PMT
Psychology Factsheets
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Independent Behaviour
This Factsheet is about independent behaviour which is an area of
study in social psychology. The Factsheet includes exam hints and
the worksheet gives you the opportunity to apply what you have
learned to exam-style questions. Words in bold are explained in the
glossary.
The examiner will expect you to be able to:
• Define and explain independent behaviour.
• Outline and evaluate theoretical explanations of independent
behaviour.
• Apply evidence to illustrate factors which affect defiance of
authority.
• Describe the ways in which individuals may resist pressures to
conform.
• Outline and evaluate research studies of independent behaviour.
• Explain individual differences in independent behaviour.
Some people resist pressures to conform or obey and remain in an
autonomous state. This is known as independent behaviour. When
individuals are autonomous they are aware of the consequences of
their behaviour and take responsibility for their actions. This may
be due to environmental/situational factors or to personal/
dispositional factors:
• Situational factors are things to do with the social setting which
are external to the individual.
• Dispositional factors are individual differences including gender,
age, ethnicity, self esteem, independence, locus of control and
desire to ‘fit in’ or gain approval.
Locus of control
Locus of control is a psychological construct to do with perceived
control. Someone with a strong internal locus of control believes
that they are in control of their own circumstances and can alter
what happens to them. Someone with a strong external locus of
control, on the other hand, believes that they have little control
over their own life which they perceive as being determined by
external circumstances. Locus of control is therefore a factor
affecting independent behaviour.
Individual differences
Other factors which affect independent behaviour are feelings of
responsibility, autonomy, independence and agentic state. What
this means is someone who feels responsible for their own actions
is less likely to act like the agent of an authority figure or majority
group. In other words they will remain autonomous and display
independent behaviour. Such a person may also be described as
having a strong internal locus of control.
Exam Hint:- There is likely to be an exam question which asks
you to identify and explain individual differences affecting
independent behaviour. Suitable answers include locus of
control, autonomy, responsibility and agentic state
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Number 88
Defiance of authority
Theories of independent behaviour are used to explain disobedience
or refusal to follow orders which is known as defiance of authority.
Authority figures usually have high status and hold positions of
power in a particular setting, such as teachers, police officers, parents
and doctors. Social impact theory (Latane and Wolf, 1981) suggests
four factors which can be used to explain defiance of authority.
These are status, strength, knowledge and closeness.
• Status – the authority figure may be perceived as lacking status
due to the setting or the absence of uniform.
• Strength – the authority figure may be perceived as having less
strength than others due to the setting or individual differences
such as gender, age or ethnicity.
• Knowledge – the authority figure may be perceived as lacking
knowledge which may deem the order illegitimate and reduce
authority over others.
• Closeness – lack of physical or emotional reduces authority.
Research studies
Milgram’s famous (1963) study illustrates obedience to authority.
His later (1974) study illustrates what happens when the
experimenter’s authority is reduced which can lead to defiance of
authority and exemplifies social impact theory.
High authority Reduced authority Factor
(1963 study) (1974 study)
Staged at Yale Staged in a back- Reduced status
University street office
Experimenter and Experimenter and Reduced
participant in close participant in different closeness
proximity rooms
Experimenter wears a Experimenter wears Reduced status
white coat ordinary clothes
Exam Hint:- You might be asked to refer to empirical evidence
to illustrate factors which affect defiance of authority. Good
answers will accurately describe and analyse evidence from
research, such as Milgram’s studies of obedience to authority
(1963 and 1974). When evaluating the empirical evidence it
could be suggested that obedience levels in more ecologically-
valid situations are higher than those found in research studies
such as Milgram’s. You need to remember that these questions
do not require lengthy descriptions of Milgram’s experiment(s),
just outline the relevant details.
Exam Hint:- You may be provided with a scenario and asked
to illustrate defiance of authority with reference to psychological
research. Answers should refer to both the scenario provided
as well as psychological research.
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88 - Independent Behaviour Psychology Factsheet

Resisting pressures to conform

Another illustration of independent behaviour is seen when people resist pressures to conform to a group norm, such as pressure from
colleagues or peers or members of a jury. This type of independent behaviour can be explained in terms of the situation (situational
explanations) or in terms of the person (dispositional explanations).

Exam Hint:- Explanations of independent behaviour used to describe defiance of authority (locus of control, agentic state, autonomy)
and social impact theory can be also be applied to resisting conformity.

Resisting pressures to conform

• There is a positive correlation between group size and conformity so people are more likely to resist pressure to conform to a smaller
group than a bigger group.
• Low perceived competence in the group decreases conformity.
• If the group are inconsistent or not unanimous in their message then it is easier to resist pressure to conform.
• The presence of another person resisting pressure to conform decreases conformity.

Application of theory
The majority of people conform to group pressures in a variety of contexts. However, some individuals show independent behaviour
and resist pressures to conform. Psychological theories can be used to explain how pressure to conform could be resisted.

Scenario: Jill works for a fast food chain. David is a new employee who is younger than most of his peers and has little experience
in the workplace. He is the only Asian employee. David has been subject to cruel name-calling at work because of his age and
ethnicity. Jill thinks this is wrong and wants to resist pressures to join in with the bullies.

Factor Resisting pressure to conform

Status Jill could approach a senior member of the work group for advice about how to deal with the pressures to
conform.
Strength Jill could reduce the strength of the group by reducing its size. She can face up to smaller groups of colleagues
about how their behaviour affects others.
Knowledge Jill knows that bullying is wrong (and illegal) which will help her to resist pressures to conform.
Closeness Jill could distance herself from the group which will make it easier for her to resist pressures to conform.
Locus of control Jill should realise that if she conforms to group pressures she will be responsible for what happens next.

Exam Hint:- You may be provided with a scenario and asked to illustrate resisting pressures to conform with reference to
psychological research and/or theory. Answers should refer to both the scenario provided as well as psychological research
and/or theory.

Glossary
• Agentic state: a person who is an agent for an authority figure or group is not displaying the opposite of independent behaviour.
• Autonomous: feeling responsible for your own actions and displaying independent behaviour.
• Dispositional explanations: focus on aspects of the person or internal factors such as individual differences (age, gender, ethnicity
etc.).
• Locus of control: psychological construct which explains perceived control as being internal or external to the person.
• Situational explanations: focus on environmental or situational factors which are external to the individual.
• Social impact theory: used to explain social behaviour in terms of status, strength, knowledge and closeness.

Acknowledgements: This Psychology Factsheet was researched and written by Jeanine Connor.
The Curriculum Press, Bank House, 105 King Street, Wellington, Shropshire, TF1 1NU.
Psychology Factsheets may be copied free of charge by teaching staff or students, provided that their school is a registered subscriber. No part of these Factsheets may be reproduced, stored
in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any other form or by any other means, without the prior permission of the publisher. ISSN 1351-5136

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88 - Independent Behaviour Psychology Factsheet

Worksheet: Independent Behaviour

Name
1. Identify two factors which can lead to defiance of authority and illustrate this with an everyday example.

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2. Define locus of control and explain how it can affect independent behaviour.

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3. Outline research into the influence that individual differences have on independent behaviour.

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4. Refer to empirical evidence to illustrate factors which affect defiance of authority.

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5. Identify two factors which can lead to resisting pressure to conform and illustrate this with an everyday example.

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