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Psychology Factsheets
www.curriculumpress.co.uk Number 06

Cognitive Psychology - Memory

This Factsheet:
• Introduces and define the topic of memory;
• Explains the concepts of sensory, short-term and long-term memory;
• Explains how these differ in respect of encoding, capacity and duration;
• Explains Primacy and Recency effects;
• Evaluates the levels of processing approach;
• Discusses different types of long-term memory: procedural, declarative, episodic and semantic memory.

Introduction Main Concepts of Memory

We sometimes forget things quite quickly. For example, if we look
up a telephone number in the directory we are likely to forget it
almost immediately unless we keep repeating it to ourselves.
However, some information, such as our telephone number or PIN
number, is easy to recall and no longer has to be rehearsed, even
though we may have had to at first when it was new to us. This has
lead to the claim that there are different types of memory and that
we should distinguish between memory for new information that
will be forgotten quickly, and memory for other information that will
last a long time.
Definition of Memory
Memory is defined as the ‘internal representation of learned
knowledge’. There are three main types of memory (see Atkinson
& Shiffrin below)
1. Sensory Memory (SM)
2. Short-term or working memory (STM or WM)
3. Long-term memory
Memory involves three basic processes
• Encoding (putting incoming information into a form that can
be stored)
• Storage (retaining the encoded information)
• Retrieval (retrieving the encoded information from memory)
Atkinson & Shiffrin’s multistore model of memory
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) suggest that memory is made up of a
series of stores which differ in encoding, storage and retrieval
characteristics (Fig 1).
1. Sensory Memory (SM)
• The temporary store for information (5 – 9 items) which is to be
processed and passed on to short-term memory.
• Includes Iconic memory (memory for visual information) and
Echoic memory (memory for auditory information).
• Holds information for approx. 0.5 to 0.75 seconds
• Information is rapidly lost as image fades.
• Paying attention to information in SM allows it to be passed to
short-term memory.
Sperling (1960) showed participants three rows of four characters
for between 0.05 and 0.1 seconds. He then played them either a
high, medium or low tone to prompt them to recall the top, middle
or bottom line. Sperling found:
• recall was very good if the tone was played immediately after
the visual display.
• the image faded rapidly - even a short delay lead to poor
recall.
• the capacity of SM is potentially very large, but is limited due
to the very short duration that information is held.

Fig 1. Atkinson & Shiffrin’s multistore model of memory

Sensory Short-term Long-term

memory memory memory
(SM) Encoding (STM) Encoding (LTM)

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06 - Cognitive Psychology - Memory
2. Short-Term Memory (also referred to as working memory)
• Information can be stored in STM for 15-30 seconds but is usually
lost quite quickly through interference or decay.
• STM can only hold a limited amount of information whereas
LTM is considered to have an unlimited capacity.
• Most information stored in acoustic form.
• Some information can be encoded either visually or semantically
(see Baddeley 1966).
• Information is often ‘chunked’.
• Most of us can remember about 7 ± 2 (i.e. between 5 and 9)
chunks of information.
• Rehearsal of information in STM allows it to be transferred to
LTM
Conrad (1964) gave participants a list of six consonants (viewed
for about 0.75 secs) and them asked them to write down the letters
they had been shown. Most recall errors could be attributed to
the sound of the letter eg B, P and V. Very few errors were made if
the sound of the letters were very different eg S and B.
Peterson & Peterson (1959) asked participants to remember a
consonant trigram (a string of 3 consonants eg BLK) and then a
large number. He asked participants to count backwards in threes
from this number and then recall the trigram. Participants were
unable to do so after 18 – 30 seconds.
Try this: Quickly look at the following number once-then
immediately cover it up and try to write down as much of it as
you can remember
39625
Now do the same for the next number.
7483629153689247
How did you do? You probably found the first number fairly easy to
remember, but the second one was just impossible. What does this tell
us about STM ?
Baddeley (1966) presented participants with words that were
either:
• acoustically similar e.g. ‘cab’, ‘cat’ and ‘can’
• acoustically different e.g. ‘dog’, ‘car’ and ‘flat’
• semantically similar e.g. ‘boat’, ‘ship’ and ‘yacht’
• semantically different e.g ‘book, ‘tree’ and ‘box’
He found that:
• in STM there was a much better recall of acoustically different
words than of acoustically similar words.
• recall of semantically different words was only slightly better
than of semantically similar words.
Miller (1956) estimated the capacity of STM to be ‘7 ± 2’ (i.e.
between 5 and 9) chunks of information. A ‘chunk’ is a meaningful
unit of information. For example, it could be a letter, word, a phrase,
a single number or a string of digits. This explains why
remembering a string of letters is harder like this:
RA – CBB – CGP – OUS – ACI – A than like this:
RAC – BBC – GPO – USA – CIA
The letters are the same in both lists, but they are easier to recall
in the second list because they are grouped into meaningful units
(ie we know the acronyms). We can think of STM, then, as having
about seven ‘slots’ available in which to put information. Just
how much information goes into a slot depends in part on how
effectively we can organise (or chunk) it.
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Psychology Factsheet
Think about it : Can you think of a way to chunk the following
numbers to aid recall ?
106619452001
Most of us would chunk as dates eg 1066 1945 2001
The working memory model
Baddeley and Hitch (1974) argued that STM contains the ideas we
are currently considering in our conscious mind. They developed
the working memory model. This comprises a central executive,
articulatory loop and visuo-spatial scratchpad (Fig 2).
Fig 2. Working memory model
The central executive deals with many different
types of information, and is involved in complex
tasks like solving problems and deciding what to
do next.
Central
Executive
Articulatory Visuo-spatial
Loop sketchpad
The articulatory loop is concerned The visuo-spatial sketchpad is
with verbal information. concerned with visual and
spatial information.
3. Long Term Memory
• Stores rehearsed or learned information
• Appears to have unlimited capacity and indefinite life-span
• Most information stored in semantic form
Baddeley (1966) again presented participants with words that
were either:
• acoustically similar e.g. ‘cab’, ‘cat’ and ‘can’
• acoustically different e.g. ‘dog’, ‘car’ and ‘flat’
• semantically similar e.g. ‘boat’, ‘ship’ and ‘yacht’
• semantically different e.g ‘book, ‘tree’ and ‘box’
He found that in LTM there was no difference in recall of
acoustically similar and acoustically different words but that
participants had a much better recall of semantically different
words than of semantically similar words. i.e the opposite
conclusion to that one from the same experiment in STM.
Kintsch and Buschke (1969) asked people to recall long lists of
words after a delay of several minutes. They found that people
often made errors by recalling words with a similar meaning to the
correct word, e.g. recalling ‘quick’ instead of ‘fast’. This offers
further support for the suggestion that semantic coding is
important in LTM – and of course we have already seen how
recall can be improved by imposing meaning on material.
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06 - Cognitive Psychology - Memory Psychology Factsheet

Primacy and Recency effects in Processing Explicit and implicit memory

Murdock (1962) gave participants a list of words at the rate of one
per second and asked them to free recall as many words as possible.
He found that most participants remembered words at the beginning
or the end of the list. Remembering words at the beginning of a list
is known as the primacy effect and remembering words at the end
as the recency effect.
The primacy effect is said to occur through rehearsal (eg participants
repeated them) and are transferred to LTM. The recency effect is
due to the words still being ‘available’ in STM/WM.
A variation of Murdock’s study was carried out by Glanzer & Cunitz
(1966). In this study recall was delayed by 30 seconds (thus
preventing rehearsal) and although the recency effect remained,
the primacy effect disappeared.
Graf and Schater (1985) distinguished between explicit and implicit
memory:
• Explicit memory involves the conscious recollection of
information and is used in tests of recognition or recall.
Declarative memory usually involves explicit memory.
• Implicit memory involves unconscious memory. Information that
we cannot consciously recall can nevertheless affect what we
think or do. Procedural knowledge involves implicit memory.
Practice Essay Questions
1. (a) Describe four types of memory.

(b) Highlight the key differences between these, linking your

Levels of Processing
Craik and Lockhart (1972) criticised Atkinson & Shiffrin's model,
arguing that memory is more concerned with the level at which we
process information. They suggested that processing could be either
Shallow (encoding only the physical properties of the information
eg its sound) or could be Deep (encoding the meaning, relating the
meaning to similar words etc). Deep processing entails more elaborate
consideration and rehearsal and thus leads to longer retention.
This approach tends to identify the ‘what’ rather than the ‘why’ of
processing and several later studies have suggested
modifications…..
responses to any relevant studies.
2. What is the multistore model of memory ? Illustrate your answer
with diagrams where appropriate
3. (a) What was suggested by Craik & Lockhart’s 1972 study ?
(b) Why did this give rise to further studies ?
4. Why are words presented in the middle of a list those which are
least recalled ?

Craik & Tulving (1975) – retention was linked to the elaboration 5. Distinguish between explicit and implicit memory, using relevant
of the information as well as to the depth of processing. examples where appropriate.
Rogers et al (1977) – if the memory has personal relevance it will
be recalled better.
Eyesenck (1979) – if a memory is unusual, personal or distinctive
we remember it better.
Tulving (1979) – the context in which the encoding takes place is
also important.

Procedural and declarative memory

Cohen and Squire (1980) suggested we can distinguish between
declarative memories and procedural memories.

• Declarative memory is to do with ‘knowing that’. It includes

information we know (can ‘declare’) eg where the local pub is.

• Procedural memory is knowledge of how to do things, (‘ knowing

how ‘) eg how to ride a bike.

Episodic and semantic memory

Tulving (1972, 1985) also distinguishes between procedural memory
and two broad types of declarative memory, episodic and semantic
memory.

• Episodic memories are memories for particular life events (things

that you have done or that have happened to you)

• Semantic memories are memories for concepts, rules (including

the rules of language) and general knowledge of the world.

Broadly, knowing how to catch a bus involves semantic memory
(there are rules about queuing, signalling, paying etc.). If you remember
catching the bus this morning, then that involves episodic memory.
Acknowledgements: This Psychology Factsheet was researched and written by Linda Bishop.
The Curriculum Press, Bank House, 105 King Street, Wellington, Shropshire, TF1 1NU.
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the prior permission of the publisher. ISSN 1351-5136

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06 - Cognitive Psychology - Memory Psychology Factsheet

Worksheet: Cognitive Psychology - Memory

Name

1. Who Researched What and When – complete the blanks in the table…

Who What When

Multi-store model of memory

Sperling 1960

Acoustic storage in STM 1964

Consonant Triagrams

Recall in STM 1966

Miller

Working memory model

Baddeley 1966

Kintsch & Buschke 1969

Declarative & Procedural Memory 1980

Episodic & Semantic Memory

Graf & Schater

2. Complete the following summary table

SM STM WM LTM

Encoding

Duration

Capacity

3. Identify the following as either procedural, episodic or semantic memory

procedural episodic semantic

The capital of France is Paris
How to drive a car

Wasps can sting

Where you went on your last holiday
How to format an exam question

How to use the telephone

How to catch a train
Your journey to school today