cutting. Trindade et al. (2003) concluded that the most suitable conditions

for quality preservation of fresh-cut ‘Tommy Atkins’ mango were dipping in a

solution of 3.5% (w/w) calcium chloride at 350C for 20 minutes and packaging under

active modified atmosphere (5% oxygen + 5% carbon dioxide). Under these

conditions, fresh-cut mango maintained good quality for 5 days at 50C. The relatively

short shelf-life may have been due to the long period between harvest in Brazil and

processing in Portugal.

17
 Rattanapanone and Watada (2000) concluded that fresh-cut ‘Tommy

Atkins’ mango cubes can be held in low oxygen atmospheres (0.5 to 4.0% oxygen,

balance nitrogen) at 50C. Marketability was limited by the development of watery

condition and slight darkening only in air and 4% oxygen atmosphere, respectively.

Rattanapanone et al. (2001) reported that the marketable period of fresh-cut ‘Tommy

Atkins’ and ‘Kent’ mango cubes was 3 to 5 days at 100C or 5 to 8 days at 50C and was

extended by 1 to 2 days when cubes were held in 4% oxygen + 10% carbon dioxide or

2% oxygen + 10% carbon dioxide (balance nitrogen) atmospheres. They concluded

that while CA was beneficial in maintaining quality of the cubes, temperature was

more effective than CA. Martinez-Ferrer et al. (2002) working with ‘Keitt’ mangoes

that were harvested at 7-8% soluble solids and kept at 13-150C until their soluble

solids reached 11-12% before preparation of the cubes, found that packaging in a

modified atmosphere of 4% oxygen + 10% carbon dioxide + 86% nitrogen resulted in

the longest shelf-life (25 days at 50C) of the mango cubes in comparison with vacuum

packaging, 100% oxygen, and air control. This treatment significantly inhibited the

growth of spoilage microorganisms, particularly molds and yeasts.

Donadon and Durigan, (2004) compared three types of polymeric films

for packaging ‘Tommy Atkins’ mango slices and found that those packed in the

polyethylene terephthalate (PET) clamshell trays had a shelf-life of 14 days at 30C vs

11 days for the mango cubes in the other packages. Singh et al. (2007) concluded that

the shelf-life of fresh-cut mangoes could be extended by packaging in PET containers.

Chonhenchob et al. (2007) reported that extended shelf-life was observed in fresh-cut

mangoes packed in PET due to reduced oxygen and elevated carbon dioxide

concentrations. Sothornvit and Rodsamran (2008) found that a mango film provided a

good oxygen barrier with sufficient mechanical properties to wrap whole and

18
minimally-processed mangoes. When the latter were wrapped in a mango film and

kept in cellophane bags, the shelf-life was extended to 6 days at 5oC. Dea et al.

(2008a) found that shelf-life of fresh-cut ‘Kent’ mangoes was 3 to 4 days at 12oC vs 5

to 6 days at 5oC. It was unclear whether this storage period at 5oC caused chilling

injury in fresh-cut mango slices since no visual chilling injury symptoms were noted.

However, reduced ascorbic acid content and increased softening at 5oC suggest that

the fresh-cut slices did experience chilling stress.

Mango dehydration techniques

Drying is an ancient method of preservation of food and this involves

the removal of majority of the water normally present in the food by evaporation, or

in other cases freeze drying by sublimation under vacuum to yield a dried product.

This occurs under controlled conditions of temperature and pressure (Chamielec et al.,

1994; Avila and Silva, 1999; Akpinar and Bicer, 2004). There are several types of

drying methods including; sun (solar) drying, freeze drying, drum drying, tunnel

drying, cabinet drying etc. (Lisińska and Golubowska, 2005).

During drying, water is removed in the form of vapour as heat is supplied to the food

material, therefore, heat and mass transfer occurs simultaneously. It requires a safe

place to spread the food where dry air in large quantities can pass over and beside thin

pieces. Drying is achieved by the direct use of energy produced by the sun or from

other means of heating such as electricity and fuel. Of these, sun is the most abundant

and economical. Dehydration, or drying, is a simple, low-cost way to preserve food

that might otherwise get spoil end (Rahmat et al., 1995; Harrison and Andress, 2008).

Drying removes water and thus prevents fermentation or the growth of

moulds. It also slows the chemical changes that take place naturally in foods, as when

19
fruit ripens. Surplus fruit and vegetables preserved by drying can be stored for future

use (Mnkeni et al., 2001; Maskan, 2001; Pedreschi and Moyano, 2005). This simple

method, however, allows the food to be contaminated by dust, airborne moulds and fungi,

insects, rodents, and other animals. Furthermore, open air-drying is often not possible in

humid climates.

Dehydration spray drying is one of the techniques most utilized in the

food industry and under optimal processing conditions it has proved to be an effective

method to obtain several products. Fruit juice spray drying has great economic

potential. The transformation of these products into powder particles implies in a

considerable reduction of volume and an effective method of prolonging shelf life,

besides presenting an excellent reconstitution quality, since the products are

difficultly submitted to temperatures above 100ºC (Torres et al., 2005). However,

fruit juice powders obtained by spray drying present problems in their functional

properties stickiness and solubility, making their packaging and utilization

substantially difficult. According to Bhandari et al. (1997) these problems are due to

the fact that the materials have high contents of low molecular weight sugar such as

fructose, glucose and sucrose that make drying difficult. According to Sebhatu et al.

(1994) fruit juice powder obtained by spray drying favor the yield of high sugar

content solids, mostly present in amorphous state. These sugars are very hygroscopic,

having an effect on the functional characteristics of the dehydrated material, mainly

its tendency to become sticky (stickiness) and forming high agglomerates. This

tendency to agglomeration may become accentuated as the amorphous state sugar

transforms into crystalline sugar through adsorption of small amounts of water.

Obtaining powders containing crystalline state sugars is of fundamental importance

for their stability. Such state is characterized by the fact that its component parts

20
(atoms, molecules or ions) are arranged into the so-called spatial nets, with the

distances between the atoms of a crystal of any concrete material being constant and

characteristic of that material. According to Rosenberg (1982) a macrocrystal is

constituted by three-dimensional repetition of a basic unit of atoms, ions or molecules,

geometrically arranged. According to Foust et al. (1980) a crystal is a very organized

configuration of atoms or molecules or ions displayed in tridimensional spatial nets.

The glassy or amorphous state is characterized by a disorderly molecule state presenting

a metastable configuration, since a small energy gain will lead to a more stable state,

i.e., liquid or crystalline. However, on a kinetic level, the glassy state is considered a

more stable state (Genin and René, 1995). According to Goff (1992) the glassy or

amorphous state is characterized as a liquid with high viscosity of 1012 to 1014 Pa. s,

which flows at a very slow molecular diffusion velocity. An amorphous solid

substance does not have a natural geometric shape and a regular internal structure,

with its particles being distributed irregularly as in the liquid substances. This is the

reason why the amorphous solid bodies are considered as molten liquids, mainly

characterized by the lack of a clear fusion temperature. Thus, sugar crystallization

induction during drying through chemical substances or physical methods, may make

the dehydrated powders more stable in their functional properties. In another study,

Chauca et al. (2005) used dehydration-spray to obtain powders from sugar-rich foods

such as fruit juices and extracts. As the cellulose concentration rises in the solution,

the stickiness and solubility of the final product decrease. This fact may occur because

the cellulose addition caused a certain effect on the powder microstructure, therefore

influencing its functional properties.

Osmotic dehydration is an important process used in the food industry

and in the last years a lot of scientific studies about processing of fruits and

21
vegetables, meat and fish (Torreggiani, 1993). The process defined by Raoult-Wack

(1994) as dewatering impregnation soaking in concentrated solutions. It consists in

the immersion of the product into a concentrated solution (i.e. sugar, salt, sorbitol,

glycerol), generating a partially dehydrated and impregnated product. Three

simultaneous mass transfer phenomena occur: an important water flow from the

product to the solution; a solute transfer from the solution to the product; and a minor

transfer of product’s own solutes (sugars, organic acids, minerals and vitamins) to the

concentrated solution (Raoult-Wack, 1994). Osmotic dehydration rates depend on

several variables such as type of material (maturity state, shape, size) and

pretreatments (blanching, etc), as well as process conditions, as solution composition

and concentration, solution/product ratio, temperature and immersion time (Bohuon

and Raoult-Wack, 2002). The process results in products of intermediate moisture

contents (20-50%), being normally used as a pre-treatment to further processing, such

as air drying, freezing, freeze drying, pasteurization, canning, addition of preservative

agents and deep fat frying. The two most important advantages for its use as

pretreatment in a complementary process are: quality improvement and energy saving

(Raoult-Wack, 1994). Torres et al. (2005) used osmotic dehydration of mangoes and

mango samples were dehydrated till 30° Brix and were characterised as mechanical

properties, sugar and calcium gain, water loss and changes in sample mass during

treatments. Mechanical properties, measured through a compression test, were

affected by treatment conditions. The experiments were conducted by Gabriela et al.

(2004) on osmotic dehydration of mango on water loss (WL%), weight reduction

(WR%) and solute (sugar) gain (SG%) in Tommy Atkins variety of mango slices,

used as a pre-treatment to a further chips production by deep fat frying process. Water

loss and solute uptake are desirable for the final product quality, because reduction of

22
the initial moisture content and the presence of sugar minimizes the residence time

and oil incorporation during the frying process. The process variables studied were

time (40-120 minutes) and temperature (30-50oC), using a central composite design.

The temperature and process time affected the mass transfer phenomena in the

osmotic dehydration studies. The models used to fit data presented significant

regression (p<0.01) with correlation coefficients R2 of 0.81, 0.89 and 0.93 for WR,

WL and SG, respectively. Under typical operating conditions used for fruit and

vegetables (30-50°C, atmospheric pressure), mass transfer mainly occurs during the

first two hours; then mass transfer rates become progressively slower until water loss

stops, whereas solute gain continues to increase steadily (Raoult-Wack, 1994). The

temperature positively affected the water loss as well as the solute gain. The rate of

mass exchange increases with temperature, and temperatures above 60°C modify the

tissue characteristics favoring impregnation phenomena (Torreggiani, 1993). Similar

effects of lower oil uptake in a osmotic dehydration pre-treatment were observed by

Krokida et al. (2001). A previous study, comparing the vacuum and atmospheric

pressure osmotic dehydration as pretreatment to produce mango chips by deep fat frying,

showed that despite the vacuum process presented more efficiency in the dehydration

(water loss), the greater solute gain obtained at atmospheric pressure allows better

quality characteristics of the chips, such as lower moisture content, greater luminosity

and sensory preference. So, the solute uptake caused a desirable effect in this kind of

combined processes (Torezan et al., 2004).

Osmotic dehydration is used for water removal from fruits. The quality

of the osmotic dehydration depends on different factors such as concentration,

dehydrating agent, temperature, time of immersion, nature of fruits and the surface

displayed to the osmotic exchange. The cell wall and the type of sugar used as

23
osmotic agent can influence the phenomenon of mass transference. The efficiency of

the process of osmotic dehydration can be quantified by the values of loss of weight

and solid incorporation. Martim et al., (2008) reported that the mangoes were cut into

cubes of 1 cm size and taken for treatment with 50% sucrose (SAC), 50% sorbitol

(SOR) or 50% commercial stevia (STV), with 1% calcium chloride and pH kept at 4.0

with citric acid, for 2 h at 50°C. The ratio of fruit:solution used in all the treatments

was 1:3. The treatment using composed solution with stevia was found not to be

efficient due to the low solid gain and reduced loss of water. A bigger loss of water

and a bigger loss of weight of the mango during the osmotic dehydration were

observed for the treatment with sorbitol, while the biggest solid gain was obtained in

the treatment with sucrose.

Solar energy, a form of sustainable energy, has a great potential for a

wide variety of applications because it is abundant and accessible, especially for

countries located in the tropical region. Drying process is one of the prominent

techniques for utilization of solar energy. Jamradloedluk and Wiriyaumpaiwong,

(2009) conducted research work on a forced convection solar drying of osmotically

pretreated fruits viz. mango, guava, and pineapple. Drying kinetics, color and

hardness of the final products obtained from solar drying were investigated and

compared with those obtained from open air-sun drying. Desorption isotherms of the

osmosed fruits were also examined and five mathematical models were used to fit the

desorption curves. Solar drying provided higher drying rate than natural sun drying.

Color of glacé fruit processed by solar drying was more intense, indicated by lower

value of lightness and higher value of yellowness, than that processed by sun drying.

Hardness of the products dehydrated by both drying methods, however, was not

significantly different (p>0.05). Validation of the mathematical models developed

24
showed that the GAB model was most effective for describing desorption isotherms

of osmotically pretreated mango and pineapple whereas Peleg’s model was most

effective for describing desorption isotherms of osmotically pretreated guava

(Jamradloedluk and Wiriyaumpaiwong, 2009).

Nutritional values of mango

The mango fruit has a high nutritive value and it is the most popular

fruit of the orient and has been called King of the fruits, but also “a ball of tow soaked

in turpentine” (Samson, 1986). Fruits from seedling trees may have an unpleasant

aroma. On the other hand, fruit from the better cultivars has melting yellow flesh,

good flavour and a fine aroma. People tasting it for the first time often compare it to

the peach. In many places in the tropics it is the chief food fruit of the summer

months, and may be considered the tropical equivalent of the apple in the diet. The

fruit can be used for some purpose in all stages of development from the tiny

imperfectly set fruits, that shed profusely on to develop beyond the initial stage, to the

fully mature ones. At the first windfall stages the fruit is gathered for pickles and

chutney coming as it does as the first material after the dry season. The tender green

fruits are also chopped up for use in lieu of tamarind in various dishes where an acid

flavour is desired. The tender leaves are used for salads. No other fruit compares in

flavour with the mango when ripe. Each variety has some distinguishing characteristic

and difference in flavour from the others. The ripe fruit blends well with dairy

products sliced and served with cream and sugar, or with ice cream, the combination

is beyond description. Mango fruit contain amino acids, carbohydrates, fatty acids,

minerals, organic acids, proteins, and vitamins (Litz, 1997).

25
 During the ripening process, the fruit is initially acidic, astringent and

rich in ascorbic acid (vitamin C). Ripe mangoes contain moderate amount of vitamin

C but are fairly rich in pro-vitamin A and vitamin B1 and B2 (Tettey, 2008). The pulp

of the mango fruit contains as much vitamins as butter. Fruit acidity is primarily due

to the presence of malic and citric acids. In addition, oxalic, malonic, succinic,

pyruvic, adipic, galacturonic, glucuronic, tartaric, glycolic and mucic acids are also

present. Following fruit set, starch accumulates in the mesocarp. Free sugars including

fructose and sucrose generally increase during ripening, however, the sucrose content

increases three to fourfold due to hydrolysis of starch. Tettey (2008) studied the

effects of packaging types and storage time on the sensory and nutritional qualities of

solar and gas dried mango fruits. His results showed that certain nutritional and

sensory properties were significantly maintained as compared to control. Significant

effect in maintaining nutritional and sensory qualities was found as compared to

control, potassium metabisulphite pretreatment was more preferred for solar drying of

the two mango varieties. Gas dried mango fruits had significant effect in maintaining

nutritional and sensory qualities as compared to the solar dried mango fruits with no

pretreatment for both mango varieties and the gas dried samples were more preferred

to the solar dried ones. The packaging material and storage time significantly affected

the moisture, microbial load, vitamin-C and pro-vitamin-A, during storage. No

significant differences were recorded between the two mango varieties used on all the

nutritional and sensory attributes monitored with the exception of pro-vitamin A and

vitamin C contents for solar dried pretreated mango fruits slices. Torres et al. (2005)

noted that calcium gain reflected the mechanical changes and the nutritional values of all

the mango samples were markedly changed under different dehydration conditions and

techniques. Dehydrated Tommy Atkins mangoes were evaluated for flavor,

26
appearance, colour, total soluble solids (TSS), total titratable acidity (TTA), ascorbic

acid (AA) contents, O2 and CO2 concentration in the packages. Shelf life based on

visual appearance was 14 days, with the products showing good appearance and

agreeable aroma. The TTA content in chunks packaged in PP cups or PET trays were

reduced during the storage, and with the color changing from light yellow to dark

yellow. The percentages of O2 and CO2 in the packages were stabilized after 2-4

hours, and the atmosphere had 11-17% and 1-10% of them (Donadon and Durigon,

2004). Reduction of the initial moisture content and the presence of sugar minimizes

the residence time and oil incorporation during the frying process. The process

variables studied were time (40-120 minutes) and temperature (30-50◦C), using a

central composite design. The temperature and process time affected the mass transfer

phenomena in the osmotic dehydration studies (Gabriela et al., 2004). The

dehydrating foods reduce the moisture in them to levels that inhibit the microbial

growth that causes them to rot. Pre-treating some foods before drying preserves their

flavor, color, and nutrients; prevents microbial contamination; and prolongs their shelf

life. Dehydration reduces weight, an important consideration when shipping and

eliminates the need for refrigeration, making it easier to pre-mix retail products. The

research focuses on commercial-scale food dehydration and equipment. It also outlines

solar dehydration, a low-cost method for some small-scale operations (Gabriela et al.,

2004).

A substantial quantity of ripe mangoes are converted into pulp for use

in jams, jellies, nectars, squashes, juices, paper/chips, mango toffees, ice creams,

milk shake, fruit cocktail and in topping products (Hussain et al., 2003). Therefore,

most of the fruit processing industry in Pakistan preserves mango pulp for the

manufacture of mango products all around the year. Macro and trace elements play a

27
significant role for maintaining health in humans (Anon., 1996). However, non

essential trace elements like Pb, Cd, Cr and Ni are non biodegradable thus, persist

everywhere in the environment. These metal elements have the ability to deposit in

various body organs which poses a great threat to the human health (Singh et al., 2004

and Chen et al., 2005). Agricultural soils irrigated with waste water get severely

contaminated with heavy metals. Crops grown on such soils can accumulate a

significant amount of heavy metals in different tissues (Khairiah et al., 2004;

Chojnacha et al., 2005; Muchuweti et al., 2006). Rapid industrialization and

urbanization in the developing countries in the last decades have resulted in a

significant increase in environmental pollution. The soils, the plants and the products

made thereof have been shown to be highly contaminated with heavy metals

(Mazurek et al., 1995; Motylera and Sosnina,1996; Hussain et al., 2003; Zahoor et

al., 2003) and this concern has created a certain apprehension in the public regarding

the safety of the food, they consume every day (Radwan and Salama, 2006). Emission

of heavy metals from the industries and vehicles may result in the deposition of such

metals on the surface of the fruits and vegetables (Geert et al., 1989; Ozores-Hampton

et al., 1997; Jassir et al., 2005) and contaminate by entering the food during industrial

processing and packaging (Tsoumbaris and Tsoukali-Papadopoulou, 1994). Since,

these heavy metals might seriously damage human health e.g., decrease in

immunological defense, neurological disorders, intrauterine growth retardation,

impaired psycho-social behavior, disabilities associated with malnutrition and a high

prevalence of upper gastrointestinal cancer (Arora et al., 2008) hence, regular survey

and monitoring programs of heavy metal contamination in food stuff were mainly

centered for decades in developed countries (Jorhem and Sundstroem, 1993; Milacic

and Kralj, 2003; Saracoglu et al., 2004) but no substantial research have been

28
conducted to address this issue in the developing countries (Zahoor et al., 2003).

Consequently, there are limited data available in Pakistan to reflect the levels of heavy

metal contamination in most fruits like mangoes.

Chantanawarangoon (2000) found that processing treatment of mango

with 1% CaCl2+1% ascorbic acid + 0.5% Lcysteine for 2 min approximately doubled the

reduced ascorbic acid (RAA) and total ascorbic acid (TAA) concentrations in mango

cubes. During 10 days of storage at 5°C, there were no significant changes in RAA,

dehydroascorbic acid (DHAA), and TAA concentrations of mango cubes in control

and those treated with 1% CaCl2 and stored in CA. In contrast, RAA and TAA

contents of mango cubes treated with 1% CaCl2 + 1% ascorbic acid + 0.5% L-

cysteine and kept in air or CA declined, while DHAA increased during storage.

However, the decreases of RAA and TAA and the increase of DHAA were slower in

those mango cubes which were stored in CA. After 17 days at 5°C, the amounts of

TAA of mango cubes treated with 1% CaCl2 + 1% ascorbic acid + 0.5% L-cysteine

and stored in air decreased by about 29% of initial amount while TAA of the mango

cubes treated with the same solution and stored in CA decreased by 18% of initial

amounts. The results indicated that CA (2% O2 + 10% CO2) was effective in

maintaining TAA by slowing the oxidation of RAA to DHAA. Therefore, the loss of

RAA during storage due to the hydrolysis of DHAA to 2,3-diketogulonic acid after

oxidation of RAA to DHAA was retarded under CA storage (Chantanawarangoon,

2000).

Gil et al. (2006) reported that fresh-cut Ataulfo mango cubes

maintained good visual quality and there were no significant changes in soluble solids

content, titratable acidity, and pH for up to 9 days at 5oC. The initial Vitamin C

content was 80 mg per 100 g fresh weight and there was a loss of about 10% during

29
the 9 days at 5oC. No losses in total carotenoids content were noted until day 9 when

the loss was about 25%. There was a slight decrease in total phenolics after 3 days at

5oC, but no subsequent losses were found between day 3 and day 9 at 5oC. In general,

fresh-cut mangoes visually spoil before any significant nutrient losses occur (Gil et

al., 2006). Robles-Sanchez et al. (2007) concluded that low temperature and

controlled or modified atmospheres can preserve quality and antioxidant capacity of

fresh-cut mangoes for up to 10 days.

There exist hundreds of mango varieties in India. Mangoes both ripe

and unripe are good sources of vitamin A and vitamin C. Both vitamin A and C are

antioxidants and help to prevent free radical injury and thus reduce certain types of

disorders. Ripe mango provides a good source of calories. Good mango varieties

contain over 20 per cent of total soluble solids (TSS) in which non-reducing sugar is

more than the reducing sugar. Ascorbic acid content also varies from 3.2 to 6.3 mg /

100g pulp (CSIR, 1962). Due to its high β-carotene content, it plays an important role

in alleviating Vitamin A deficiency. It is estimated that 0.22 per cent of mangoes

produced in the world is only utilized for processing (Nanjundaswamy, 1998). Soy

protein isolate (SPI) is highly digestible (92 - 100%) and contains all essential amino

acids (Setchell et al.,1984). Mendez et al. (2002) reviewed five studies with soy based

infant formulas as the sole sources of nutrition for up to 13 months and found that

growth and development was equivalent to babies fed with cow’s milk formula or

human milk. The high protein content and good nutritional quality make the SPI an

excellent ingredient to increase the protein content and nutritional value of foods to

which they are added. According to CFTRI, (1993) the SPI with its high protein

content blends beautifully for incorporation in to supplementary foods. Cereal grains

are the main source of energy in diets of people of sub-continent contributing 70-80

30
percent of daily energy intake of majority of Indians. Wheat is one of the major cereal

grain commonly consumed in North India. About 2-8 million tones are used by

baking industry for bread, biscuits and noodles (Bakshi et al., 1998). Germinated

wheat flour is more nutritious containing thiamine, riboflavin and vitamin-C. In recent

years, consumers have become more health conscious in their food choices but have

less time to prepare healthful meals. As a result the market demand for minimally

processed or lightly processed foods has rapidly increased (Bansal et al., 1998).

Food enrichment and fortification is the most cost effective and

sustainable strategy to address the problem of micronutrient malnutrition. Matured

mango, variety of Banganpally was cut into pieces of one cm thickness and dried

under three different methods of drying. The obtained mango fruit pieces were

powdered separately and subjected to organoleptic evaluation under five point

hedonic scales by a panel of thirty judges. The nutrient analyses were carried out for

the highly accepted solar dried mango fruit powder. The developed mango fruit bar

using solar dried mango powder enriched with soy protein isolate and germinated

wheat flour were subjected to organoleptic evaluation and nutrient analyses and it was

compared with that of the control mixes. The developed mango fruit bar was found to

be rich in micronutrient and it can be given as a supplement for the micronutrient

malnutrition (Sangeetha and Lakshmi, 2007). Effect of osmotic drying on mango

slices of different ripeness, subsequently frozen and stored at -18oC during 20 weeks

were studied by Rincon and Kerr (2010). Osmotic treatments decreased moisture

content, titratable acidity, vitamin-C levels, lightness and firmness, while increasing

total soluble solids. Subsequent freezing resulted in further decreases in acidity,

vitamin-C and firmness. However, samples treated with higher concentrations of

sucrose showed less change in properties during frozen storage. Initially less ripe fruit

31
could be softened somewhat by osmotic treatment, with firmness and cohesiveness

maintained through frozen storage. Treated less ripe fruit also had lower acid while

picking up sugar and had higher vitamin-C levels than more mature fruit. Similarly,

Maldonado et al. (2010) studied kinetics associated with rehydrating dehydrated

mangoes at three temperatures: 25, 40, and 60°C. Besides, they studied how

rehydration was affected by pretreating the fruit with osmodehydration in either

sucrose or glucose before it was thermally dehydrated. They showed that rehydration

can be interpreted by Fickian diffusion and that the effective water diffusion

coefficient is larger at 40°C than at either 25 or 60°C. Consequently, during

rehydration of untreated samples at 40°C, the weight gain, water gain, and loss of

solids attain optimal values. They found that the rehydration kinetics of mango was

not affected by osmodehydration pretreatments in sucrose. However, pretreatment in

glucose significantly improved rehydration; for example, the effective diffusion

coefficients of the glucose-treated samples were about twice as large as those of the

untreated samples.

Effect of drying techniques

In Asia, the mango is commonly preserved in the dried form, but

conventionally dried mangos present undesirable tough texture, poor color and

cooked flavor with a loss of nutritive value, which reduce its economic importance

(Tedjo et al., 2002). Recently, much attention has been given to the quality of

dehydrated products. Drying methods and physicochemical changes that occur during

dehydration seem to affect color, texture, density, porosity and sorption characteristics

of dehydrated product (Abbot, 1999; Gabas et al., 1999; Lewicki and Lukaszuk, 2000;

Krokida et al., 2000; Telis et al., 2000). Pre-treatment by using osmotic dehydration

has been used on various food products and its main advantages are connected with

32
retention of quality attributes, such as inhibition of enzymatic browning, retention of

natural color without addition of sulfites and higher retention of volatile compound

during further dehydration. It is a water removal process, in which pieces of fruits or

vegetables are immersed in a hypertonic solution. It is desirable that the osmotic

solution used has a low water activity (aw) and a good taste (Lerici et al., 1985). After

that any drying process can be applied in the food product. Romero et al. (2004)

investigated the effect of dehydration on mango var. Haden under two different

drying methods: fluidized bed and convective tray dryer. The dried mangoes obtained

by tray dryer are able to dissipate the compression stress faster than the mangoes dried

by fluidized bed dryer. It was observed that both conditions of pre-treatment and dryer

type can affect the shrinkage coefficient of the mangoes. They presented some

equations to predict the shrinkage coefficient as a function of moisture content of the

mangoes. As expected, the minimum fluidizing velocity for pretreated cubes of

mangoes was higher than the air velocity for the samples without pretreatment.

Studies described the effects of freezing preservation on mango cultivars Lippens and

Smith, using frozen mango slices showed strongly anionic species that did not appear

in the Smith pattern. The activity of these was the most stable to low temperatures,

and is the possible cause of the major resistance of Lippens peroxides to freezing and

frozen storage. Thus the Smith cultivar may be more suitable for freezing

preservation. In another study, Moyano and Berna, (2002) evaluated Tommy-Atkins

mango pulp against dehydration methods using two processing methods (ground pulp

and sliced pulp conditioned), covering in polyethylene plastic bags and polystyrene

trays with polyvinyl chloride film, frozen and stored at 18ºC. The ground pulp had

reasonable aspects until 20 week while sliced pulp had reasonable aspects for 18

weeks, because it showed soft texture after this time; the content of soluble solids

33
increased and the vitamin-C decreased in both preservation forms; the pulp firmness

in the sliced pulp varied with the storage time. In general the appearance, texture and

flavor were affected by the storage time. Moyano and Berna, (2002) evaluated the

effect of combined processes of osmotic dehydration and freezing on papaya pieces

preservation and responses were seen for sensory evaluation, instrumental colour,

instrumental texture, water activity, drip loss, and reducing and total sugar. The first

experimental design selected fast freezing as the best process to preserve the texture of

the fruit. From the second experimental design, under fast freezing, were obtained in

60 min for the osmotic dehydration time.

Food engineers do not often realize that drying of foods and biological

materials is a problem of preserving or transforming structures rather than one of

removing water. Some unique product properties depend on the structure of dried

foods: dehydration and instant properties, flavour retention and sensorial attributes

(including colour and texture). The role of structure extends in biochemical and

pharmaceutical products to the molecular level and plays key role in viability of

desiccated plants and organisms and/or specific activity of dried biomolecules (Singh

et al., 2004). Most novel visualisation methods are non-intrusive permitting image and

data acquisition in real time under simulated or current drying conditions. An

emerging field of work is that of quantification of structural features using advanced

image processing techniques and fractal analysis. Meaningful structure-properties

relationships of dried foods can then be derived from their analysis that might

contribute to the design of new and specific structures to improve food functionality

(Romero et al., 2004). Combination of the microstructural approach and concepts

from food materials science should result in major advances in this important unit

operation and in tailoring product properties. Mango pulps were submitted to solar

34
drying processing after osmotic pre-treatment in order to obtain intermediate moisture

products. During all the processing and/or after obtaining the final product, it was

subjected to three kinds of evaluation, which were: analytic determinations (water

activity, pH, total acid, vitamin-C, soluble solids, moisture, and total sugar, reducing

sugar), microbiological analysis and sensorial tests. According to the results obtained,

these products have shown good stability regarding to microbiological and sensorial

features. Physico-chemical, microbiological and sensorial stability of mango pieces

was achieved through blanching using saturated vapor for 2 minutes. The mango

products processed, under these conditions, presented at 120 days storage moisture

content, water activity and pH in the range for fruit products with high moisture;

increasing in reduced sugars; high loss of SO2 (about 60%) and of vitamin-C;

decreased microbiological counting showing that the obstacles selection and their

intensities were capable to assure the microbiological stability of the product. The test

of acceptability showed that the mango preserved by combined methods had good

acceptability and that the averages of the attributes are similar to the results of sensory

tests mentioned in the literature (Pina et al., 2003). Changes in physical properties,

such as volume, porosity and bulk and particle density, which directly affect textural

attributes of the products have been studied considerably. Rocha et al. (2007)

proposed that correlating microstructure, texture measurements and sensory analysis

would be an attractive area to be exploited for drying processes of fruits and

vegetables. Although this is a wide working field, much is still to be done. Osmotic

dehydration process is used to build the drying curves of the pretreated fruit through

osmotic dehydration with and without vacuum and to evaluate the physical chemistry

and microbiological characteristics of the products. A greater darkening was observed

in the treated product with osmosis under vacuum in the osmosis processes and of the

35
drying, while the texture did not present difference among the two treatments. Another

important fact was the absence of microbiological contamination of the two products at

the end of the drying process, being the methodology effective in the prevention of

the development of microbiological spoilage (De Sousa et al., 2003).

The studies of Assis et al. (2004) showed that high concentrations of

Ca and Mg as well as low ratios N/Ca and K/Ca, both in the flesh and in the skin,

were efficient to prevent physiological disorders in mango fruits; the nutrient

concentration in the skin may show better condition of physiological disorders than

the nutrient concentration in fruit flesh; and the TSS values and TSS/TTA ratio in

fruits with symptoms were much higher than in fruits without symptoms, due to over

ripening of flesh tissues. In some studies, dehydration-spray drying is a highly

recommended process to obtain powders from sugar-rich foods such as fruit juices

and extracts. These powders are very hygroscopic materials what make them very

susceptible to the functional property of stickiness. A high sugar content solution,

when spray dried, yields products with a high degree of amorphous sugars (Milton et

al., 2004).

Comparative effect of different drying methods on the physico-

chemical properties of processed mango has been investigated in many studies. Three

drying methods (open sun drying, visqueen-covered solar dryer and polyethylene-

covered solar dryer) were used by Chidavaenzi et al. (2001) and differences in

vitamin retention and loss associated with the three drying methods were assessed.

The fresh cowpea leaf β-carotene and vitamin C content was 140.9 and 164.3

mg/100g DM respectively and decreased with drying. Open sun drying method

caused the greatest β-carotene and vitamin C loss (58% and 84% respectively), while

36
the visqueen-covered solar dryer caused the least loss (34.5% and 71% respectively).

Three solar drying methods caused significant loss of pro-vitamin A and vitamin C in

dried fruits and vegetables. However, open sun drying causes the most loss and the

visqueen-covered solar dryer the least, making the later a probable better drying

technology for fruit and vegetable preservation. The drying technologies should be

improved to enhance vitamin retention. Dried mango slices were a common snack

product in Southeast Asian countries. Mashing the carotenoid-containing mango flesh

and drying the puree to mango leather is a promising alternative to utilize even over-

mature or small fruits and fruits with irregular size as low-cost raw materials. The

experiments of Azeredo et al. (2005) evaluated the stability of mango cubes packed in

low-density polyethylene bags and stored at room temperature during three months.

The combination of hurdles on the final product (water activity, 0.96; pH, 3.99;

potassium sorbate content, 396 mg.kg-1) was not effective to make it shelf stable,

since the count of yeasts and molds increased. The cubes underwent pH reduction and

color losses during storage. Furthermore, the acceptance of the product, as well as, the

mango flavor intensity, decreased significantly with storage time. Jaya and Das

(2005) investigated the vacuum-dried mango powder produced from mango pulp and

mango powder was packed and stored and found that the shelf life of the powder

predicted from this consideration and the water activity moisture content relationship

was 114.68 days, whereas the actual shelf life was 105 days. The color change of the

powder during storage followed reaction kinetics with a rate constant of 0.038 per

day. Chidavaenzi et al. (2001) reported that juices were spray dried and observed that

various processing parameters such as outlet air temperature, total solids and blend

proportions had a profound effect on the characteristics of the resultant powder. The

viscosity of blends increased with an increase in the mango juice proportion in the

37
blend. High acid content of the blends had no negative effect on thermal stability of

the blends before and after spray drying. Increments in the inclusion of mango solids

had a positive effect on the resultant yield of powder. An increase in solid content of

the blends up to 35% resulted in a steep increase in yield, which was adjudged as the

optimal total solids for drying. Further increase in total solids of the blends resulted in

reduced yields. Solar drying is a simple but efficient method to preserve fruits even in

remote areas where the lack of sufficient infrastructure constrains successful fresh

marketing.

Respiratory and storage behavior of fresh cut Tommy Atkins mango

was studied by Mencarelli and Tonutti (2005) they concluded that yield of Tommy

Atkins mango to produce fresh cut product was 48.09±0.95%; increase of the

respiration rate of both mango samples was verified one hour after the preparation,

followed by stabilization at 3.76 and 8.07 ml CO2/kg h, respectively. The percentage

of O2 in packages was stable in all treatments, 15-20% in PVC trays, 18-20% in PET

tray. The percentage of CO2 was steady around 1.5-2.5%. The products lost fresh

mass during the storage, from 0.06% to 0.30% for PET trays and from 0.15% to

1.61% for trays covered with PVC. The appearance was considered appropriate for

commercialization until the 13th day, whereas product from mangoes ripened with

application of ethylene was for 11 days, presenting browning in the external surface.

The naturally ripened mango presented the best flavor and consumer preference in

relation to the mango ripened with application of ethylene for 11 days of storage.

Corzo et al. (2010) described thin-layer drying of green and half-ripe

mango slices and determined the water effective diffusion coefficient (De). De values

ranged from 1.76×10-10 to 3.14×10-10 m2/s and from 2.30×10-10 to 3.25×10-10 m2/s

38
for green and half-ripe mangos slices, respectively. Barati and Esfahani (2011)

described the temperature and moisture evolutions of mango slab and studied

procedure of temperature and moisture predictions. Mango fruit dehydration can be

easily simulated with implementation of the present advanced analytical technique at

different operating conditions. Moreover, the temperature and moisture history of

mango slice are presented for varying values of the drying air factors counting

temperature, velocity, relative humidity and initial food temperature. This work

confirms that notable time can be saved without sacrificing accuracy by applying

proposed model. This method is expected to be useful for fast and accurate drying

simulation. The agreement between published experimental results and model

predictions is remarkable and an accurate simulation of experimental drying curves is

obtained.

Mango varieties

Mango fruits are consumed locally and exported, thus earning the

country foreign exchange and also as a potential source of household income for the

resource poor farmer. In Kenya research on mango has been accorded a high priority

under the horticulture program (KARI, 2008) which has concentrated on varietal

introduction for high yielding varieties. Gathambiri et al. (2006) reported that the

introduced mango varieties have different qualities that are suitable for either fresh

consumption or processing. During post harvest handling of mango at least 40-45% of

fruit is lost (KARI, 1994). Mechanical damage, pests and diseases and immature

harvesting mainly causes the losses and also during peak harvesting periods due to

excess fruits in the markets. Mango fruits are processed into various products for

instance chutney, pickles, pulp and dried mango chips. Processing is considered as an

extension of storage life or improving the value of raw produce thus reducing

39
postharvest losses. Drying of mangoes using solar drier extends their shelf-life for up

to six months thus ensuring their availability during off-season (Gathambiri et al.,

2006).

Marin and Cano (1992) investigated freezing preservation on mango

cultivars Lippens and Smith, using frozen mango slices and cultivar Lippens

peroxides to freezing and frozen storage; and Smith cultivar may be more suitable for

freezing preservation. Similarly, Tovar et al. (2000) evaluated mango variety Kent

slices to determine soluble solids of slices and found no similar trend as whole fruits

remained unchanged at their initial values. Titratable acidity increased and pH

decreased in all the slices and were in turn, different from the control fruit. Color

parameters indicated loss of yellow pigments and browning. Decay occurred between

days 5 and 7 of storage in slices that were stored at 23°C. Tommy Atkins, Haden and

Kent mangoes at physiological maturity were washed, peeled, cut in slices (2 x 2 cm)

and processed 30° and 50° Brix sucrose syrup. The products, kept in jars, was

evaluated for overall appearance, color, aroma, taste and texture using a 5 point

Hedonic scale (5- excellent; 4- very good; 3- good, 2- bad; 1- very bad). No

significant preference among the mango in syrup 30° and 50° Brix for all cultivars

was observed. Mango in syrup 30° cultivar ‘Kent’ showed a significant difference for

appearance. Since that, cultivar ‘Kent’ was the least indicated as mango in syrup

(Lima et al., 2004). Azeredo et al. (2005) evaluated Tommy Atkins mangoes cubes

osmotically dehydrated under stirring at 46◦C in a sucrose solution and found that

combination of hurdles on the final product (water activity, 0.96; pH, 3.99; potassium

sorbate content, 396 mg.kg-1) was not effective to make it shelf stable, since the count

of yeasts and molds increased. The cubes underwent pH reduction and color losses

40
during storage. Furthermore, the acceptance of the product, as well as, the mango

flavor intensity, decreased significantly with storage time.

Dried mangoes are a promising and healthy snack product for regional

as well as export markets.The climatic conditions during the peak mango season in

Thailand offer best opportunities for solar drying. Five untreated Thai mango

cultivars, i.e.Kaew, Okrong, Chok Anan, Nam Dokmai and Rad were investigated for

their suitability for solar drying. A solar tunnel dryer type Hohenheim with

photovoltaic-powered fans was used for the drying process which was finished within

one sunny day. Nutritive and sensory quality aspects such as β-carotene content,

provitamin A, colour, texture and flavour were evaluated. The cultivars Kaew and

Nam Dokmai showed best results for all quality characteristics (Pott et al., 2004). In a

recent study, Akhtar et al. (2010) evaluated the physico-chemical attributes and heavy

metal content of 4 popular mango varieties viz., Dusahri, Chaunsa, Ratol and Langra

grown in Multan (MUL), Rahim Yar Khan (RYK) and Mir Pur Khas (MPK), three

major districts of Pakistan. Ash content, total soluble solid (TSS), pH and titratable

acidity significantly varied among these varieties. Langra, collected from MUL

showed the highest ash % with relatively lower pH and TSS. The results indicated a

substantial build-up of macro (Na, K, Ca, P) and micro (Fe, Zn, Ni, Cr, Cd, and Pb)

elements in the selected mango varieties. Mango varieties collected from MUL

showed a higher concentration of these metals as compared to other regions which

may be attributed to irrigation from industrial effluents and sewage water. This study

concludes that the levels of heavy metals in tested Pakistani mango varieties are

higher than the safe limits laid down by World Health Organization (WHO) and need

regular monitoring both at the farm and the table. Chatterjee et al. (2005) determined

physico-chemical characters of 13 mango hybrids (Amrapalli, Mallika,

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Prabhashankar, Mahmud Bahar, Alfazli, Sunder Langra, Neelgoa, Neeluddin,

Neelashan, Ratna, Arka Puneet, Arka Anmol and Langra (control). The greatest fruit

weight (385.10 g) was recorded in Alfazli, but the maximum fruit length (10.22 cm)

was measured in Mallika. The greatest fruit breadth (6.46 cm) was recorded in

Langra. The highest stone percentage (25.40%) was found in Alfazli, while the

maximum pulp percentage (72.91) was recorded in Amrapali. The highest stone/pulp

ratio (4.63) was observed in Langra. The highest (25.00%) total soluble solids (TSS)

was recorded in Amrapali and the lowest (18.43%) in Neelgoa. The maximum acidity

(0.265%) was obtained in Neelashan and the minimum (0.170%) in Prabhashankar.

The maximum TSS/acid ratio (158.23) was found in Amrapali and the minimum

(72.72) in Neelashan. The highest ascorbic acid (42.82 g/100 g) was recorded in

Langra and the lowest (19.13 g/100 g) in Alfazli. Reducing sugar was highest (6.77%)

in Sunder Langra and the lowest (4.15%) in Mahmud Bahar. Amrapali was superior

to all hybrids and the control in terms of non-reducing sugar (13.99%). The highest

total sugar content (19.86%) was recorded in Amrapali and the lowest (13.93%) in

Mahmud Bahar.

Different mango varieties could have difference in physico-chemical

characteristics such as cvs. Kesar and Alphanso; their juice was determined for

physical, chemical and sensory evaluations in terms of recovery of juice, clarity, pH,

total soluble solids and colour but was inferior in aroma, taste and turbidity.

Increasing the levels of pectinolytic enzyme led to an appreciable increase in juice

yield up to 2.0% level beyond which the increase was not appreciable. Addition of

pectinolytic enzyme led to a decrease in TSS, pH and acidity of extracted juice. An

increase in sugar concentration of the extracted juice was also noticed (Hebber and

Mehta, 2005). Similarly, in a recent study, Villa et al. (2010) studied drying kinetics

42
of Ataulfo mango slices for thicknesses, air drying temperature, maturity degree and

non-isotropic mass diffusion. The 2D temperature and moisture distributions inside

the slice were predicted by using a theoretical model. The water effective diffusion

coefficient, the convective heat and mass transfer coefficients, the drying curves and

the center temperature were got by the experimental model. A parametric study was

carried out in the ranges of air drying temperatures from 50 to 70°C, slices with

thickness of 2-5 mm and maturity degree from 13.2 to 22°Brix. It was found from the

experimental results that slices of Ataulfo mango presented an isotropic behavior with

an uncertainty of 2.47%. The drying rate reduced in 4.5% with 1 mm thickness

increase, and decreased in 8.0% for each 1°Brix increase.

Mango processed products

The mango is much appreciated by its nutritional and sensorial

characteristics, but is highly perishable and requires specific techniques for its

conservation and marketing Bezerra (2010). The drying of fruit pulp to powder is

difficult mainly because of low molecular weight sugars such as fructose, glucose,

sucrose and acids such as citric acid present in the pulp. These sugars and acids

exhibit low glass transition temperatures (Roos, 1995), and because of their low

molecular weight, the molecular mobility of the materials is high when the

temperature is just above the glass transition temperature. Because of the short

duration of time that is normally available for drying, dried sugars and acids attain the

amorphous state (Masters, 1985). The glass transition temperature of a food is the

temperature at which an amorphous food polymer is transformed into the viscous

liquid or the rubbery state from the solid amorphous state. A dramatic change in

molecular mobility and physical properties takes place at the glass transition

43
temperature (Slade and Levine, 1991). The temperature at which amorphous

substances exhibit stickiness is about 10–20oC higher than the glass transition

temperature (Bhandari et al., 1997). Because low glass transition temperatures

increase the stickiness, it is important to increase the glass transition temperature of

fruit powders by adding high molecular weight materials such as maltodextrin and

lactose (Roos et al., 1996; Bhandari et al., 1997). The cause of stickiness is

plasticization of low molecular weight sugar present because of water sorption and

subsequent interparticle fusion. The sticky-point temperature is the temperature at

which caking is instantaneous with slow stirring. A sticky-point temperature

apparatus developed was used by several others (Jaya et al., 2002). The test assesses

the influence of temperature and moisture content on powder cohesion and is

applicable to nearly dry powders, which form immobile liquid bridges of water

present in the particles (Papadakis and Babu, 1992). When the stickypoint

temperature drops below room temperature, the food will develop stickiness (Roos,

1995). A relationship between moisture content and sticky-point temperature can be

developed by determining the sticky-point moisture content of foods at selected

storage temperatures and by selecting the sticky-point moisture content as the critical

moisture content, the quality storage life of food in the given storage environments

(Jaya et al., 2002) can be predicted. Also, the maximum storage temperature for a

food can be obtained from the sticky-point temperature and moisture content

relationship.

Powdered dehydrated products of fruit juice, soup, custard etc. require

protection against ingress of moisture and oxygen and the loss of volatile flavorings

and color. Powders are usually packed in heat-sealable laminates containing a layer or

layers of aluminum, such as aluminum foil-laminated polyethylene. Accelerated

44
storage involving high humidity and temperature such as 90% relative humidity (RH)

and 38 ± 2oC can be used for developing moisture ingress and storage time

relationships quickly (Papadakis and Babu, 1992). Using this relationship and the

critical moisture content, the shelf life of a dry food can be predicted. A model for

shelf life prediction that is based on sticky-point moisture content, permeability of the

packaging material and storage temperature will be useful for identifying the quality

storage life of fruit juice powder. Because the removal of moisture takes place in the

absence of oxygen in vacuum drying, oxidative degradation, e.g., browning, is very

small in the final product. Temperatures for vacuum drying are normally kept below

75oC (Pap, 1995). During vacuum drying, fruit juice/pulp droplets expand as the air

and water vapor in the juice/pulp develop a frothy, puffed structure. The expanded

structure provides large area to volume ratios, promoting rapid heat and mass transfer

and consequently, high rates of drying. Being a surface active agent, the glycerol

monostearate present in food reduces the surface tension in the food and promotes the

development of puffed structures when a vacuum is applied. The formation of the

puffed structure hastens the vacuum-drying process (Morgan et al., 1959). The

production of a free-flowing fruit powder is enhanced by the incorporation of food-

grade anticaking agents such as tricalcium phosphate added to fruit pulp. Jaya and

Das (2005) produced vacuum-dried mango powder from mango pulp through the

addition of glycerol monostearate and tricalcium phosphate at 0.015 kg each per kg

mango solids and maltodextrin at 0.62 kg per kg dry mango solids. The mango

powder was packed in aluminum foil-laminated pouches and stored in an accelerated

storage environment maintained at 90% relative humidity (RH) and 38 ± 2oC.

Hymavathi and Khader (2005) stored four types of ripe mango

powders prepared from three varieties of mangoes in two types of flexible packaging

45
material for six months and the nutrient and physicochemical changes were analysed

at regular periods. The Baneshan powder had the highest nutrient retention followed

by Baneshan+Suvarnarekha blend, and, Suvarnarekha and Suvarnarekha + Totapuri

blend. The physicochemical changes as well as nutrient changes were less pronounced

in the powders packaged in metallized polyester/polyethylene than the powders in the

polyester poly packaging. Bezerra (2010) evaluated the hygroscopic behavior of

powdered mango varieties Coite and Espada using adsorption isotherms and

physicochemical characteristics of these varieties of mango in nature and powder. The

results showed that the mango powders did not show significant difference in relation

to physicochemical characteristics, except for the pH value. On the contrary, in nature

samples only the pH didn´t show significant difference. The water content of the

monolayer were 0,09086 and 0,08857 (gx100g-1 dry matter) and relative average

errors were 6,76 and 2.86% for Coité and Espada, respectively.

One of the problems aggravating food shortages in the developing

countries is a lack of adequate inexpensive preservation methods for local foods to

ensure their supply throughout the year. Drum-drying technique has been used for

drying pulps or purees from fruits and vegetables. Nowadays, drum dryers are used in

the food industry for drying a variety of products such as milk product, breakfast

cereals, mashed potatoes and cooked starch. Liquid slurry or puree material is applied

as a thin layer onto the outer surface of heated drums, which occupies about three-

quarters of a revolution from the point of feeding. The product is then dried and

removed with a scraper (Young et al., 2002). The dried product is then converted into

uniform size flakes. The production of carotene rich powder from papaya to a

moisture content of 6 % was prepared by the earlier researchers. It has been reported

that the mango-cereal flakes with about 2% moisture content can be prepared from

46
ripe mango only after adjusting the acid content of the slurry. It has also been reported

that while preparing flakes, there should be minimum rupturing of starch which

otherwise would lead to pastiness when the mash is prepared (Lamberti et al., 2004).

This problem can be overcome by pre-cooking and cooling to allow retro gradation of

the amylase fraction of the starch, as for potato. Some researchers have studied the

storage properties of drum-dried white yam flakes and they have observed that the

high starch and low reducing sugar content of the yam indicate its suitability for

dehydration. The effect of drum speed and pre-cooking on nutritional value of cassava

flakes have been studied (Muzanila et al., 1998). The effect of cooking method and

drum rotation speed on quality of potato flakes dried in a drum dryer have been

reported vis-à-vis its production to study the starch transformation and structure

development at the time of preparation and after reconstitution (Lamberti et al.,

2004). In recent years, breakfast cereal flakes especially corn flakes, etc. has gained

lot of popularity in some sections of society, catering establishments due to their

convenience, acceptability and nutritive value. They are generally soaked in milk,

mixed with sugar before consuming. Rai and Chauhan, (2008) optimized processing

conditions of fruits while preparing drum dried papaya cereal flakes and its sensory

evaluation revealed that the 40 % consumers liked very much and 60 % liked

moderately. The various parameters such as moisture, color, acidity, non-enzymatic

browning, ascorbic acid, total sugar, reducing sugar and total carotenoids, were

analyzed at 20 days interval. The storage studies revealed that the papaya-cereal

flakes stored at 4 °C up to 60 days had better quality in terms of color, taste and

crispness and also the better retention of vitamin-C (59.19 %) and total carotenoids

(71.79 %) as compared to the papaya-cereal flakes stored at RT (room temperature)

47
and 37°C. The vitamin-C (43.33 %) and total carotenoids (35.56 %) retained slightly

more in the papaya-cereal flakes stored at 37°C as compared to RT stored flakes.

Consumption of natural bioactive compounds such as polyphenols,

carotenoids and dietary fiber offers health benefits including protection against

cardiovascular diseases, cancer and other degenerative diseases. Giraldo et al. (2006)

studied rehydration effects on mango liquid and water gain, solute loss and

compositional changes in the mango cubes. Mango cubes were candied using two

osmotic dehydration steps (applying vacuum impregnation in the first) plus air drying

at 35oC till 80% or 90% soluble solids was obtained. Four combinations of sucrose

solutions was used in the osmotic steps: 25-65, 45-45, 45-65 and 65-65. Rehydration

processes were carried out at 10oC for 8 h on sucrose solutions (0, 10, 20 and 30 deg

Bx). Samples using 45 deg Bx sucrose in the two osmotic steps showed the highest

solute retention at equilibrium. A higher drying level of candied fruit also implied the

greatest solute retention. Mango peel is a major by-product obtained during

processing of mango products such as mango pulp and amchur. Currently, mango peel

is discarded which contributes to environmental pollution (Ajila et al., 2008). Mango

peel incorporation into biscuits for improvement in the nutraceutical properties of the

biscuits was studied. The mango peel powder (MPP) showed an increase in water

absorption from 60 to 68%. The total dietary fiber content increased from 6.5 to

20.7% with a high proportion of soluble dietary fiber with incorporation of 20% MPP.

The content of polyphenols increased from 0.54 to 4.50 mg/g and carotenoid content

increased from 17 to 247 μg/g of biscuit with 20% incorporation of MPP (Ajila et al.,

2008).

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Mango products

There are many processed mango products available in world market,

such as: canned mango slice in syrup, mango powder, mango nectar, mango jam and

chutney, dehydrated mango, mango leather etc. Developing processed mango

products in Thailand is quite unique. Brine pickled mango products have been

traditionally processed from mature green mango which are the most popular among

the countries in Indo-china especially in Thailand, they have the highest market share

in the region as compared to other processed mango products. Some factories are

located near the area of mango plantations due to the need of fresh fruits supplied to

the plant. Production capacity of factories vary from 1-2000 metric tons a year. These

products still have potential to expand in both domestic and Southeast Asian markets.

The products are questionable concerning hygiene and safety, especially from cottage

industries which predominate in this business. The most popular products are sweet

and sour pickled green mango products. Unfortunately, the products normally have

only 1-2 days shelf-life at room temperature (Yunchalad et al., 2000). Montatip

et al. (2005) studied mango production and its products in Thailand and concluded

that the shelf life of pickled mango pieces in sweet and sour syrup kept in vacuum bag

or high-density polyethylene bag could prolong up to 4 months at a chilled

temperature. The sensory evaluation of the products were not significantly different in

acceptability on flavor, color, taste and texture. The technology transfers of the

pickled mango processing and its product to the targets were carried out by means of

training workshop, as well as various mass media, such as : TV, weekly journals,

newspapers and interviewing. Currently, the products are gradually accepted in the

market and not only add more value to the consumers in the aspects of quality and

safety but also help producer improving the process of these products. The colour,

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flavour, texture and taste characteristics in mangoes processing are the most important

quality parameters for the dehydrated products. The first quality judgment made by a

consumer on a food at the point of sale is its visual appearance. Appearance analyses

of foods are used in maintenance of food quality throughout and at the end of

processing. Colour is one of the most important appearance trait of processed mango

products, since it influences consumer acceptability. Abnormal colours associated

with deterioration in eating quality cause rejection of project by consumer (Avila and

Silva, 1999). Similarly, dehydration process of mango should be undertaken through

equipment (solar or industrial dryer) to improve the quality of the final product so as

the sensory quality of the product is well acceptable (Harrison and Andress, 2008).

The study on the effect of dehydration techniques on the nutritional

quality of mango products is new in Pakistan. The losses of immature and mature

fruits are enormous. Different dehydration techniques and nutritional value of mango

certainly will add the shelf life of mango fruits and their products. The nutritional

quality of immature and mature fruits of different varieties was determined.

For this purpose, the literature searches through research publications,

books and internet for the dehydration techniques and nutritional qualities of different

products of mango varieties were made for this important investigation. The review of

literature helped us showing latest information on different aspects of dehydrated

mango products which will be beneficial for interpretation of research data and for

farming community of this country.

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