PG Notes on key aspects of p-n junction diodes

PG Notes Semiconductors (Part - 2)
Physics Galaxy Notes

Semiconductors Part - 2
An Ultimate Tool to understand advanced High School Physics 60 Min
72
by ASHISH ARORA Sir
PG Notes on Semiconductors (Part - 2)

p-n Junction
A p-n junction is the fundamental semiconductor device. All the major semiconductor devices has different types of one
or more p-n junctions which are used in electric
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devices. As the name implies a p-n junction is a
combination of a p-type and n-type semiconductor.
It is a two terminal device formed either in germanium
or silicon crystal. If we just join a p-type and an n-
type semiconductor by some conducting adhesive a
p-n junction can not be formed because of
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irregularities on the surfaces. A p-n junction is formed
when a single crystal of semiconductor is doped with
acceptor atoms on one side and donors on other
side as shown in figure-1. The plane dividing the two
zones is known as junction. In figure. In the region of GA
n-type zone fixed donor ions are represented by 
and electrons are represented by black small circles Figure 1
and in p-type zone, fixed acceptor ions are
represented by  and holes are represented by small hollow circles. Now we’ll discuss the mechanism of junction formation
in detail.
Now consider the situation when one half of semiconductor is doped by p-type acceptor impurity atoms and other half
is doped with n-type donor impurity atoms. We know that in p-type material concentration of holes is very high and in n-type
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material concentration of electrons is very high, thus there is a tendency of electrons to diffuse from n-type to p-type zone.
Where electron concentration is low and similarly holes diffuse toward n-type zone. Thus due to diffusion, some holes cross
the junction and reach n-type zone and combine with electron present there and same electrons reach p-type zone whey they
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combine with holes present there. Thus due to diffusion and combination of electrons and holes on both sides of junction,
a neutral region is formed which is free from charge carriers and in this region almost no free charge carriers are present for
electric conduction. This region we call depletion layer or space charge region or sometimes transition region. As discussed
above and as shown in figure-2(a), we can see that in depletion layer there are no charge carriers, there exist only positive
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donor ions on right side and negative acceptor ions on left side. Due to these ions an electric field Ei is established in this
region from n-type zone to p-type zone.
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Figure 2(a)
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This electric field prevent diffusion of electrons and holes and establish a potential difference across the junction or
depletion layer.
Initially when the junction is formed, there was no electric field present across the junction, when diffusion of electrons
and holes start across the junction, the started getting neutralized on the opposite sides and the fixed ions on the two sides
produces electric field in this region and diffusion continues till this electric field further stops the diffusion of electrons and
holes.
The potential difference developed across the junction act as a potential barrier for electrons and holes. This is shown
in figure-2(b). This voltage VB we call junction voltage and it is generally in the range from 0.1 V to 0.8 V. Due to this potential
barrier in open circuit no charge flow takes places across the junction. In next section we’ll see that the height of potential
barrier can be increased or decreased by applying an external supply.
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A common p-n junction device is also known is p-n junction diode. The circuit symbol of a p-n junction diode is shown
in figure-2(b)
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Figure 2(b)
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Biasing of p-n junction
The most important characteristic of a p-n junction is that charge carriers are permitted to flow only in one direction or it
allows current to flow in one direction only and not in opposite direction. Now we’ll study & discuss how this unidirectional
behaviour exist in a p-n junction by applying an external voltage across the p-n junction diode.
Forward Biasing of p-n junction

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When the external supply is connected positive terminal to the p-side of the junction and negative terminal of supply is
connected to n-side of junction then we say that the junction is forward biased. In this case we can see that the electric field
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established by external supply E is in opposition to the internal electric field Ei in the depletion region due to the donor and
acceptor ions. This decreases the height of potential barrier and pushes electrons and holes on the two sides to cross the
depletion layer. When the supply voltages is increased beyond the potential barrier height its electric field E exceeds the
internal electric field Ei and the current flow starts in the circuit.
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Figure 3
Thus in forward biasing when a battery is applied across a p-n junction, the potential barrier decreases and a current
flows through the junction.
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Reverse Biasing of p-n junction
When the positive terminal of external supply is connected to n-side of the p-n junction and its negative terminal is
connected to p-side of the p-n junction , we say that p-n junction is reverse biased.
In this case we can see that the electric field established by the battery is in same direction as that of internal electric field
due to fixed ions in the depletion layer. Due to the height of potential barrier increases and on both sides electrons and holes
are pulled in direction away from the depletion layer as shown in figure-4
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Figure 4
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Thus here external supply also prevents majority charge carriers to cross the depletion layers. But this supply supports
the minority carriers in crossing the junction. In figure-4 minority charge carriers are not shown but we know that on p-side,
in very small quantity electrons are also present because of electron hole pairs generated by thermal agitation in lattice.
Similarly on n-side of junction there are some holes present in small quantity which are pushed toward the depletion layer by
the external supply. Due to these minority charge carriers, a very small current flows in circuit because these carriers are in
very small quantity. One interesting thing is observed about this current that its magnitude is almost independent of the
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supply voltage. The reason behind this is the very small quantity of minority carriers. When a small reverse biasing voltage
is applied, the flow of almost all carriers start but simultaneously the width of depletion layer also increases which increases
the resistance of junction due to which the current in circuit does not increases. As this reverse current is independent of
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biasing voltage, it is called reverse saturation current.
Volt Ampere Characteristic of p-n junction

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In previous section we’ve discussed that the nature of a p-n junction diode is unilateral, i.e. current flows through the
diode only in one direction from p to n and it does not allows current to flow from n to p side because of reverse biasing.
Now we’ll study the variation of current through a p-n junction diode with variation of applied voltage across the diode
both during forward and reverse biasing. Two characteristics are studied for a p-n junction diode. These are
(i) Forward Bias characteristics
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(ii) Reverse Bias characteristics
Figure 5
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(i) Forward Bias characteristic
In the circuit shown in figure when the potential difference is gradually increased in forward bias, the variation of current
through diode is shown in figure-6. Here we can see, initially very smaller almost no current flows through it.* When potential
difference is increased beyond the potential barrier (here 0.7 volt for Si), the potential barrier is eliminated and current starts
flowing.
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Figure 6
The portion OA of the graph shows that when supply voltage is less then barrier voltage, almost no current flows in the
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circuit and beyond point A current starts increasing with applied voltage. The voltage of point A is called knee voltage, at
which the curve bends like a knee. Some times this voltage VA is also called turn on voltage or offset cottage. It is observed
that the current flowing through a p-n junction diode and the voltage applied across it are related as
 eV 
I = I0  e KT 1 … (1)

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Here K is the Boltzmann’s constant and T is the absolute temperature and I0 is the reverse saturation current, which is
also extremely temperature dependent.
eV
In forward biased for high values of applied voltages e KT >> 1, thus current in equation-(1) can be given as
eV
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I~  I0 e KT … (2)
Thus for high voltages current passing through a p-n junction rises exponentially with applied voltage. But for very high
voltages there is a safe value, beyond which if voltage is increased, it produces an extremely large current which may destroy
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the junction due to over heating.
Another point about forward biasing student should keep in mind that when the p-n junction is forward biased the
deletion layer becomes thin. It is because the polarity of external source opposes the internal field of the junction due to this
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the potential difference across the junction decreases and making the duplication layer thin due to which the resistance of
junction is low during forward biasing as we know that resistance of junction is proportional to the width of depletion layer
Reverse Bias Characteristics
We’ve discussed that when junction is reverse biased, a very small current flows through the junction due to minority
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carriers hence to measure this current in circuit we should change our milliammeter by a microammeter to measure this small
current.
The Reverse biasing voltage opposes the majority charge carries to flow across p-n junction but allows and supports
minority carriers to cross the junction, thus a small current flows which remains constant as the applied voltage is increased
as shown in graph of figure-7. When the applied reverse bias voltage increases to VZ, suddenly the breakdown in the
semiconductor material takes place under which lot of electron hole pair are suddenly produced and a large current starts
flowing. This voltage VZ at which breakdown takes place is called breakdown voltage or zener voltage. After this section we’ll
discuss the breakdown mechanism in detail.
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Figure 7
In reverse biasing current through junction for V < VZ remains constant at I0 which we call reverse saturation current thus
IR = I0 … (3)
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Thus when p-n junction is reversed biased, the depletion layer becomes thick. It is because, the external DC source in
this case and the internal potential barrier increases the height of potential barrier and the potential drop across the junction
increases. Because of increased thickness of depletion layer, the p-n junction offers high resistance during reverse bias.
Dynamic Resistance of p-n Junction GA

We’ve discussed the variation of current flowing through p-n junction with variation of the applied voltage. We can see
the graph in figure-8 that during both forward and reverse biased region the curve is not a straight line hence in case of a
p-n junction ohm’s law is not obeyed. Thus here the resistance of p-n junction varies with the applied voltage. This resistance
we call dynamic resistance of p-n junction diode.
The dynamic resistance of a p-n junction is defined as the ratio of small changes in applied voltage to the small change
in corresponding current through the junction. For example in the forward bias characteristic shown in figure at point P when
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biasing voltage is V, the dynamic resistance can be given as

dV
rP = … (4)
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di
Where dV is the elemental small charge in voltage across diode and di is the corresponding small change in current in the
diode.
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Figure 8
From equation-(4) and the graph in figure-8 we can say that the dynamic resistance of a p-n junction at a given voltage
can be given as reciprocal of the slope of the v-i characteristic of the p-n junction.
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Diode as an Ideal Circuit Element
An ideal diode is a two terminal device which offers zero resistance or act as a short circuit when forward biased and on
the other hand when an ideal diode is reversed biased, it offers infinite resistance and act as an open circuit. Thus it ideally
allows current to flow through the junction when it is in forward biasing i.e. only in one direction. Thus an ideal diode is
perfectly a unilateral element.
The characteristics of an ideal diode is shown in figure-9
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Figure 9
The characteristic of an ideal diode shows that the behaviour of the diode is important in switching circuits as it provides
on off characteristic. As shown in figure-9 we can see that when V = 0, i can have any value and when i = 0, V can have any
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value, a conduction corresponding to a switch. Thus when in a circuit an ideal diode is connected in a branch when it is
forward biased (potential of p-side is more then that of n-side) current enters from p-side of diode, it behaves like a straight
wire (short circuit) as shown in figure-10(a) and when it is reversed biased (potential of n-side is more then that of p-side), no
current is allowed to pass through the diode and it behaves like an open circuit as shown in figure-10(b).
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(a) (b)
Figure 10
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Breakdown Mechanism of a p-n Junction Diode in Reverse Biasing
We’ve discussed that when a p-n junction is reverse biased, the current through the junction remains constant and it is
independent of variation in reverse bias supply voltage. This current we call reverse saturation current. When the reverse
voltage is increase, at some voltage, the covalent bonds near the junction start breaking and suddenly large number of
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electron hole pairs are generated and the reverse current increases abruptly to a large value. The voltage at which this
happens is called breakdown voltage or zero voltage.
If we look at the reverse biased region of v-i characteristic of diode as shown in figure-7, we can see that after breakdown,
the voltage across the junction diode almost remain constant over a large range of current. Thus after breakdown, the
potential difference across the diode is maintained at the constant value zener voltage.
There are two different breakdown mechanism under different conditions for a reversed biased p-n junction. These are
(i) Zener Breakdown
(ii) Avalance Breakdown
Lets discuss both the mechanism in detail.
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(i) Zener Breakdown
This mechanism of breakdown is used to explain the phenomenon of breaking covalent bonds near to junction when the
p-n junction is very thin. This happens when both p and n sides of semiconductors are heavily doped and width of depletion
layer is small. When an external voltage is applied across the diode, a very strong electric field is setup across the junction.
When external voltage is increased. The electric field in the junction also increases and after a particular value, this high
electric field exert so large force on the electrons in valance band on the semiconductor that these electrons are pulled to
conduction band after breaking of covalent bonds. As soon as the reverse voltage approaches the zener voltage, the electric
field in junction is sufficient to break the covalent bonds and suddenly large number of bonds in the region of junction are
broken and lot of electron hole pairs are generated. Thus due to sudden increase in large number of charge carriers a very high
reverse current is produced in the circuit which we call zener current. We’ve already discussed that zener current is independent
of the applied voltage. It depends on the external resistances present in the circuit.
(ii) Avalance Breakdown
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This mechanism of breaking covalent bond explains the breakdown in p-n junction when both sides of junction
semiconductor is lightly doped and the depletion layer is large. If depletion layer is large electric field in the junction is not so
high produce zener breakdown. Due to large width of depletion layer, here minority charge carriers gain high kinetic energy
during acceleration due to electric field in the depletion layer. When these carriers collide with the semiconductor atoms in the
depletion region, due to collisions the covalent bond are broken and electron hole pairs are generated by the energy supplied
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by these carriers. These new carriers thus created are again accelerated and produce new electron hole pairs and so continuously
additional pair of carriers are generated and due to this cumulative process lot of carriers are suddenly produced in the
junction and a large reverse current flows. This process is called avalance break down. This break down occurs at relatively
higher reverse voltages as compared to zener breakdown.
Zener Diode
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This is also a p-n junction device. Zener diode is a p-n junction formed between two heavily doped p-type and n-type
semiconductors, which is operated in reverse biased breakdown region. For the formation of zener diode, silicon is preferred
as compared to germanium because of high current capabilities of silicon. A zener diode is operated in breakdown region in
a circuit with high currents also the voltage across the diode remains constant.
Figure-11 shows the circuit symbol of zener diode. When it is used in forward bias mode, it behaves like a normal p-n
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junction diode. The basic difference between a normal diode and a zener diode is, it is best suitable to operate when
breakdown takes place in the junction. In a normal diode when a reverse voltage more than zener voltage is applied,
breakdown takes place and for higher voltages, the junction get damaged due to excessive heat produced and high temperature
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Figure 11
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Zener diode is specifically constructed to operate in breakdown region and the voltage across diode remains almost
constant even at very high currents. Due to this property of zener diode, it is also used to stabilize voltage at a preterminal
values.
Zener Diode as a Voltage Stabilizer

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As we’ve discussed that a zener diode operates in reverse biased breakdown region. The circuit shown in figure-12 is
using a zener diode to maintain a constant potential difference across the load resistance when supply voltage is more then
zener voltage. Here when supply voltage is less then VZ, the diode act as “OFF” and the resistance R behaves as in series with
the load resistance RL, when supply voltage is increased the potential difference across zener diode also increase. When
potential difference across load or zener diode reaches VZ (zener voltage) breakdown takes place in diode and if supply
voltage is further increased, extra current produced in circuit will bypass through the diode and hence maintain the constant
potential difference across the load resistance RL.
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Figure 12
p-n Junction Diode as Rectifier
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A rectifier is an electronic device which is used to convert alternating current or voltage into unidirection current or
voltage. Because of the unilateral nature of a p-n junction diode, it become a useful tool to be used as a rectifier. Using a
p-n junction diode, two types of rectifiers can be constructed. These are
(i) Half wave Rectifier
(ii) Full wave Rectifier
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(i) Half Wave Rectifier
A half wave rectifier is one which converts ac voltage into pulsating unidirectional voltage for only one half cycle of the
ac supply. The basic circuit of half wave rectifier using a p-n junction diode is shown in figure-13.
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(a) (b)
Figure 13
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In the circuit input ac supply is connected to a diode D1 through a power transformer and out put is taken across the load
resistance RL connected in series with diode D1 as shown in the circuit.
Working of Half Wave Rectifier
In the circuit shown in figure-13 when the input supply is switched on, in first half cycle of supply point a in circuit will
be at high potential then point b, the diode D1 will become forward biased and conducts current through it (acts as switched
on). Now a current flows in the circuit and a potential difference exist across the load resistance RL. This constitutes an output
voltage. For the negative half cycle of input supply point b in circuit will be at higher potential then point a and the diode D1
will be reverse biased and it does not conduct (acts as switched off). Now corresponding to this negative half cycle of input
voltage there is no current through the load resistance and hence no potential drop takes place across RL. Thus the output
voltage across load resistance is a pulsating unidirectional current as shown in figure-13(b).
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It is clear that in output only half cycle of input ac supply wave is being used, it is called half wave rectifier.
Full Wave Rectifier
The circuit of a full wave rectifier is shown in figure 14. This is also called centre tap full wave rectifier because we can see
in figure that secondary coil of the transformer is split in two coils by a centre tapping in this coil. Due to this the voltage of
secondary coil is divided equally in two parts, across points a and b and across points b and c equal potential difference e0/2
exist in same phase. In this type of rectifier, two p-n junction diodes D1 and D2 are used as shown in the circuit.
Working of Full Wave Rectifier
In the circuit shown in figure-14 when the input supply is switched on, due to ac supply the ends of two parts of
secondary coil a, b and b, c becomes positive and negative alternatively or in both parts of coils, the potential difference
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reverses periodically with positive and negative half cycles of supply voltage.
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(a) (b)
Figure 14
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In positive half cycle of input supply, terminal a is at high potential relative to b and b is at higher potential then c. Due
to this, diode D1 becomes forward biased and current flows through it and diode D2 in this state is reverse biased and it does
not conduct. Similarly for next negative half cycle of supply voltage the potential difference across secondary coil is
reversed. Now point c is at high potential then b and b is at higher potential then a. Thus how diode D2 is forward biased and
conducts and diode D1 is now reverse biased. In this state also current flows through the load resistance in same direction
as shown in figure-14(b).
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Figure 15
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We can see from figure-15(a) and (b) that in both positive and negative half cycles of input voltage, current flows
through the load resistance in same direction hence the potential drop across this or the output voltage will have same
polarity for both cycles of the input voltage. As for each alternate half cycle diodes D1 and D2 conducts one by one. The
conduction of diodes D1 and D2 is shown in the figure-16 as well as the total output voltage which is unidirection pulsating
voltage. The only drawback is the output voltage peak value is half of that of the half wave rectifier.
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Figure 16
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Average Currents in Half Wave and Full Wave Rectifiers
Average current in a pulsating current can be defined as

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Total charge flow in one cycle

Iavg =
Time duration of a cycle
Area of i  t graph
=
Time
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Average Current in Half Wave Rectifier
Figure 17
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Figure shows the i-t graph for a half wave rectifier. Here if Im is the peak current for a cycle can be given as

i = Im sin t 0<t … (5)

 2
i=0 <t … (6)
 
Thus the charge flows only in half cycle, which is given as


q =  i dt
0


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= I
0
m sin t dt
Im 
=

 cos t 0 
Im
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= [1 + 1]

2I m
= … (7)

Thus average current for one cycle for output of a half wave rectifier is
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q 2I / 
Iavg = = m
t 2 / 
Im
= … (8)

Average Current in Full Wave Rectifier
Figure-18 shows the current Vs times graph of output for a full wave rectifier here as the peak value of current is Im thus
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for first half cycle current as a function of time is given as


i = Im sin t 0<t … (9)
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
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Figure 18
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For all other half cycles the variation of current remains same as that of first half cycle. Thus average current for one cycle
can be given as
2  charge flow in one half cycle
Iavg =
(2/)

Charge flow in first half cycle is



q = I
0
m sin t dt
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Im 
=

 cos t 0 
Im
= [1 + 1]

2I m
= … (10)

Now average current for one cycle for output of a full wave rectifier is
2q
Iavg =
t
2(2 I m /)
=
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2/
2I m
= … (11)

Root Mean Square (RMS) Value of Current For Rectifiers
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In the section of detailed analysis of alternating current, you might have covered that rms value of a pulsating or
alternating current is that value of dc current which produces the same amount of heat in a given resistor in a given time which
the alternating current produces. Now we calculate rms values of current for each cycle of pulsating current for both half
wave and full wave rectifiers individually. GA
RMS Current For Half Wave Rectifier
We know that rms value of current for a time varying current can be given as
T
1 2
Irms =
T  i dt
0
… (12)
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Now for a half wave rectifier we know the current is given as


i = Im sin t 0<t … (13)

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 2
i =0 <t … (14)
 
Thus from equation-(12) rms value can be given as
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

1 2
Irns =
2/  i dt
0

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
 2
=
I m sin 2 t dt
2
0


 I m2 (1  cos 2t )
=
2 
0
2
dt

 I m2  1 sin 2t  
= t
2  2 4  0
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 I m2   
=
2   2 
Im
= … (15)
2
RMS Current For a Full Wave Rectifier
We know that current in output of a full wave rectifier is repeated same as it is in the first half cycle. Thus rms value of
current for one cycle is same as that of its half cycle as the total amount of heat produced by this current in a resistance will
remain same in each half cycle of pulsating current.
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For first half cycle the current output of a full wave rectifier is given as

i = Im sin t 0<t

Now the rms value of this current is given as
/
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1 2
Irms =
(/)  i dt
0
/
1 2
= I m sin 2 t dt
(/)
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0
/
I m2  1  cos 2t  dt
=
  
0
2



I m2  1 sin 2t  
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=  t
 2 4  0
I m2  1  
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=
  2  
Im
= … (16)
2
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Efficiency of a Rectifier
Efficiency of a rectifier is defined as the ratio of dc power output to the ac power input to the rectifier circuit. For the input
supply the diode and load resistance act as in series combination thus the input power supplied to a rectifier is given as
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2
Pin = I rms (rd + RL) … (17)
Here rd is the dynamic forward biasing resistance offered by the junction diode and RL is the load resistance.
Similarly the dc output power from rectifier is given as

2
Pout = I avg RL … (18)
Here Iavg is the average current flowing through the resistance RL. Thus efficiency of the rectifier can be given as
2
Pout I avg RL
= = 2 … (19)
Pin I rms (rd  R L )
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Efficiency of a Half Wave Rectifier
For a half wave rectifier, we know

Im Im
Iavg = and Irms = [Im  peak value of current]
 2
Thus from equation-(19) we have efficiency of a half wave rectifier is
( I m / ) 2 R L
=
( I m / 2) 2 (rd  RL )
4  RL 
=  
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 2  rd  R L 
0.406
= … (20)
r
1 d
RL
Thus efficiency will be maximum when the diode behaves ideally or rd = 0
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Thus maximum efficiency is
max = 0.406 or 40.6%
Efficiency of a Full Wave Rectifier
For a full wave rectifier, we know

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2I m Im
Iavg = and Irms = [Im  beak value of current]
 2
Thus from equation-(19), the efficiency of a full wave rectifier is given as
( 2 I m / ) 2 R L
=
( I m / 2 ) 2 (rd  RL )
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8  RL 
=  
 2  rd  R L 
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0.812
=
r
1 d
RL
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Similar to a half wave rectifier, for a full wave rectifier also the efficiency is maximum when rd ~
 0, which is given as
max = 0.812 or 81.2%
Here we can also see that the efficiency of a full wave rectifier is double that of a half wave rectifier.
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Bridge Rectifier
We’ve discussed that in a full wave rectifier we use a centre tap secondary coil of transformer due to which the output
voltage in each cycle becomes half of the input voltage. It is also practically very difficult to locate an exact centre tapping on
the secondary winding which divides the input voltage in exactly two equal halves. This problem is overcome in bridge
rectifier. The circuit of a full wave bridge rectifier is shown in figure. We can see here unlike to a centre tap rectifier, four diodes
D1, D2, D3 and D4 are used instead of two diodes.
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Figure 19
Working of Bridge Rectifier GA

In the circuit we can see that for positive half cycle terminal a is at higher potential then b, thus at terminal c due to high
potential diode D1 is forward biased and D4 reverse biased and thus diode D1 start acting as switched on, which makes point
d at high potential. Similarly as point f is at low potential diode D2 is reverse biased and D3 becomes forward biased, making
it conducting and point e will now be at low potential and current flows in load resistance from point d to point e as shown
in figure-20(a) . Due to this the output voltage can be taken across the load resistance for the positive half cycle of input
voltage.
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Figure 20
Now for next half cycle i.e. for negative half cycle, the terminal b will now be at higher potential then terminal a. Due to
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this we can see in figure-20(b) as point f is at high potential, diode D2 becomes forward biased & D3 become reverse biased.
Diode D2 starts conducting and in the same way we can say that on other side diode D1 will act switched off and D4 will
conduct because now point c as at law potential. Here also for negative half cycle we can see that current through load
resistance is still flowing from point d to e, that is in same direction which was flowing in positive half cycle. Thus for both
positive and negative half cycles of input voltage current in load resistance is flowing in same direction thus the polarity of
output voltage across load resistance forever remain same and this acts as a full wave rectifier.
Different Types of Junction Diodes

S
(i) Photodiode
We know that in semiconductors, electrons from valance bond are transferred to conduction bond by thermal agitation
IC
energy or energy gained by accelerating voltage. A junction diode which is manufactured by a light sensitive semiconductor
is called a photodiode.
In a photo diode, when it forward biased, some current flows through it which is represented by the initial portion OA of
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graph shown in figure-21. In this state no light is incident on the junction of diode. This current i1 is called dark current. When
some light incident on the p-n junction by absorbing photon energy more electron hole pairs are generated if the photon
energy h is more then the forbidden energy gap. Thus as the intensity of light increases, the current in circuit increases as
shown by the portion AB of the graph. If the intensity of incident light is continuously increased, the current in circuit
increases with light intensity but after some time, we can see from graph that the current in circuit becomes constant. This is
because excess number of electrons in conduction bond and excess holes in valance bond also increases the rate of
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recombination and thus a stage comes the rate at which photons produces electron hole pair and the rate at which electron
in conduction bond recombines with holes in valance bond becomes equal and hence no further rise in current takes place
with increase an light intensity. This current i2 (portion BC of graph), we call saturation current of photo diode.
Figure 21
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(ii) Light Emitting Diode (LED)
We know that on forward biasing above knee voltage, in a p-n junction diodes current flows because electrons from n-
side of junction and holes from p-side of junction started crossing the depletion layer and started combining. When an
electron in the junction combines with a hole, it releases an energy photon having energy equal to the forbidden energy gap
of the semiconductor. In silicon and germanium diodes the amount of energy released is in infrared region. But in a junction
diode made up of such materials in which the forbidden energy gap is of the order of energy in visible range then in forward
biasing these diodes will emit light from their junction. These diodes are called light emitting diodes. For example in a diode
made up of semiconductor gallium arsenide phosphide. The forbidden energy gap is around 1.9 eV. When an electron
combines with hole in this diode the wavelength emitted is
hc ~ 12423
=  1. 9 Å
E
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= 6538.4 Å
Which is the wavelength of approximately lemon green colour. Similarly several light emitting diodes are now a days
available which emit lights of different colours.
(iii) Solar Cell
LA
A solar cell is used to transform light energy into electrical energy.
Example 1
A silicon diode is connected to a resistor R and a battery of voltage VB as shown in figure. The knee point of its I-V
characteristics is 0.7 V. Assume that the diode requires a minimum current of 1 mA to attain a value higher than the knee point.
GA
Also assume that the voltage V across the junction s independent of the current above the knee point.
S
(a) If VB = 5V, what should be the maximum value of R so that of voltage V is above the knee point voltage ?
IC
(b) If VB = 5V, what should be the value of R in order to establish a current of 5mA in the circuit ?
(c) If VB = 6V, what is the power dissipated in the resistor R and the diode when a current 5 mA flows in the circuit ?
(d) If R = 1 k, what is the minimum voltage VB required to keep the diode above the knee point ?
Solution
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(a) Let VR be the voltage across the resistor and V the voltage across the diode junction. Then
VB = VR + V
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It is given that VB = 5V and V = 0.7 V. Then
VR = VB – V = 5 – 0.7 = 4.3 V
From ohm’s law VR = IR. Since VR is fixed, when I is minimum (Imin), R should be maximum (Rmax), such that
Imin × Rmax = 4.3 V
Since, Imin = 1 mA = 1 × 10–3 A, we have

4. 3
Rmax = = 4.3 × 103  = 4.3 k.
1  10 3
Page 17
(b) Now V = 0.7 V as in part (a), since it is independent of the current above the knee point. Also VB = 5V. Therefore, the
voltage across R is
VR = VB – V = 5 × 0.7 = 4.3 V
But VR = IR. For I = 5 mA = 5 × 10–3 A, the value of R should be

VR 4.3
R= = = 860 .
I 5  10 3
(c) In this case, VB = 6V. But V = 0.7 V (as before). Therefore
VR = 6 – 0.7 = 5.3 V
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We know that power dissipated equal current times voltage. The current in the circuit is I = 5 mA = 5 × 10–3 A. Therefore
the power dissipated in the resistor is
I × VR = (5 × 10–3) × 5.3 = 26.5 × 10–3 W = 26.5 mW
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and the power dissipated in the diode is
I × V = (5 × 10–3) × 0.7 = 3.5 × 10–3 W = 3.5 mW
(d) R = 1 k = 1000 . To keep the diode above the knee point, a minimum current of Imin = 1 mA = 1 × 10–3 A must flow
in the circuit. Therefore, the minimum voltage VB required is
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VB = Imin × R + V = (1 × 10–3) × 1000 + 0.7 = 1 + 0.7 = 1.7 V.
Example 2
In a pn junction diode current I through the diode is given

S
  eV  – 1
I = I0 exp  
  kT  
where I0 is the reverse saturation current, V is the voltage across the diode, T is the absolute temperature, and k is a constant
IC
= 8.6 × 10–5 eVK–1 (electron-volt per kelvin). If I0 = 5 × 10–12 A and T = 300 K, find (a) the forward current at V = 0.6 V when the
diode is forward-biased, (b) the increase in current if the voltage across the diode is increased to 0.7 V, (c) the dynamic
resistance, and (d) the change in current if the bias voltage changes from 1 to 2V when the diode is reverse-biased.
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Solution
Let I be given by
I = I0 (ea – 1)
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Where a = eV/kT. Given
k = 8.6 × 10–5 eVK–1 = (8.6 × 10–5) × (1.6 × 10–19) JK–1.
= 1.376 × 10–23 JK–1
I0 = 5 × 10–12 A and T = 300 K.
(a) For forward bias, voltage V is positive. Thus V = + 0.6 V. Now
eV (1.6  10 19 )  0.6

a= = = 23.256
kT (1.376  10 23 )  300
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 I = 5 × 10–12 (e23.256 – 1) = 5 × 10–12 (1.259 × 1010 – 1)
= 6.3 × 10–2 A = 63 mA
(b) If V = 0.7 V, the value of a turns out to be 27.132 and
I = 5 × 10–12 (e27.132 – 1) = 5 × 10–12 (6.07 × 1011 – 1)
= 3.035 A
Therefore the increase in current is 3.035 – 0.063 = 2.972 A.
(c) Change in voltage is V = 0.7 – 0.6 = 0.1 V and change in current is I = 2.972 A. Therefore, the dynamic resistance
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is
V 0.1
Rd = = = 0.0336 .
I 2.972
(d) For reverse bias, the voltage V is negative, (i) V = – 1 V. In this case
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eV (1.6  10 19 )  (1)
a= = = 38.76.
kT (1.376  10 23 )  300
 I = I0 (e–38.76 – 1) = I0 (1.47 × 10–17 – 1) = – I0 = – 5 × 10–12 A

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(ii) V = – 2V. In this case a = – 77.52 and I = –I0 = – 5 × 10–12 A. Thus, when reversed when the voltage si changed from
1 to 2V.
Example 3
An a.c. voltage of peak value 20 V is connected in series with a silicon diode and a load resistance of 500 . The forward
resistance of the diode is 10  and the barrier voltage is 0.7 V. Find the peak current through diode and the peak voltage across
S
the load. What will happen to these values if the diode is assumed to be ideal.
Solution
IC
See figure.
YS
PH
The current in the diode will flow only for positive cycle.
The barrier voltage of diode is 0.7 V. The applied peak voltage VF = 20 V. The total resistance of the circuit is equal to the
forward resistance of diode plus the load resistance in the circuit. If (iF) peak will be the current flowing in the circuit, then
V F = VB + (iF)peak (RF + RL)
(VF  VB ) 20  0.7
 (i F)peak = = = 0.0378 A.
( RF  R L ) 10  500
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The peak voltage across load is given by
Vpeak = (iF)peak × RL = (0.0378) × 500
= 18.9 V
If the diode were ideal, then barrier voltage would be zero and forward resistance of diode is also zero, i.e., VB = 0 and
RF = 0. Hence
VF 20
IF = R = = 0.04 A
L 500
and Vpeak = 0.04 × 500 = 20 V.
XY
Example 4
Figure shows a junction diode connected to an external resistance of 100  and a source of e.m.f. of 0.3 V. Assuming that the
barrier potential developed in the junction diode is 0.7 V, obtain the current in the circuit.
LA
GA
Solution
Here, e.m.f. of the source, E = 3.0 V
Barrier potential developed in the diode,

S
Vd = 0.7 V.
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Therefore, potential drop across the external resistance,
V = E – Vd = 3.0 – 0.7 = 2.3 V.

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Hence, current in the circuit,

V 2.3
I= = = 2.3 × 10–2 A = 23 mA.
R 100
Example 5
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A diode used in the circuit shown in figure 2.32 has a constant voltage drop of 0.5 V at all currents and a maximum power rating
of 100 mW. What should be the value of the resistance R connected in series with diode for obtaining maximum current ?
Page 20
Solution
Here, e.m.f. of the source, E = 1.5 V
Voltage drop across the diode,
Vd = 0.5 V
Maximum power rating of the diode,
P = 100 mW = 0.1 W
Therefore, maximum current through the diode,
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P 0.1
I= V = = 0.2 A.
d 0.5
Potential drop across the resistance R,
V = E – Vd = 1.5 – 0.5 = 1.0 V.
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V 1. 0
 R= = = 5.
I 0.2
Example 6
GA
Assume that the silicon diode in the circuit shown in figure requires a minimum current of 1 mA to be above the knee point 0.7
V of its I-V characteristics. Also assume that the voltage across the diode is independent of current above the knee point.
S
IC
(a) If VB = 5 V, what should be the maximum value of R so that the voltage is above the knee point ?
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(b) If VB = 5 V, what should be the value of R to establish the current of 5 mA in the circuit ?
(c) What is the power dissipated in the resistance R and in the diode, when a current of 5 mA flows in the circuit at VB = 6V ?
(d) If R = 1 k, what is the minimum voltage VB required to keep the diode above the knee point ?
Solution
PH
When current of 1 mA (minimum value) flows through the circuit, the potential drop across the diode becomes 0.7 V for
a forward bias of 5V.
Thus, VB = 5 V; Imin = 1 mA = 10–3 A
(a) Applying Kirchhoff’s second law, we have
Imin × R + 0.7 = 5
or 10–3 × R = 5 – 0.7 = 4.3
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or R = 4.3 × 103 .
(b) Now, I = 5 mA = 5 × 10–3 A
Again, according to Kirchhoff’s second law, we have
I × R + 0.7 = 5
or 5 × 10–3 × R = 5 – 0.7 = 4.3

4.3
or R= = 860 
5  10 3
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(c) Now, VB = 6V; I = 5 mA = 5 × 10–3 A
Applying Kirchhoff’s second law, we have
I × R + 0.7 = 6
5.3
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6  0.7
or R= = = 1,060 
I 5  10 3
Power dissipated across, R = I2R = (5 × 10–3)2 × 1,060
= 26.5 × 10–3 W GA
Power dissipated across diode = V I = 0.7 × 5 × 10–3
= 3.5 × 10–3 W
(d) Now, R = 1 k = 1,000 ; I = 1 mA = 10–3 A ;
P.D. across diode = 0.7 V

S
 VB = I R + 0.7 = 10–3 × 1,000 + 0.7 = 1.7 V.

IC
Example 7
In the circuit shown in figure, a zener diode of voltage VZ (= 6 V) is used to maintain a constant voltage across a load
resistance RL (= 1,000 ) by using a series resistance R (= 100 ). If the e.m.f. of source (E) is 9V, calculate the value of current
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through series resistance, zener diode and load resistance. What is the power being dissipated in zener diode ?
PH
Solution
Here, E = 9V ; VZ = 6V ; RL = 1,000 W and R = 100 ,
Page 22
Potential drop across the series resistor,
V = E – VZ = 9 – 6 = 3V
Therefore, current through the series resistance R,

V 3
I= = = 0.03 A.
R 100
Current through the load resistance RL,
VZ 6
IL = = = 0.006 A
RL 1000
Therefore, current through the zener diode,
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IZ = I – IL = 0.03 – 0.006 = 0.024 A
Hence, power dissipated in the zener diode,
PZ = VZ IZ = 6 × 0.024 = 0.144 W
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Example 8
A junction diode of negligible forward resistance is used as a half-wave rectifier. A sinusoidal voltage supply having peak
value 50 V is fed to the junction diode and output is obtained across the load resistance RL. Calculate (a) the r.m.s. voltage
across RL and (b) reading of a d.c. voltmeter connected across RL.
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Solution
Here, E 0 = 50 V
50
 Er.m.s. = V
2
S
(a) A half-wave rectifier gives output corresponding to alternate half cycles of the a.c. input. Since junction diode is of
50
negligible forward resistance, the r.m.s. value of voltage across RL during half cycle of conduction is V. Therefore, r.m.s.
2
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value of voltage for a complete cycle (including the non-conducting half cycle) is
(50 / 2 ) 2  (0) 2 1250  0

Vr.m.s. = = = 625
2 2
= 25 V.
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(b) The d.c. voltmeter connected across RL would read the average value of voltage across RL during a complete cycle.
Therefore, reading of the d.c. voltmeter connected across RL ,
2 E0 /   0 E 50
Vd.c. = = 0 = = 15.92 V.
2  
PH
* * * * *
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PG Notes Semiconductors (Part - 2)

Physics Galaxy Notes

PG Notes on Semiconductors (Part - 2)

Forward Biasing of p-n junction

Reverse Biasing of p-n junction

biasing voltage, it is called reverse saturation current.

Volt Ampere Characteristic of p-n junction

(ii) Reverse Bias characteristics

(i) Forward Bias characteristic

the junction due to over heating.

Reverse Bias Characteristics

Dynamic Resistance of p-n Junction GA

biasing voltage is V, the dynamic resistance can be given as

The characteristics of an ideal diode is shown in figure-9

Breakdown Mechanism of a p-n Junction Diode in Reverse Biasing

Lets discuss both the mechanism in detail.

(ii) Avalance Breakdown

Zener Diode as a Voltage Stabilizer

p-n Junction Diode as Rectifier

Working of Half Wave Rectifier

Full Wave Rectifier

Working of Full Wave Rectifier

Average Currents in Half Wave and Full Wave Rectifiers

Average current in a pulsating current can be defined as

Total charge flow in one cycle

Average Current in Half Wave Rectifier

for first half cycle current as a function of time is given as

Root Mean Square (RMS) Value of Current For Rectifiers

Now for a half wave rectifier we know the current is given as

RMS Current For a Full Wave Rectifier

Similarly the dc output power from rectifier is given as

For a half wave rectifier, we know

Thus from equation-(19) we have efficiency of a half wave rectifier is

Thus efficiency will be maximum when the diode behaves ideally or rd = 0

Efficiency of a Full Wave Rectifier

For a full wave rectifier, we know

max = 0.812 or 81.2%

Working of Bridge Rectifier GA

Different Types of Junction Diodes

(iii) Solar Cell

It is given that VB = 5V and V = 0.7 V. Then

Imin × Rmax = 4.3 V

Since, Imin = 1 mA = 1 × 10–3 A, we have

But VR = IR. For I = 5 mA = 5 × 10–3 A, the value of R should be

(c) In this case, VB = 6V. But V = 0.7 V (as before). Therefore

I × VR = (5 × 10–3) × 5.3 = 26.5 × 10–3 W = 26.5 mW

I × V = (5 × 10–3) × 0.7 = 3.5 × 10–3 W = 3.5 mW

In a pn junction diode current I through the diode is given

Where a = eV/kT. Given

k = 8.6 × 10–5 eVK–1 = (8.6 × 10–5) × (1.6 × 10–19) JK–1.

= 1.376 × 10–23 JK–1

I0 = 5 × 10–12 A and T = 300 K.

(a) For forward bias, voltage V is positive. Thus V = + 0.6 V. Now

eV (1.6  10 19 )  0.6

(b) If V = 0.7 V, the value of a turns out to be 27.132 and

I = 5 × 10–12 (e27.132 – 1) = 5 × 10–12 (6.07 × 1011 – 1)

Therefore the increase in current is 3.035 – 0.063 = 2.972 A.

 I = I0 (e–38.76 – 1) = I0 (1.47 × 10–17 – 1) = – I0 = – 5 × 10–12 A

V F = VB + (iF)peak (RF + RL)

Vpeak = (iF)peak × RL = (0.0378) × 500

Here, e.m.f. of the source, E = 3.0 V

Barrier potential developed in the diode,