BIN WALL LOADS Alan W. Roberts. Emeritus Professor Centre for Bulk Solids and Particulate Technologies, The University of Newcastle, NSW, Australia 1, GENERAL COMMENTS In bin design, the prediction of bin wall loads continues to be a subject of some considerable complexity. Despite the widely varying approaches to the analysis of bin wall loads, it is clear that the loads are directly related to the flow pattern developed in the bin. ‘The flow pattern which a mass-flow bin exhibits is reasonably easy to predict and is reproducible. However, in funnel-flow bins the flow pattern is more difficult to ascertain, especially if the bin has multiple outlet points, the loading of the bin is not central and/or the bulk solid is prone to segregation, Unless there are compelling reasons to do otherwise, bin shapes should be kept simple and symmetric. ‘These brief notes present some salient aspects of bin wall loads with reference to the Australian Standard AS 3774-1996, "Loads on Bulk Solids Containers" (1). 2. MASS-FLOW BINS The stress fields and normal wall pressures occurring in mass-flow bins for the initial filling and flow conditions are shown in Figure 1. When a bin is initially filled from the empty condition, a peaked stress field occurs as in Figure I(a); the major principal pressure is almost vertical. When flow occurs, the stress field in the hopper switches to an arch stress field, the switch travelling up the hopper becoming locked in at the transition as in Figure 1(b). In the arched stress field, the load is transmitted to the wall of the hopper with the major principal stress acting more in a horizontal direction. be ae aed etl atm a ft f= if AWR CBSPT 3Above the hopper, that is in the cylinder, the peaked stress field remains, although imperfections in the cylinder wall which give rise to localised flow convergences cause over- pressures to occur in the cylinder. Imperfections in bin walls, which give rise to over- pressures, may be due to manufacturing and/or constructional details such as weld projections or plate shrinkages in the case of steel bins or deformation of form work in the case of conerete bins. Jenike has used strain-energy methods to analyse these over-pressures during flow in the cylinder. In view of the difficulty of using the Jenike strain energy method, design codes generally employ over-pressure factors to account for flow conditions in the cylinder. ‘This is indicated by the upper bound pa curve for the cylinder in Figure 1(b). It is to be noted that when the bin discharges and the flow is stopped, the stress fields and corresponding pressures shown in Figure 1(b) will remain. The stress field does not revert to that of Figure 1(a); this only occurs if the bin is completely emptied and then filled again. 3. CYLINDER PRESSURES 3.1 Initial Filling Case (a) Janssen Equations for Initial Wall Loads ‘The cylinder refers to the upper, parallel section of the bin. The initial pressures as those ‘occurring when the bin is completely filled from the empty condition. Ata given depth y from the actual datum (Figure 1), the average vertical pressure py and normal wall pressure py are given by the Janssen equation with an initial surcharge term included. Referring to Figure 1, it can be established that the differential equation for the vertical pressure is, dpy kpy dpe wkpy dy Te = a) Solving equation (1) and noting that when y = 0 the average vertical surcharge pressure is yo» the following equation is obtained: se po HELL. eG] + pio eke) ay @) H / where re = characteristic radius of container y= ps Bulk specific weight p = bulk material density g = acceleration due to gravity u tan dw = coefficient of wall frietion év = wall frietion angle Pio = average surcharge pressure due to natural surcharge of material caused by filling ko i = lateral pressure rat ‘The normal pressure ppj acting on the wall is given by © AWR CBSPT 32Pai=k py @) Hence from (2) and (3), Pai “ety eH] + pyy eX) 4 where Pno= k Pvo ) ‘The Janssen curve for the cylinder are shown in Figure I(c). (b) Expressions given by AS3774-1996 It is noted that AS3774 expresses Pi as pales 0 where cy = L-exp(-z/ 20) (i) and we if ii) Hence pis fr otk w) Here z is the depth below the effective datum (Figure 1) and is such that z= yths When 2=hs, Pri Pro Ue (uk bse Hence Pro - e@EM] (yy Changing datum to correspond to the level at which the surcharge intersects the wall, that is, changing depth variable from z to y, it may be shown that (iv) and (v) become paim [1-H] ppp eM (vi which is the same as equation (4). (©) Characteristic Radius te () For Round or Square Container te = D/4 for round or square container D = Bin diameter or Width ©AWR CBSPT 33(ii) For Rectangular Container of length L and width D Lip For Short Side For Long Side 15 0.27D 0.30D 20 0.30D 033 D 4.0 0.33D 0.40D 5.0 035D 0.50D NOTE: AS3774 uses the symbol de instead of D, where de is the diameter of a cylindrical container or the largest inscribed circle of any shape. (@) Pressure Ratio k ‘The coefficient k relates the normal pressure py to the average vertical pressure py. ‘That is, k = Pnipy ©) The value of k varies depending on the cylinder geometry. In accordance with AS3774, k is such that 1+ sin’ sin?6 - yw? cosS k G42 + cost = 035 a where & = Effective angle of internal friction (AS3774 uses 6; for 5) 1} = Coefficient of friction for bulk solid on cylinder wall ‘Thus k > 0.35. For almost all practical values of 8 and 1, equation (4) gives values of k < 0.35 so that k = 0.35 becomes the lower limit. In the absence of more detailed information the value k = 0.4 is often used. (©) Initial Surcharge Pressure To conform with AS3774, the initial surcharge pressure py would be estimated by: pom te te eke) However, itis appropriate to determine pyo from Pvo= hs (8) where hg= effective surcharge ‘The corresponding value of po is Pao =k Pvo = Ky hs ° ©AWR CBSPT 34hh depends on the bin shape and manner in which the bin is loaded. ‘Assuming central loading, then for an axi-symmetric bin a conical surcharge is assumed; for fa plane-flow bin in which the length is greater than the width, an approximate triangular shape would occur if a travelling feeding arrangement, such as a tripper, is used. With these ‘ovo limits: m,+2 (10) where mg = 0 for triangular surcharge m; = | for conical surcharge H, = actual surcharge head For a plane-flow bin, some rounding of the ends of the top surface of material is likely to ‘occur so that an approximate intermediate value of ms can be used. ‘The surcharge head is given by Dtan ¢r Hy => an where D. = diameter, or width of bin or angle of repose 3.2 Cylinder Pressures - Flow Case In accordance with AS3774-1996, the flow pressure in the cylinder is obtained by multiplying, the Janssen pressure by the factor ent. Pnf = nf Phi (12) where cpris the larger of ene = [7.6 (hylde)" - 6.4 J 6c (13) and — ep¢ = 1.2 c¢ a4) hg +h, = total effective height of stored solid c. = | for axi-symmetric flow = 1.2 for planar flow n = 0.06 4d. =D Pri = Janssen pressure given by equation (4) ‘The flow pressures for the cylinder are shown in Figure I(c). ©AWR CBSPT 384, MASS-FLOW HOPPER PRESSURES 4.1 General Expression ‘The pressures acting in the hopper are shown in Figure 2. The normal pressure acting against the wall is related to the average vertical pressure across the slice at depth zh by a parameter ky such that: ye Be as) From an equilibrium analysis, the average vertical pressure acting in the hopper at an arbitrary depth zy below the transition gives rise to the following differential equation: dpvh A Pvh dt (h-m) ~Y ag Solution of this equation leads to: ble 2 CR 1 an Figure 2. Equilibrium of Element in Hopper The normal pressure on the hopper wall is @AWR CBSPT 36Pat = knePvt where j= net fin (1 +t) - i} o. @ = hopper half angle Ps = surcharge pressure at datum transition hh, = distance from apex to transition y= bulk specific weight <7 éw = wall friction angle. m = symmetry factor = | for axi-symmetric or conical hoppers = 0 for plane-flow hoppers 42 Hopper Pressures - Initial Filling Case (18) ay) For the initial filling case, the minimum value of ky (that is, kj), is used. For this case, j = 0 and the vertical pressure pynjis hydrostatic, From equation (17), with j= 0, Pvhi= Ps + 2h and the normal pressure Pai is Pahi = Kni Pvhi = Kni (Ps + 72h) and from (19) with j = 0, kei = Gages @2) tan dw + tana 4.3. Hopper Pressures - Flow Case Equations (17) and (18) apply. ‘That is b by ponr= Eq" klo.-Gap te y] Pant = knePvhe (mt) {het +s) : i} 4.4 Pressure Ratio kn¢ and (20) en (23) (24) (25) The stress or pressure conditions acting in the flow channel and corresponding Mohr circle representation are shown in Figure 3. AWR CBSPT 37Horizontal Slice (@) Flow Channel in Hopper ‘Shear %, Sires * . ' 8 Effective Yield Locus EYL, Wall Yield Locus WYL (0) Yield Loci Figure 3. Stress or Pressure ions in Hopper during Flow ‘The application of equations (23) to (25) requires a knowledge of the value of knf, Three cases are considered: (@) Case 1. Modified Jenike Method [2] A conservative upper bound estimate of the normal wall pressures for flow in the hopper is given when kpeis set at the maximum value: kuin =< 26) ow (si m) gu _ Y(t sin§ cos 2n) (95) where yB 2(X-1sina ©AWR CBSPT 38} (28) and where (29) 1 sin 8 + 2m sin 6 [zea 2, | (0) L-sind: sina. 2 (L-cos (n+a)))™(n4a)!-Msin «+ sin n sin ™ (+a) Y (-sin 8)sin2"™ (p40) 6D w= tan w= Pnhf = normal pressure at wall where w = wall friction angle 8= effective angle of internal friction 1 for axi-symmetric flow m = 0 for plane-flow In equation (31) the plane-flow numerator term (o:') must be in radians. In genereal, the modified Jenike method tends to over-estimate the switch pressure (Figure 1), and is not recommended. (b) Case 2._AS3774 - 1996 ‘The value of kyeas given by Australian Standard AS3774-1996 is _ L+ sin 8 cos 2n kur T-sin 8 cos (a+ 1) (32) (sin dw n= 08 (Guy t sin ES 3) i = ch [kp (tan dw cot a + 1) - 1) oh 2 for a conical or pyramidal hopper = 1 for a wedge or slot hopper (©) Case 3. Modified Value of kr The value of kyrgiven by AS3774-1996, (equation (32)), assumes that pyyrat the wall, Figure 2, is constant across the horizontal slice. Since the major consolidation pressure o1 is constant around the arch and not across the slice, the vertical pressure pyxe cannot be constant across the slice. ‘The net result is that kyg value given by equation (32) tends to under- estimate the normal pressures in the region of the transition in some cases. For this reason, the modified value given below is recommended. © AWR CBSPT 392.0 + sin6 cos2n) _ 2.(1 + sind 0082: Kut" 2 Tsind (1 + c0s2(a +m) ‘The value of ky given by equation (34) is based on the average value of the vertical pressure Pvhrcalculated at the wall and at the centre for the horizontal slice. 5. SURCHARGE PRESSURE p; ACTING ON HOPPER The computation of the surcharge pressure ps acting on a mass-flow hopper at the transition datum level (See Figure 2) depends on the stress field established in the surcharge load. ‘The following cases are considered: 5.1 Mass-Flow and Expanded Flow Bins Referring to Figure 4, the stress field in the upper cylindrical section is peaked and the surcharge pressure is given by the Janssen equatioi ce) (5) where (36) he = height of material in contact with cylinder walls k 0.35 (Often assumed as 0.4) Other variables as previously defined. oe (a) Mass-Flow ‘igure 4. Mass. ©@AWR CBSPT 3.10The surcharge pressure computed from equation (35) is used when determining both the initial and flow pressures acting in the hopper. 5.2 Gravity Reclaim Stockpile The use of mass-flow reclaim hoppers and feeders under stockpiles is illustrated in Figure 5. ‘The determination of surcharge head and pressure in the case of stockpiles is somewhat uncertain owing to the significant variations that can occur in the consolidation conditions existing within the stored bulk solid. The state of consolidation of the bulk solid is influenced by such factors as + Stockpile management and loading history + Loading and unloading cycle times and length of undisturbed storage time + Variations in moisture content + Degree of segregation + Variations in the quality of bulk solid over long periods of time + Compaction effects of heavy mobile equipment that may operate on the surface of the stockpile As a result of recent research and ficld studies, procedures are recommended for the following three cases: (@) Case | - Freshly Formed or Uniformly Consolidated Stockpile in which withdrawal ‘occurs at regular intervals. Ps = 7 bse (37) That is the effective head is equal to the actual head, This is the most conservative solution. (b) Case 2. - Less Conservative Solution In some cases, a less conservative solution may be applied through the use of the Rankine pressure or head. ‘That is Ps=7hst cos >, 38) where @,= Angle of repose AWR CBSPT 31Surcharge L, Pressure rere? ol =H - = lq—l —b<— Figure 5. Gravity Reclaim Stockpile L (©. Case 3 - Preformed Rathole Where a stockpile is well consolidated and a stable, preformed rahole exists, the rathole acts asa pseudo bin. The consolidation pressure may be estimated using equation (35) where Dy : 69) H=hy hs=hp 40) and p=sind @p NOTE: The surcharge pressures computed for case described are used when determining both the initial and flow pressures acting in the hopper. 5.3 Change in Slope and/or Lining in Mass-Flow Hopper Sometimes either or both the hopper slope and lining surface are changed. In this case a peaked stress field exists for the initial case and an arched stress field for the flow case. The changing hopper conditions are illustrated in Figure 6. ©AWR CBSPT 3.12(@) Initial Filling Pressures Here ps is determined using equation (20) for the upper hopper section. At the datum level Ps = Pvhi 42) Hopper Slope and/or (&) Flow Case In this case ps is determined using equation (23) for the upper hopper section. At the datum level Ps = Pune 3) 6. EXAMPLE - MASS-FLOW BIN ‘As an example, consider the mass-flow bin of Figure 7. The bin is to handie coal. It is required to calculate the wall pressures. ‘The following information is given: w= 30° for cylinder; y=20° for hopper; Bulk density p=1 tim}; 8 = 50°. The wall pressures have been determined using the procedures described herein. The pressures are plotted in Figure 8. The relevant parameters are: For Cylinder: k=0.35; en¢= 1.387 ForHopper: kyj0.526; kyp=2.461 (based on equation (34); j AWR CBSPT 3.13Cylinder: Mild Steet | Hopper Lining: Stainless Steel Type 304 - 28 HEIGHT ABOVE OUTLET (mm) N2 oo 6 aa NORMAL PRESSURES ON WALL (KPa) Figure 8. Normal Wall Pressures for Bin of Figure 7 7. IN-PLANE FORCES ‘Ata given location in the bin, the design loads for that location are selected to be the larger of the initial and flow loadings. The loads which act on the bin walls are shown in Figure 1, the shear stresses t are assumed to be related to the normal pressure pq by: = patan bw (44) The in-plane loads are given by @AWR CBSPT 3.4V= fede (44a) ‘The in-plane forces in the cylindrical section of the silo walls are obtained by integrating the shear force along the silo wall. For a silo of circular cross-section, the initial or static in- plane force per unit circumference in kN/m is given by wast? Lye Gay! hem”) as) ‘The flow values of the in-plane force are computed from [44] Not cot Noi (46) where cage = traction flow multiplier = 1.2 for cylinder = 1.4 for plane-flow containers {upper bound value of wall friction angle K_ = ratio of lateral to vertical pressure z= depth below surface In the hopper walls, the accumulated effects of the shear stresses and the normal stresses acting on the hopper walls give rise to both in-plane forces and forces perpendicular to the hopper walls respectively. The magnitude of these forces change at discontinuities in the hopper walls. These forces in the hopper walls may be expressed per unit circumference. 8 INFLUENCE OF BULK SOLIDS PARAMETERS ON WALL LOADS In general, the wall loads are maximised if the following design values are used: FRICTION VALUE Internal ‘Wall 6 ow 7 =F Cylinders: hn CB | 4 Normal Wall Pressure Indep. Fg ag} Minimum ws In-plane wall forces Indep.) | Maximum. ro Hopper: Normal wall pressures Maximum Cylinder - minimum Shear stress on wall Maximum Hopper - maximum In-plane wall forces Hopper_~ maximum Bulk Density: For all predictions use maximum value ©AWR CBSPT 3.159. FUNNEL-FLOW BINS ‘The methods for predicting the wall loads in funnel-flow bins, such as due to Jenike et al [9] and AS 3774-1996 [2] make use of the Janssen method for predicting the static or 1 filling loads on the vertical walls; over-pressure factors are applied to account for the increased wall loads under dynamic or flow conditions. The theories assume a single symmetric outlet. Such an outlet is the only one which allows the flow pattern in the bin to be predicted with any degree of certainty. It should be appreciated that even with such an arrangement there can be no guarantee that the flow pattern will remain symmetrical. Non- symmetrical flow patterns can result when a segregated stream of material is charged into a bin causing the fines to fall on one side of the bin and the coarse on another side. The difference in flowability between the fine and coarse fractions will result in the flow pattern developing preferentially in the better flowing (coarse) fraction, In symmetric funnel-flow bins, an effective transition controls the flow channel as indicated in Figure 9. AS3774-1996 gives the lower bound of the effective transition as he 04 detan 8 a7) where de =D = Bin diameter or width & =Effective angle of internal friction Be process, the procedure for design involves defining the position at which the effective transition is likely to occur. In the upper cylindrical section of the bin, imperfections in the walls can give rise to increased pressures. The flow pressures, depicted in Figure 25, are normally computed by the application of over-pressure factors on Janssen. ‘The procedures outlined in Section 3.2 may be applied in this case. Locus of Pressure Peaks During Discharge Effective Transition — Lowest Position of Effective Transition LF Figure 9. Pressures in Funnel Flow Ina multi-outlet bin, such as that shown in Figure 10, the' effective transition is hye =0.4 (de -2e)tand (48) ‘©AWR CBSPT 3.16Effective Transitions }—(1) Central Discharge |—(2) Multi Discharge ny ny" - | terol» 10. ECCENTRIC DISCHARGE ‘The analysis of the pressures in bins with non-symmetric flow patterns due to eccentric outlets is a subject of considerable complexity. The walls of bins having a single eccentric outlet or bins with multiple outlets are subject to bending stresses in addition to hoop stresses. It is possible for bending stresses in the order of three times the hoop stresses to experienced [4,5]. In general, eccentric loading should be avoided if possible. Hl Slight external Hoop strainx(100 ve) o1234 5.6 | 400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400 discharge 1500 1900 2300 2700 7s 3100 32 J il sa 4 Sile fleer 00 ou Stlo contents (connec) alechacne Observed flow patterns Figure 11. Flow Patterns and Wall Deflections in a Multi-Outlet Funnel Flow Coal Bin (©AWR CBSPT beBy way of example, Figure 11 shows the flow patterns and measured hoop strains in a 15 metre diameter by 25 metre high concrete coal bin. The bin has seven outlets, one in the centre and six equally spaced, eccentrically located outlets as shown. Bending is induced in the bin walls and the shell deformed as indicated by the dotted curve. As noted in AS3774-1996, "The design pressures shall depend on the eccentricity of the outlet, ¢o, relative to the dimension of the container, de. An eccentricity less than 0.1 de shall be treated as no effective eccentricity. The relevant details are given in Figure 12. Reduced Pressure, Increased B Pressure Hn - Prrcttaxy Pretmin) Uniform Pressure- symmetric Discharge Increased Pressure WEAR] SIDE Figure 12. Eccentric Flow Pressure Distribution for Single Fecentric Outlet @AWRCBSPT 3.18A horizontal fine drawn through the axis of the container through the eccentric outlet shall be termed the eccentricity axis. Points on the wall on the same side as the outlet shall be termed the NEAR SIDE, while those on the wall remote from the outlet shall be termed the FAR SIDE.’ 10.1 Pressure Increases ‘The pressure increase on the FAR SIDE of the silo, Figure 12, is found to act over a height de and is centred a distance hp above the silo base. The value of hp is hp = (0.5 de + e9) tan 3 (49) where: e9 = eccentricity of discharge outlet, Figure B.2 ‘The maximum pressure increase, defined to be pefmax by AS3774-1996, acts on the eccentricity axis and on the FAR SIDE, Figure 12, and is noted by 0 Pefmax = oar iE 01) 20.0 (50) where: ppp = ~—_-normal pressure acting on the wall during material flow For a circular container the pressure increase variation is For B between 90° and 270": Pet Pefmax (- cosf3) G1) For B between - 90° and 90°: per= 0 (52) circumferential coordinate measured from the eccentricity axis on the NEAR SIDE of the silo normal pressure inerease due to eceenttric flow where: B Pet 10.2 Pressure Reductions The maximum pressure reduction, defined to be pefred by AS3774-1996, acts on the NEAR SIDE, Figure 12, and is noted by Petre = 15 ou (2 “0 1) (3) where: pnp = normal pressure acting on the wall during material flow The pressure reduction given by equation (53) is taken to be constant at a particular height above the silo base, and, for a circular container, acts over an angle of Be either side of the silo eccentricity axis. The value of Be is 150 € Be = 105-G (54) where: Be = circumferential range of pressure reduction, degrees @AWR CBSPT 3.1911, FACTORS AFFECTING BIN LOADS 11.1 Moisture Influences on Bin Loads Significant increases in wall loads may occur in grain silos due to increases in grain moisture content during storage [6]. Such loadings have been identified as a contributing factor to the failure and collapse of a steel grain bin in Australia, Laboratory measurements on a model wheat silo coupled with triaxial tests performed on wheat at the University of Newcastle in Australia, have shown that for increases of moisture content from approximately 9% (w.b.) to 13% (w.b.) resulted in pressure increases on the silo walls of approximately nine times, This is due to the ‘reverse friction’ effect at the wall caused by the grain wanting to expand upward due to swelling as illustrated in Figure 13. Normal Case (anssen) Reverse Friction Aerator Ducts Pa AULA Normal Case Reverse Friction due to Grain Swelling Figure 13. Silo Wall Pressures under both Normal and Reverse Friction Conditions [=P Saverage nr'de Prtdoy Central Segment Figure 14. Boundary Layer Model for Silo Wall Loads due to jin Swelling @AWR CBSPT 3.20(alRaR, 205 Janssen WN X=2m Ware ei 3 feverse Friction Depth z {m) a 20. 2 200 50 Pressure p (kPa) Wall Pressure Distributions Figure 15. Influence of Boundary Laver on Si 11.2 Temperature Effects Wall loads in storage bins for bulk solids are subject to significant variations in wall loads due to thermal expansion and contraction [6]. Measurements of wall pressures have shown that pressures reduce during the day as a bin expands and increase during the night when the ambient temperature reduces and the bin contracts. However, complete contraction of the bin may not occur owing to the resistance of the stored bulk solid which has settled during the expansion phase. Hence, wall loads may not only be influenced by daily temperature fluctuations, but may also be cumulative over extended periods of undisturbed storage. The influence of wall load increase due to expansion and contraction is likely to be more pronounced in the case of grain or relatively free flowing material which can settle more readily. In the case of grain, the influence can be of considerable significance when coupled with the effects of moisture increases as discussed in 12.1 above. When considering expansion and contraction of silos, itis often the case that only the lateral or diametral expansion and contraction are considered. In addition to lateral expansion a bin or silo will expand upwardly in the longitudinal direction, the amount of longitudinal expansion, for most bin aspect ratios, being of the same order as the lateral expansion. This is illustrated in Figure 16. When the bin cools, not only does it contract laterally, but it also contracts longitudinally. As the bin walls ‘pull down’ due to this latter action, there is a strong likelihood that the shear stress at the wall due to wall friction will change direction from down to up. This reverse friction is the ‘piston effect’ which can result in wall pressures significantly higher than the hydrostatic pressures. Pressures due to reverse fr significantly add to those induced by the lateral contraction of the silo. ©AWR CBSPT 321i i < 1 1 = —_ ' > 1 = < P Po v a > i 7 ‘Aeration { i Ducts, i —s i < ete beh Expansion ‘contraction Figure 16. Expansion and Contraction of a Silo It needs to be noted that the thermal expansion and contraction influences on wall loads are most likely to be non-uniform around the silo wall owing to the relative position of the sun with respect to the silo. Hence eccentric type loadings will be induced in this way. 11.3 Influence of Vibr: Vibrations may occur as follows: * Naturally due to seismic effects * Induced during transport of bulk solids such as by ship or rail * Induced in bins due to influence of adjacent machinery * Be applied directly in the case of flow promotion. It is worth noting that in the case of seismic activity, the vibrations are of low frequency, approximately 4-6 Hertz, and large amplitude. Provided the stored bulk mass is well contained and not ‘hung up’, seismic activity will more likely have a much greater influence as a result of the mass-spring effect of the structure as a whole rather than internal movement or ‘sloshing’ effect of the stored mass relative to the bin. If, for example, a rathole exists in a in, then seismic activity may well cause the rathole to collapse and, as a result, cause a dynamic load to be applied. Research has shown that the greatest reduction in bulk strength of a stored bulk solid is likely to occur at frequencies of 100 Hertz and higher and small amplitudes. Such frequencies are well above those occurring naturally due to seismic influences. Where moisture contents of bulk solids are relatively high, then seismic activity may give rise to ‘sloshing’, or movement of the stored mass relative to the bin, This action would be similar to the movement of bulk cargoes during ship transport. 11.4 Bin Wall Flexibility Experimental studies have shown that hopper wall pressures are affected significantly by the flexibility of the walls. In the case of mass-flow, the initial hopper pressures may increase above the hydrostatic based analytical values in the region of the centre height, but will decrease below the computed hydrostatic based values towards and at the hopper outlet. The flow pressures will tend to be lower than the analytical values at and near the transition but higher towards the hopper outlet. ©AWR CBSPT 3.2212, PULSATING LOADS IN BINS - 'SILO QUAKING' 12.1 General Discussion As is often the case, the solution of one problem which leads to an improvement in plant performance exposes other problems which require further research and development. This applies particularly to gravity flow in storage bins and silos where the application of known theories for reliable discharge, such as by mass-flow, can give rise to dynamic or pulsating flow effects [7]. These effects are normally imperceptible as far as bin discharge is concerned having no detrimental effect on the plant operation. However, the pulsating flow can have a significant influence on the loads acting on bin walls by imposing severe dynamic loads. The phenomenon is often described as ‘silo quaking’; it may be linked to the critical head Her for mass-flow. Referring to the mass-flow bin depicted in Figure 17; as the material flows, it dilates leading to variations in density from the static condition. This is depicted pictorially in Figure 15(b). With H > Her, the flow in the cylinder is uniform or ‘plug-like’ over the cross-section, with flow along the walls. In the region of the transition, the flow starts to converge due to the influence of the hopper and the velocity profile is no longer uniform. The velocity profile is further developed in the hopper as shown . As the flow pressures generate in the hopper the further dilation of the bulk solid occurs. As a result of the dilation, it is possible that the vertical supporting pressures decrease slightly reducing the support given to the plug of bulk solid in the cylinder. This causes the plug to drop momentarily giving rise to a load pulse. The cycle is then repeated. For Mass- j<0-»| Flow, ONE { Her vv. 4 Velocity Profiles} Variable Density Dilation (Diagrammatic) Consolidating Pressure (@) Nelocity Profiles and Pressure Distribution, (b) Variable Density and Dilation Figure 17. Mass-Flow Bin Studies of the phenomenon of pulsating loads in bins and silos are presently in progress at the University of Neweastle, Australia. In this work, a pilot scale mass-flow, steel silo 1.2m CAWR CBSPT 3.23diameter by 3.5 m high and fitted with a stainless steel hopper is being used. The silo is fitted with 14 load cells, these cells being capable of measuring both normal pressure and wall shear stress. An example of a wall pressure and shear stress records depicting the pulsating load in the cylinder are shown in Figure 18. igure 18. Load Cell Records depicting Pulsating Loads in Mass-Flow Bin A similar action to that described above for mass-flow bins may occur in tall funnel-flow bins or silos where the effective transition intersects the wall in the lower region of the silo. As a result, there is flow along the walls of a substantial mass of bulk solid above the effet transition, During funne!-flow in bins of squat proportions, where there is no flow along the walls, as depicted in Figure 19, dilation of the bulk solid occurs as it expands in the flow channel. As a result some reduction in the radial support given to the stationary material may occur. If the hopper is fairly steeply sloped, say [0 8)], then the stationary mass may_slip momentarily causing the pressure in the flow channel to increase as a result of the ‘squeezing! action. The cycle then repeats. A similar behaviour may occur in expanded flow bins, such as the bin depicted in Figure 20. Pulsating loads can occur in such bins, particularly if the slope angle 0 of the transition is too steep. Owing to segregation on filling, larger size particles are more likely to be located adjacent to the sloping surface at the lower end of the funnel-flow section. Such particles tend to roll as well as slide, aggravating the load slipping problem and giving rise to load pulsations. Problems of this type have been experienced in large coal bins. ©AWR CBSPT 3.24\/ Funnel Flow Flow Zone (Dilated Condition) Stationary Material Slip as Pressure B. Relaxes ¥ igure 19, Funnel Flow Bi Figure 20. Expanded Flow Bin 12.2. Multi-Outlet Coal Bins Silo-quaking problems have been known to occur in bins with multiple outlets. By way of illustration, consider the large coal bin shown in Figure 21. The bin has seven outlets, six around an outer pitch circle and one located centrally. The hopper geometries provide for reliable flow permitting complete discharge of the bin contents. Coal was discharged by means of seven vibratory feeders onto a centrally located conveyor belt. When the bin was full or near full, severe shock loads were observed at approximately 3 second intervals during discharge. The discharge rate from each feeder was in the order of 300 t/h. When the level in the bin had dropped to approximately half the height, the shock loads had diminished significantly. With all the outlets operating, the effective transition was well down towards the bottom of the bin walls and the critical head Hy Was of the same order as the bin diameter and greater than Dp. Substantial flow occurred along the walls, and since the reclaim hoppers were at a critical slope for mass and funnel-flow as determined by flow property tests, the conditions were right for severe ‘silo quaking’ to occur. ie Effective transition for Central Feeders Operating Effective Transition {for All Feeders or Outside Feeders Operating Plan of Bin (Reduced Scale) ©AWR CBSPTConfirmation of the mechanism of silo quaking was obtained in field trials conducted on the bin. In one series of tests the three feeders along the centre line parallel with the reclaim conveyor were operated, while the four outer feeders were not operated. This induced funnel- flow in a wedged-shaped pattern as indicated in Figure 21, with the effective transition occurring well up the bin walls, that is Hm< Her (=Dp) or Hyy<< D. The same was true when only the central feeder (Fdr. 1) was operated; in this case the stationary material in the bin formed a conical shape. Under these conditions, the motion down the walls was greatly restricted and, as a result, the load pulsations were barely perceptible. Ina second set of trials, the three central feeders were left stationary, while the four outer feeders were operated. This gave rise to the triangular prism shaped dead region in the central region, with substantial mass-flow along the walls. The load pulsations were just as severe in. this case as was the case with all feeders operating. Dynamic strain measurements were made using strain gauges mounted on selected support columns. When the bin was full (or near full), the measured dynamic strains with Hm >> Her were in the order of 4 times the strains measured when the flow pattern was controlled so that Hm< Her. 13, USE OF ANTI-DYNAMIC TUBE TO CONTROL SILO WALL PRESSURES silo walls; as a result, mass- flow of grain with flow along the walls occurs over a substantial height of the silo above the effective transition. The effect is to cause dynamic pressures to be generated, these pressures being in the order of two to three times the static pressures generated after the silo is filled from the empty condition, ‘As shown by Reimbert [8] , it is possible, by the use of an anti-dynamic tube, to control the flow pattern so that funnel-flow always occurs without flow along the walls. In this way, the wall pressures never exceed the static values. Reimbert's anti-dynamic tube, placed centrally in a symmetrical silo, extends almost the whole height and has a series of holes or ports to allow grain to enter the tube at various levels. (AWR CBSPT 3.26MEASURED PRESSURES. Model Silo Mean Static Pressure Mean Flow Pressure | Anti ti (Tube Fitted) | Dynamic Tube ; Mean Flow Pressure (No Tube) Lowest Observed Pressure ——- Effective Transition an 4s? jc Tube to Control Pressures in Tall Grain Silos, ‘A variation of the Reimbert tube is the tremmie tube which has no holes in the walls and extends slightly less than half the height of the silo. Research using this type of anti-dynamic tube was conducted at the University of Newcastle, Australia [9]. Figure 21 shows, schematically, the 1.2 m diameter by 3.5 m tall model flat bottom test silo and a sample set of test results. ‘The work was initiated in order to provide a simple and low cost solution to controlling the pressures in a number of badly cracked concrete grain silos approximately ten times the scale. In effect, the tremmie tube divides the tall funnel-flow silo into two squat silos in series. The top half of the silo discharges first followed by the bottom part once the level drops below the top of the tremmie tube and the tube empties. Ports in the bottom of the tube allow grain to flow laterally to the silo outlet. ‘The design of the bottom ports and tube sizing in relation to the silo outlet dimension are important in order to promote automatic choking of the lateral flow at the bottom until the tube empties, No valves are necessary. The arrangement ensures that at no time does the effective transition intersect the walls of the silo and hence the pressures never exceed the values corresponding to the static or initial filling condition. This is illustrated in the test results of Figure 22. ‘The anti-dynamic tube described above has been successfully used to control the flow in silos having eccentric and multiple discharge points. Without the tube in place, the walls of such silos are subject to significant bending stresses in addition to the hoop stresses. ©AWR CBSPT 3.27It is to be noted that the anti-dynamic tube described here is suitable only for free flowing, cohesionless bulk solids such as grain. They should not be used for cohesive bulk solids. 14, REFERENCES 1. Australian Standard AS3774-1996, "Loads on Bulk Solids Containers", Standards Association of Australia. 2. Jenike, A.W. "Load Assumptions and Disatributions in Silo Design". Paper presented at conference on Construction of Concrete Silos, Oslo, Norway, January, 1977. 3. Jenike, A.W., Johanson, JR. & Carson, J.W., "Bin Loads - Part 4: Funnel Flow Bins", Journal of Engng. for Industry, Trans. ASME, Series B, Vol. 95, No. 1, 1973, 4, Roberts, A.W. & Ooms, M., "Wall Loads in Large Steel and Concrete Bins and Silos due to Eccentric Draw-down and other Factors", Proc. Int. Conf, Design of Silos for Strength and Flow, Stratford-Upton-Avon, U.K., Nov. 1983. (pp.151-170) 5. Ooms, M. & Roberts, A.W., "An Overview of Silo Wall Loads with Special Emphasis on the Flow Pattern and Wall Pressure Interrelationship", Proc. Int. Conference on Particulate and Multi-Phase Processes", Miami Beach, U.S.A., April, 1985. 6. Roberts, A. W. "Some Aspects of Grain Silo Wall Pressure Research - Influence of Moisture Content on Loads Generated and Control of Pressures in Tall Multi-Outlet Silos". Proc. 13th Intl. Powder and Bulk Solids Conf., Chicago, USA, May 1988. (pp.11-24). 7. Roberts, A.W. "Shock Loads in Silos - The 'Silo Quaking" Problem". Bulk Solids Handling, Vol. 16, No. 1, January, March, 1996, 8. _Reimbert, M. and Reinbert, A. ‘Silos, Theory and Practice". Trans Tech Publication, germany, 1976, 9. Ooms, M. and Roberts, A.W. "The Reduction and Control of Flow Pressures in Cracked Grain Silos". Bulk Solids Handling, Vol. 5, No.5, Oct. 1985. (pp.1009-1016). @AWR cBSPT 3.28