Why Chemical Bonds?
Molecular Compounds
•  Atoms form bonds in order to satisfy their
valence octets
•  Most atoms are more stable in a
compound than as free atoms
•  Bond energy is the amount of energy
released when atoms form bonds. It is
also the amount of energy needed to then
break the bonds
Ionic Compounds
•  Octet is satisfied by the transfer of electrons
•  A salt is compound made of ions (usually a
metal and nonmetal) that are attract to each
other. Remember opposite charges attract
•  Formula unit is the simplest ratio of the types
and numbers of atoms in a salt
Ionic Compounds
•  Properties
–  Ions form a crystal lattice
–  Lattice energy is the amount of energy released when
the crystal lattice forms (this represents how much
energy is needed to break the bond or dissolve the
compound)
–  The larger the magnitude (negative) of the lattice
energy the more stable the bond is
–  Ions can be monatomic or polyatomic in nature
–  Polyatomic ions are groups of covalently bonded
atoms that carry a specific charge
•  Octet rule: compounds occur by gaining, losing,
or sharing electrons so that atoms have 8 e- in
their outer energy level
–  Covalent bonds occur by atoms sharing electrons with
the goal of getting 8 electrons in their outer energy
level
–  A molecule is a compound made of elements that are
covalently bonded (usually nonmetals) with a net
charge of zero
–  The molecular formula shows the types and numbers
of atoms in a molecule
•  Examples: H2O, CH4O, C6H12O6
Ionic versus Covalent
compounds
•  Ionic compounds have higher melting and
boiling points
•  Ionic compounds will conduct electricity
when melted
•  Ionic compounds are hard and brittle
Lewis Structures
•  A convenient way to represent chemical compound
structures
–  Dots represent valence electrons
–  Electrons (dots) are placed around atomic symbols in a
clockwise fashion, with one electron on each side (imagine a
square around the symbol) before placing two on one side
(pairing)
–  The structure shows how electrons are shared within the
molecule as well as the unshared valence electrons
–  A structural formula shows us how the atoms are arranged in a
molecule but does not show the unshared pairs of electrons
•  Example: F–F and H–Cl
–  Single bonds are one shared pair, a double bond two shared
pairs, and a triple bond is three shared pairs of electrons
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 Sample Try These
•  Draw electron dot structures for atoms of •  Draw electron dot structures for atoms of
the following elements the following elements
•
1.  Magnesium • Mg • 1.  Aluminum • Al •

• •
2.  Carbon • C • 2.  Phosphorus •
• P• •
•

•• •
3.  Bromine •
• Br •
• 3.  Oxygen
•
• O•

•
•
•

Lewis Structures Resonance Structures

Rules:
1. Write the electron-dot notation for each type of atom
2. Determine the total number of valence electrons in •  Anytime a molecule or ion cannot be
the molecule by adding up each individual atoms
valence electrons. correctly represented by a single Lewis
3. Chose a central atom. Your choice will be the atom
the greatest number of unpaired electrons. structure, it has resonance structures
4. Place atoms around the central atom using electron
pairs between them (these are the shared electrons) –  Examples: O3 SO42- NO3-
5. Determine the remaining valence electrons. Place
the electrons around atoms so that each has an octet.
6. If there are still atoms without a complete octet,
multiple bonds must be considered.
–  Example: H2 is written as H:H or H–H
–  Try H2O, O2, and F2

VSEPR
•  Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion
–  Repulsions between electron pairs makes
them orient as far as possible from one
another
•  Count the electron pairs on the central atom (pg186)
–  If 2 then linear BeCl2
–  If 3 then trigonal planar BF3
–  If 4 then tetrahedral CH4
–  If 5 (rare) then trigonal bipyramidal PCl5
–  If 6 (rare) then octahedral SF6

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 VSEPR
Hybridization
•  Unshared electron pairs on the central do
play a role in the 3-D geometry of the
•  In order to form covalent bonds, electrons
molecule
must be moved from their regular atomic
–  When we describe the shape of a molecule
orbitals to hybrid orbitals of the same we refer only to the relative positions of the
energy atoms
–  This will involve the “blending” of both s and p –  Examples: NH3 and H2O
sublevels Trigonal pyramidal Bent or Angular

Intermolecular Forces
•  Forces of attraction between molecule
–  Typically much weaker than atomic bonds
–  Three types:
•  Dipole-Dipole Forces: occur between polar
molecules
•  Hydrogen bonds: is like a dipole-dipole, only
hydrogen is bonded to a highly electronegative
atom (F, O, Cl, N)
•  London Dispersion Forces: movement of electrons
which cause momentary dipole like attractions

Molecular Dipole Moments Hydrogen Bonding

•  Hydrogen bonds are very similar
to dipole-dipole interactions but
always involve the positive
hydrogen side of a molecule and
the negative side of another
molecule

•  Dipole moments have positive and negative

ends (arrow is negative, tail is positive)
•  The arrow head is attracted to the tail of another
arrow

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 VSEPR Theory
•  Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion
•  Repulsion between electron pairs makes
them orient as far as possible from each
other
Linear
•  Comes from sp hybridization
Ex. BeCl2
Beryllium has 2 valence electrons. One
goes in each sp hybrid orbital so it can form
2 bonds; one with each chlorine atom.
The shared pairs of electrons around the Be
atom orient themselves to be as far apart as
possible making the shape linear.
Tetrahedral
•  Comes from sp3 hybridization
•  It is a 3-dimensional molecule
Ex. CH4
Carbon has 4 valence electrons. One goes in
each sp3 hybrid orbital so it can form 4
bonds; one with each hydrogen atom
The shared pairs of electrons around the C
atom orient themselves to be as far apart as
possible making the shape tetrahedral.
Hybridization
•  Combining atomic orbitals to form hybrid
orbitals to explain how bonding occurs
•  Use to explain shapes of molecules
Trigonal Planar
•  Comes from sp2 hybridization
•  It is a flat or planar molecule
Ex. BF3
Boron has 3 valence electrons. One goes in
each sp2 hybrid orbital so it can form 3
bonds; one with each fluorine atom
The shared pairs of electrons around the B
atom orient themselves to be as far apart as
possible making the shape trigonal planar.
Trigonal Pyrmidal
•  Comes from sp3 hybridization
•  It is a 3-dimensional molecule
Ex. NH3
Nitrogen has 5 valence electrons. Three of
the sp3 orbitals contain 1 electron and one
orbital has 2 electrons; it can form 3 bonds.
The pairs of electrons around the N atom
orient themselves to be as far apart as
possible making the shape trigonal pyrmidal.
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 Bent Linear revisited
H Br
•  Comes from sp3 hybridization •  Comes from sp3 hybridization

Ex. H 2O Ex. HBr

Oxygen has 6 valence electrons. Two of
the sp3 orbitals contain 1 electron and two
orbitals have 2 electrons; it can form 2
bonds.
The pairs of electrons around the O atom
orient themselves to be as far apart as
possible making the shape bent.
Bromine has 7 valence electrons. Three of
the sp3 orbitals contain 2 electron and one
orbital has 1 electron; it can form 1 bond.
The pairs of electrons around the Br atom
orient themselves to be as far apart as
possible making the shape linear.

Trigonal Bipyrmidal Octahedral

•  Comes from sp3d hybridization
•  Not as common
Ex. PF5
Phosphorus has 5 valence electrons. One
goes in each of the sp3d orbitals; it can form
5 bonds.
The pairs of electrons around the P atom
orient themselves to be as far apart as
possible making the shape trigonal bipyrmidal.
•  Comes from sp3d2 hybridization
•  Not as common
Ex. SF6
Sulfur has 6 valence electrons. One goes in
each of the sp3d2 orbitals; it can form 6
bonds.
The pairs of electrons around the S atom
orient themselves to be as far apart as
possible making the shape octahedral

BeF
BF
CCl
NH
H
PF
HBr
SF2O
3342
5
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Polar Molecules Is this molecule polar?
Are the
•  The polarity of a molecule depends on the Molecule is No bonds
polarity of the bonds in the molecule and nonpolar
polar?
the shape of the molecule Molecule is
Yes polar

Trigonal Planar What

Linear Bent
shape
Tetrahedral is it? Trigonal Pyrmidal
Trigonal Bipyrmidal Linear (2 atoms)
Octahedral

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 Intermolecular Forces
•  Forces of attraction between molecules
•  Typically much weaker than atomic bonds
London Dispersion Forces
•  The weakest of the intermolecular forces
•  Temporary dipoles caused by the
movement of the electrons
Dipole-Dipole Forces
•  Occur between polar molecules
•  Hydrogen Bonding
–  A special dipole-dipole attraction
–  Occurs with molecules where hydrogen is
bonded to a highly electronegative atom (F,
O, Cl, N)