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Module 5
ADVANCED SOIL CHARACTERIZATION
voltage V is applied between the two electrodes mounted on the opposite faces
of the box and the current I passing through the medium is measured using a
digital multimeter. Hence, the resistance RERB and electrical resistivity ERB
offered by the medium can be determined by Eqs. 5.2 and 5.3, respectively.
RERB=V/I (5.2)
ERB = a.RERB (5.3)
a is a constant that depends on the geometry of the box, which can be
determined by measuring resistance of the standard KCl and NaCl solutions of
known electrical resistivity.
Electrical resistivity probe (ERP) is more appropriate for measuring the
soil electrical resistivity in situ. As depicted in Fig. 5.2, four annular copper rings,
which act as electrodes are mounted on an ebonite rod of 16 mm outer diameter,
at a center-to-center spacing of 25 mm. The two outer electrodes are the current
electrodes while the inner electrodes are used for measuring the voltage. For
sufficient insertion and ensuring perfect contact of the ERP with the soil mass, a
100 mm long and 15 mm diameter hole is created in soil with the help of a
dummy rod. AC of intensity I is applied to the outer electrodes and the potential
drop V across the two inner electrodes is measured. Soil resistance (RERP) can
be obtained, which can be correlated to the resistivity ERP using an appropriate
parameter b that depends on the geometry of the probe, as discussed above for
ERB.
12 cm
3cm
Electrodes
3cm
12 cm
3cm
3cm
12 cm
Figure not to scale
1 2
4 3
Ebonite rod
C
C
V
V
C
C
Stainless steel cone
q
K= (5.4)
A(T2 -T1 )/l
Where, l is the length of the element, T1 and T2 are temperature where T2>T1.
The heat capacity C per unit volume of soil is the heat energy required to raise
the temperature of unit volume of soil by 1°C. It is the product of the mass spe-
cific heat c (cal/g °C) and the density ρ (g/cc). Thermal diffusivity is the ratio of
thermal conductivity to specific heat. It indicates how materials or soil adjust their
temperature with respect to the surroundings. A high value of the thermal
diffusivity implies capability for rapid and considerable changes in temperature.
Fine grained or cohesive soil and peaty soils exhibit high ρ than granular
soil. Sand with quartz as the principal constituent has low ρ. The type of clay
minerals present in soil also influences ρ. Expansive clay minerals such as
montmorillonite would cause the soil particles to be forced apart during swelling
action when it comes in contact with water, thereby increasing ρ. Well-graded
soils conduct heat better than poorly graded soils because the smaller grain can
fit in the interstitial positions between the larger grains thus increasing the density
and the mineral-to-mineral contact. The shape of the soil particles determines the
surface contact area between particles which affects the ability of the soil to
conduct heat. ρ increases with decreasing particle size due to reduced surface
contact between adjacent particles.
condition of the materials. Some of the methods employing steady state and
transient measuring principle are discussed below.
The most important steady state method for measuring the ρ of soils is the
guarded hot plate (GHP) test as depicted in Fig. 5.3 (ASTM C 177). As shown in
figure, two identical specimens are placed above and below a flat-plate main
heater unit which is surrounded by an outer guard heater. The guard eliminates
horizontal heat losses and causes heat from the main heater to flow vertically up
or down through the test specimen. Liquid-cooled heat sinks are placed adjacent
to the outer surfaces of the specimens. A certain temperature drop is obtained
across each specimen of certain thickness. K of the specimen material is
calculated from Eq. 5.5.
Q L
1/ ρ = K= (5.5)
A ΔT
Where, Q is the heat flow through soil, A is the area of soil specimen, L is the
length of heat flow, and T is the temperature drop. The GHP test is time
consuming and only suitable for laboratory use.
Cold plate
Thermocouple
Soil specimen
Heater
Soil specimen
Cold plate
Fig. 5.3 Schematic diagram of the guarded hotplate method for determining thermal conductivity (ASTM C 177)
T 2T
D 2 (5.6)
t x
T 2 T 1 T
D 2 (5.7)
t r r r
Where, r is the radial distance from the line source. Assuming heat is produced
from t=0 at a constant rate q per unit length of probe, the solution of Eq. 5.7 is
given by Eq. 5.8.
q 1 r 2
∆T= Ei (5.8)
4π K 4Dt
The apparatus for thermal probe method shall consist of the following:
1. Thermal needle probe: A device that creates a linear source and incorporates a
temperature measurement element (thermocouple or thermostat) to measure
variation of temperature at a point along the line.
2. Constant current source: A device to produce a constant current.
3. Thermal read out unit: A device to produce a digital read out of temperature in
0
C.
4. Voltage-Ohm-Meter (VOM) - A device to read voltage and current to the
nearest 0.01 V and ampere.
5. Stopwatch measuring time to the nearest 0.1 s for a minimum of 15 min.
6. Equipment capable of drilling a straight vertical hole having a diameter as close
as possible to that of the probe and to depth at least equal to the length of the
probe.
q
T= ln t c (Jackson and Taylor, 1965) (5.9)
4 K
q
slope=
4 K
Where q=heat flow rate (q= i2.r’), t is the time, T is the temperature, K is the
thermal conductivity of soil, I is the current applied, r’ is the resistance per unit
length of probe.
Point-source method
K
D= (5.10)
γc
C: Connection cable
P: Prongs
P P B: Body of the probe
C: Connection cable
P: Prong
P P1 P1 P1: Gold coated Prongs
B: Body of the probe
Lm
Axis of
N.g = re.2
Lp=N.Lm Lm rotation
re
Model (N-g)
Prototype (1-g)
(b)
Lm
re r t
3 (5.11)
5.6.1 Similitude in centrifuge modeling
The results of centrifuge model, which is used to understand a mechanism
or process, can be extrapolated to corresponding prototype condition using
suitable scaling laws. To formulate these scaling laws, three types of similitude
conditions have to be considered, as discussed in the following.
Geometrical similarity
Kinematic similarity
The model and the prototype are said to be kinematically similar if their
ratio of velocity, v, and acceleration, a, are constant. Hence:
vm/vp = (5.13)
am/ap = n (5.14)
Dynamic similarity
Fm/Fp = (5.15)
M m ρ m Vm
(5.17)
Mp ρ p Vp
If the material used in model and prototype are same, then the mass density will
be same (ρm = ρp).
M m Vm L m 1
3 (5.18)
Mp
Vp L p N
γm ρmg m
(5.20)
γp ρpg p
Therefore, γm = N γp (5.21)
F = Mg (5.22)
Fm M m g m 1
3 for 1-g model where gm = gp (5.23)
Fp Mpgp N
Fm M m g m 1
2 for N-g model where gm = Ngp (5.24)
Fp Mpgp N
= (v/k).W
V is the volume of soil mass, i is the hydraulic gradient, v is the discharge
velocity, k is the hydraulic conductivity or permeability, γw is the unit weight of
water and W is the weight of seepage water.
SFm v m k p Wm
. . (5.26)
SFp v p k m Wp
vm Lm t p 1 tp
. . (5.27)
vp Lp t m N t m
t is the time.
k can be represented by Eq. 5.28.
K.ρ w .g
k=
μ (5.28)
where w is the fluid density, is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid, and K is the
intrinsic permeability. If the same pore fluid and the soil are used in the model
and prototype, then Eq. 5.28 can be written as:
K .ρ. gm
km μ g
m N
kp K.ρ.gp gp
μ (5.29)
km=N.kp (5.30)
Wm M m g m 1
. 2 (5.31)
Wp Mp gp N
Substituting Eqs. 5.27, 5.30 and 5.31 in Eq. 5.26, and considering seepage force
as a body force with scale factor represented by Eq. 5.24, we get
SFm 1 1 tp 1 1
2 . . (5.32)
SFp N N t m N N2
tm 1
2 (5.33)
tp N
References
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spectroscopy for modeling flow of ac in soils”, Geomechanics and
Geoengineering: An International Journal, Vol. 2, No. 3, pp. 197-206.
21. Reddy, K. R. and Chintamreddy, S. (2001) “Assessment of electrokinetic
removal of heavy metals from soils by sequential extraction analysis”, Journal
of Hazardous Material, Vol. 84, No. 2-3, pp. 279-296.
22. Rhoades, J. D. and Schilfgaarde, J. V. (1976) “An electrical conductivity
probe for determining soil salinity”, Soil Science Society of America Journal,
Vol. 40, pp. 647-650.
23. Shah, P. H. and Singh, D. N. (2004) “A simple methodology for determining
electrical conductivity of soils”, Journal of ASTM International, Vol. 1, No. 5,
published on line, 11 Pages.
24. Shah, P. H. and Singh, D. N. (2005) “Generalized Archie’s law for estimation
of soil electrical conductivity”, Journal of ASTM International, Vol. 2, No. 5,
published on line, 20 Pages.
25. Singh, D. N. and Gupta, A. K. (2000) “Permeability modeling in a small
centrifuge”, Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 37, No. 5, pp. 1150-1155.
26. Smith-Ross, R. L. (1933) “Electrical properties of soils for alternating currents
at radio frequencies” Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A,
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(website visited on 20-1-2012).
27. Sreedeep, S., Reshma, A. C. and Singh, D. N. (2004) "Measuring soil
electrical resistivity using a resistivity box and a resistivity probe” Journal of
Testing and Evaluation, ASTM, Vol. 27, No.4, pp. 411-415.
28. Taylor, R. N. (1995) “Centrifuges in modelling: principles and scale effects”,
Geotechnical Centrifuge Technology, Taylor (ed.), Blackie Academic and
Professional, Glasgow, pp. 19-33.
29. Topp, G. C., Davis, J. L. and Annan, A. P. (1980) “Electromagnetic
determination of soil water content: Measurements in coaxial transmission
lines”, Water Resour. Res. Vol. 16, pp. 574–582.
Model Questions