COOLING TOWER STUDY: FACTS & LESSONS LEARNED

Washington State Department of Ecology

September 2007

Introduction
Cooling towers use large quantities of water, and are ubiquitous in industrial and commercial facilities. A
standard method of increasing water efficiency in a tower is to re-circulate the water until dissolved solids
or biological films begin to coat the internal surfaces of the unit reducing heat transfer. This saves water
when compared to simply using single pass cooling water. In single pass flow, water flows one time
through the tower and is then discharged to sewer or surface water. The number of times that cooling
water can be re-circulated, also termed “cycles of concentration”, can be increased by the use of anti-
scaling chemicals and biocides or by alternative non-chemical water treatment technologies. In addition
to scaling and bio-fouling, corrosion must be controlled when operating metal cooling towers. Corrosion
can decrease the lifetime of the equipment.

The Technical Resources for Engineering Efficiency (TREE) team is a group of engineers and scientists
within the Department of Ecology that provide detailed pollution prevention evaluations to industrial
facilities in Washington State. Opportunities for waste reduction are identified. Cost savings for specific
recommendations are estimated and provided to the company for their consideration.

TREE members have previously encouraged increased water efficiency and conversion from single pass
cooling to re-circulation of cooling water without evaluating the chemical use necessary to do so. While
most facilities already re-circulate water and have chemical treatment programs, TREE staff identified the
need for understanding the tradeoffs between increased water efficiency and increased chemical use. The
TREE team conducted this study to better understand the water use, chemical use and the tradeoffs
between increased water efficiency and chemical use in cooling towers.

A team of four TREE team members focused on operational and environmental impact issues of cooling
towers. This report documents the work done and summarizes what was learned. This will improve the
quality of the technical assistance the TREE team provides to facilities.

Intent and Approach

The study was conducted over a period of one year by Lynn Coleman, Madeline Wall, Tony Cooper and
Cristiana Figueroa. The team met, visited sites, searched and reviewed literature, performed calculations,
and attended a seminar on a chemical treatment alternative technology. The team used the cooling towers
at Crown Beverage Corporation in Olympia as a case study to better understand the tradeoffs between
chemical use and water use. Appendix A lists literature resources reviewed. Appendix B provides
summaries of site visits and the seminar. Appendix C summarizes the case study.

Lessons Learned
Potential application of study findings to TREE Team projects at facilities with cooling towers is
summarized below. Lists of questions to ask facility personnel about cooling tower water and chemical
use are provided. Also included is a summary of information on non-chemical treatment technologies and
practices for cooling tower water.

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Water usage
Water conservation from cooling tower operation might be achieved in several ways, each of which may
be appropriate in some situations, but not others.

1. Increasing cycles of concentration. A few facilities still use single pass cooling water and are
candidates for recirculating systems or air cooled units. TREE should gather information on whether
single pass cooling is used and encourage facilities to consider alternatives. Increasing the cycles of
concentration above single pass cooling will require careful monitoring of the water quality within the
tower and a service contract with an outside vendor is often advised. Facility staff may not have the
time or expertise to operate the chemical addition systems in-house.

For systems already recirculating water, data should be gathered to determine if the cycles of
concentration could be increased. That information includes: what the blowdown set point is, how
the set point is determined, what the current cycles of concentration are and who maintains the towers.
Measuring flow into and out of the evaporative side of the cooling tower and/or measuring
conductivity into and out of the tower could be used to verify cycles of concentration.

2. Use air cooling. Air cooled units are another option. Data could be collected on fluid temperature, air
temperatures, and water flow to determine if an air cooled unit is feasible. TREE completed a report,
“Air Cooled Fluid Coolers” in January of 2002 which describes those calculations.

3. Improve system maintenance. Cooling towers also require water for maintenance such as replacing
water in the tank reservoir and cleaning fill. Some facilities determine the frequency of tank cleaning
based on a set time table and some determine it based on water quality considerations. Questions on
these operations will determine whether additional water could be saved in these activities.

4. Use variable speed motors. The cooling effect depends on the difference of the wet bulb temperatures
of the air going in and the air coming out of the tower. Facilities that have constant heating loads
throughout the year may find that during the summer months, they need to operate the towers close to
their design capacity. In the winter, due to lower wet bulb temperatures, towers may be operated at
reduced water or air flow rates. In western Washington the average seasonal wet bulb range between
summer and winter is 20F, and in eastern Washington it is around 30F.

A variable frequency drive to control the evaporator fans or water flow is one way of conserving
water and energy. Evaporation rates can be optimized for variable cooling load needs or seasonal
temperature swings when the operator can control the throughput of air and water. Another option is
to have a modular system that allows for shutting down a tower module when not needed.

5. Reuse blowdown. Some industrial facilities may be able to reuse blowdown water for other purposes.
High TDS levels and presence of anti-scaling, corrosion inhibition and biocide chemicals should be
considered when evaluating potential reuse.

In summary, as part of TREE consultation service, answers to the following questions may be useful to
evaluate water efficiency:

• What types of cooling systems are used; closed loop, open loop, evaporative, ammonia chillers?
• Who maintains cooling towers?
• Amount of water into cooling towers?
• Amount of water for blowdown?
• How are blowdown rate and frequency established?
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 • What is the conductivity set point if one is used to trigger blowdown?
• How often is the cooling tower reservoir dumped? How is frequency determined?
• Is a sand filter used to remove sediment? If so, what determines start and stop of backwashing?
How much water is used in backwashing?
• Variability of heating load?
• Size of cooling towers in tons?
• Are different cooling towers used to adjust to varying load?
• Could the heating load be handled by air cooling?
• Can blowdown be reused within the facility?
• Is it appropriate to decrease cycles of concentration during the winter months or low heat load
periods?

The following data may be useful for TREE to collect relative to water use:
• Measure incoming and outgoing conductivity to check cycles of concentration.
• Measure incoming and outgoing flows if facility doesn’t have that data. Check for stuck valves.
• Visually inspect for leaks or excessive losses from the air inlet and outlet.
• Get cost estimate for variable speed drives on cooling tower fans.

Chemical Usage
To determine the point at which to add treatment chemicals, facilities use a variety of measurement
techniques. The least sophisticated method is to dose X amount of chemical per Y period of time, the
period of time being determined most frequently by eyeing the general condition of the water and cooling
tower. More advanced methodology includes using a probe to detect conductivity (or some other similar
measurement) to indicate whether the water requires treatment and then adding some predefined dosage to
bring the probe signal back within the proper reading range. Dosing chemicals on a set volumetric
measurement (X amount of chemical per Y gallons of water) is an intermediate methodology employed.
A meter able to measure conductivity or some other reliable metric and base a chemical dosage on that
variable would be the most desirable. Daily inspection of the metering equipment is recommended to
ensure proper operation.

Conventional Cooling Water Treatment Chemicals

The characteristics of chemicals commonly used to treat cooling water, including environmental concerns,
are described in Tables 1, 2, and 3. The toxicity of specific chemicals was further evaluated in the case
study presented in Appendix C.

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Table 1 Characteristics of Common Corrosion and Scale Inhibitors

Constituent Function Pathway of Release Environmental Issue

Molybdenates Corrosion Cooling Tower Drift System Reports to sludge in POTW
Inhibitor Blowdown and then enters biosphere w/
use of sludge as a fertilizer;
Has been demonstrated to
livestock health; A voluntary
ban is in effect in Boston
Phosphates Corrosion Cooling Tower Drift System Promotes the eutrophication of
Inhibitor; Blowdown lakes (overgrowth of plant life,
Scale Inhibitor e.g., algae)
Zinc Corrosion Cooling Tower Drift System Aquatic toxin; Generally not
Inhibitor Blowdown eliminated by POTW; Priority
EPA toxic pollutant
Brine Scale Inhibitor Softener Backwash Causes severe operational
(Regeneration problems at POTW (corrosion)
of water
softeners)
Sulfuric Acid Scale Inhibitor Cooling Tower Drift System EH&S issue (can cause severe
Blowdown burns), likely dangerous waste
stream
Hydrazine Corrosion Waste water from cooling EH&S issue (carcinogenic),
Inhibitor tower treatment likely dangerous waste stream
(Oxygen
scavenger)
Natural Dispersant for
polymers (i.e. clay, silt, and
tannins and metal oxides
lignins)

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Table 2 Characteristics of Common Oxidizing Biocides

Constituent Primary Notes Pathway of Environmental Issue

Application Release
Chlorine (Cl2) Broad most common Cooling Tower Aquatic and human
spectrum oxidizing biocide, Drift System toxin; can cause severe
rapidly dissolves in Blowdown Air operational problems at
H2O: Emissions POTW; Daughter
Cl2+H2OÆH++Cl- products of reaction
+HOCl; with organics are more
HOClÆH++OCl-; toxic than biocide (i.e.,
hypochlorous acid chloroform,
is more effective trihalomethanes, and
than hypochlorite other carcinogens)
ion, thus as pH
increases,
effectiveness
decreases; increases
corrosivity of water
Chlorine Gas that dissolves
Dioxide in water; not
reactive with
ammonia or
amines; effective at
high pH; very
expensive; not
stable (rapidly
depleted from
recirculating
cooling water by
air-stripping); must
be formed on-site
Ozone Biocide Air Emissions Ground level pollutant;
(Smog) EH&S issue with
indoor sump (indoor air
quality); unstable
(explosive) and must be
generated on-site
Bromine (Br2) Biocide More effective Aquatic and human
biocide at elevated toxin; can cause severe
pH than chlorine; operational problems at
solutions are not as POTW; Daughter
corrosive as products of reaction
chlorine’s; with organics are more
toxic than biocide (i.e.,
trihalomethanes)

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Table 3 Characteristics of Common Non-Oxidizing Biocides

Chemical Primary Effective Comments

Application pH Range
Non-Oxidizing in General Biocide 6-9.5 Aquatic and human toxin;
(pathway of release is often EH&S concern; can cause
cooling tower drift system severe operational problems
Blowdown) at POTW
Carbamates Bacteria and fungi >7.0 Corrosive to copper
Cocodiamine Bacteria 6-9.0 Cationic charge
Dibromonitrilopropionamide Bacteria 6-8.5 Quick kill, hydrolyzes
(DBNPA) rapidly at high pH
Isothiazolones Broad spectrum 6-9.5 t1/2 = 3-14 days, dangerous
to handle
Methylene-(bis)thiocyanate Bacteria 6-7.5 Rapidly decomposes at pH
(MBT) >7.5
Quaternary ammonium salts Broad spectrum 7-9.5 Frequently foams, cationic
(Quats) charge, dispersive properties
Tributyl tin oxide (TBTO) Fungi and algae 7-9.5 Adsorbs on and protects
cooling tower lumber,
synergistic with quats –
combination broad spectrum
Glutaraldehyde Broad spectrum 7-9.5 Partially inactivated by
amines
Copper Biocide/ Aquatic toxin; generally not
Algaecide eliminated by POTW;
Priority EPA toxic pollutant
Silver Biocide Aquatic and human toxin;
generally not eliminated by
POTW

Reducing Chemical Use

Cooling tower flow relative to receiving water body flow, chemical concentration and total loading, and
type of receiving water body (large sewage treatment plant versus small stream) will determine the value
of decreasing cooling tower chemicals.

Due to Western Washington’s weather patterns and tendency for high levels of rain during the months of
October through March, it may be appropriate to recommend using fewer cycles of concentration during
these months, increasing water usage but also decreasing chemical usage. Conversely, it may be
appropriate to recommend increasing the cycles of concentration during April through September to
decrease water usage, and thus requiring greater chemical treatment. Facility staff and local wastewater
treatment system staff should be consulted for appropriateness of this recommendation.

Chemical use reduction in cooling towers might be achieved in the following ways:

1. Use more accurate chemical dosing. If chemical doseage is based on time or volume rather than water
quality, e.g. conductivity, evaluate the possibility of installing AND maintaining a more accurate
method. Cost of chemicals, equipment and availability of qualified staff to operate the system are

6
 considerations. This is probably the one opportunity for chemical use reduction in cooling towers for
most facilities that TREE works with.

2. Use alternative water treatment technologies. Over the years, several non-chemical water treatment
systems have been proposed for cooling tower water treatment. Efficacy ranges from none (“snake oil
treatments”) to high. The value of a non-chemical treatment may be different for biological, scaling
and corrosion control and will also vary depending on the specific system. Incoming water quality,
staff expertise, and other concerns will determine whether a non-chemical treatment is useful. See
Table 4 for a list of non-chemical treatments that TREE identified in its research.

3. Use less toxic chemicals. Chemical substitution may be possible in limited situations. Ask who
maintains the towers and how they determine appropriate chemical use. Generally, a reputable vendor
may have more time and expertise to operate chemical treatment systems than facility maintenance
staff. See Table 1, Table 2, and Table 3 for more information on cooling tower chemicals.

4. Use single pass cooling during winter months. Due to Western Washington’s weather patterns and
tendency for high levels of rain during the months of October through March, it may be appropriate to
recommend using fewer cycles of concentration during these months, increasing water usage but also
decreasing chemical usage. Conversely, it may be appropriate to recommend increasing the cycles of
concentration during April through September to decrease water usage, and thus requiring greater
chemical treatment. Check with facility staff and check wastewater treatment system for
appropriateness of this recommendation. Increased hydraulic flow during winter months may or may
not be an issue for the wastewater treatment plant and should be a consideration in making decisions
about recommending more or less chemical use.

As part of the TREE consultation service, the following questions should be asked to evaluate chemical
use.
• Final discharge location, WWTP or other?
• Chemicals used?
• How do you decide dose frequency and dosage?
• Set point for chemical addition?
• Does set point change over time?
• Have alternative water treatment technologies been considered?
• Is it feasible to use single pass cooling during periods of low heat load?

Alternative Non-Chemical Treatment Technologies

Table 4 summarizes the non-chemical treatment technologies and practices for controlling scale,
corrosion, and bio-fouling in cooling water identified during the team’s research.

7
Table 4 Alternative Technologies for Controlling Corrosion, Scale, and Bacteria/Algae

Corrosion Scale Bacteria/Algae Source of

Technology
Control Control Control
Description Manufacturer Information
Ultrasound associated X When applied to water, ultrasound frequencies Ashland's 6
with >16kHz result in cavitation crating high local SONOXIDE®
oxidizing pressures and temperatures. Light and highly reactive Ultrasonic
microbioc radicals are emitted. Used as a microbiological Water
ides control treatment in cooling water systems and more Treatment
recently as a total replacement technology for
conventional chemical water treatment programs. For
1,000 gpm, 24 hours/day operation, 28 kW are
consumed. High voltage electricity is used. Heat
build up in the transducer; however, heated metal
parts are housed within cooling unit and out of
contact.
VRTX Chamber X X X Tremendous force created in chamber - molecules VRTX 7
(proprietary) collide. Microorganisms are typically incapable of Technologies
surviving and mineral bonds in water are broken as
they pass through the system.
Pulse-Power (e.g., X X X Pulse-power system: high frequency pulse generator Clearwater 9
Dolphin System) (controller) and reaction chamber. Controller induces
high-frequency, time-varying electromagnetic field
into flowing water via a reaction chamber.

The technology has been approved by the FDA for the

pasteurization of pumpable food fluids. An
adaptation of this technology is marketed by
Clearwater Technologies in cooling towers.1 It’s
hypothesized that the electrical field causes

1
Biological Control in Cooling Towers Treated with Pulsed-Power Systems. Dennis Ophein, PhD and John Lane, Director of Technology, Clearwater
Systems.
http://www.environmental-expert.com/articles/article1355/article1355.htm

8
 Corrosion Scale Bacteria/Algae Source of
Technology
Control Control Control
Description Manufacturer Information
deterioration of cell membranes with consequent
death or inhibited function of bacteria and other
pathogens.

Different types, frequencies and magnitudes of

electrical pulses are applied to water recirculating in
cooling tower basin and it appears that the
effectiveness depends on water chemistry of the feed
water; e.g. specific constituents, constituent
concentrations, pH, alkalinity. Biological control
using pulsed power has been demonstrated in the food
industry. Clearwater believes that scaling and
corrosion control also occur and is conducting
experiments to better understand and document those
processes. They hypothesize that the electrical field
causes scaling agents to precipitate in the water as
powder rather than to adhere to fixed surfaces in the
cooling tower. As for corrosion inhibition, steel and
copper coupons have been placed several tower basins
and measurements are being made over time to
evaluate corrosion rates in systems using pulsed
power water treatment.

Impressed Current X X X Small cathodic reaction chamber fitted with anode is 4

installed and electrodes positioned within cooling
circuit to provide cathodic corrosion protection.
Precipitates calcium salts within reaction chamber
rather than within heat exchangers of cooling circuit.
Microbiological control is achieved by an
electrochemical process using electrodes.

9
 Corrosion Scale Bacteria/Algae Source of
Technology
Control Control Control
Description Manufacturer Information
Ultraviolet (UV) X The most common UV lamp is the low pressure (LP) 5
mercury type which emits monochromatic light at a
wavelength of 254nm and has high germicidal
efficiency and is most suited for “good quality
“effluents at moderate flow through rates. Medium
pressure UV lamps (MP) emit polychromatic light
with a more complex spectrum with only some 5% of
the wavelength being produced at 254nm, however
this is offset by the much higher power output of the
medium Pressure lamp with can be up to 7 Kw.
Ozone X X Several companies offer ozone treatment apparatus Many, see 10
for water cooling towers. The systems compress source of
ambient air, then dry and ionize it to produce ozone. information
The oxone is added to the circulating water in the
tower.
Filtration X X Strainers, filters, separators reduce suspended solids
to acceptable low level. Often just a portion of the
flow passes through the filter (in-line side stream
filtration or sump/basin side stream filtration).
Copper ion X X X As a supplement to chemical treatment - lessening the 3
generator amount of chemical needed. Uses ionic water
purification. Also need a device to control TDS and a
magnetic water conditioning system and a careful
study of water composition. Copper is used as a
coagulant to reduce scale and acts as a supplemental
bacterial disinfectant (to chlorine in the makeup
water) and an algaecide.
Mechanical anti- X X X Devices injected into and retrieved from tubes in Superior I.D. 1, 2
fouling cooling system to scour out the tube. "Sidtec Tube Cleaners
rockets." Used in power plants. Designed for use in (SIDTEC) Inc.
thermal power plants; may not be applicable to
smaller cooling systems

10
 Corrosion Scale Bacteria/Algae Source of
Technology
Control Control Control
Description Manufacturer Information
Material choices, X X Purchase cooling tower units made of polyethylene or UniBasinTM 8
protective other material that does not corrode or support the
coatings growth of algae and bacteria.
Housekeeping X Eliminate nutrient sources such as oil leaks and
practices process fluid leaks.
Ion Exchange X Based on anodic/cathodic principle - letting a less Elysator, See
(water softening) noble metal (magnesium) be sacrificed (corroded) International seminar
instead of the system itself. During the process the Water summary in
oxygen in the water will be absorbed, creating H2O Treatment Appendix
and magnesium hydroxide. Literature also claims it Maritime AS A
kills and prevents growth of bacteria.

Information Sources
1 U.S. Department of Energy
http://www.eere.energy.gov/inventions/pdfs/betzdearborn.pdf#search=%22Sidtec%
20rocket%22
2 David Daniels, Untangling the complexities of cooling water chemistry.
http://www.ipecalgary.com/xplatts1.html
3 Charles A. Wilsey, Alternative Water Treatment for Cooling Towers, Ashrae
Journal, April 1997.
4 http://www.iic-consultants.com/consultancy/impressed_current.html
5 http://www.iic-consultants.com/consultancy/ultra_violet.html
6 http://www.iic-consultants.com/consultancy/ultrasound.html
7 http://www.vrtx-technologies.com/A_html/pgA1.html
8 http://www.marleyct.com/
9 http://www.clearwater-dolphin.com/
10 Ozone Treatment for Cooling Towers, Federal Technology Alert, Reprinted August
1998; originally printed December 1995

11
Appendix A: Cooling Tower Resources available in X:\Drive TREE
Folder

Questions and notes from CH20 vendor meeting

\\ecylcyfsvrxfile\xprog\TREE\Projects\Cooling Tower Study\Cooling Tower Reference
Material\Questions for CH2O.doc

Cooling Tower Operation

BAC (Baltimore Aircoil Company), Product and Application Handbook, Volume I – 2005.
\\ecylcyfsvrxfile\xprog\TREE\Projects\Cooling Tower Study\Cooling Tower Reference Material\BAC
manual.pdf

Cooling Towers: Design and Operation Considerations.

\\ecylcyfsvrxfile\xprog\TREE\Projects\Cooling Tower Study\Cooling Tower Reference Material\Cooling
Towers.doc

Cooling Water Management, Basic Principles and Technology, Keister, Timothy, ProChemTech
International, Inc., 01/05.
\\ecylcyfsvrxfile\xprog\TREE\Projects\Cooling Tower Study\Cooling Tower Reference
Material\References from HQ library\Cooling Water Management.pdf

Cooling Tower Manual, Cooling Tower Institute:

Chapter 1, Cooling Tower Operations (1999)
\\ecylcyfsvrxfile\xprog\TREE\Projects\Cooling Tower Study\Cooling Tower Reference
Material\Cooling Tower Manual Scans\Ch 1 - Cooling Tower Operations.pdf

Chapter 2, Introduction to CTI Thermal Design (1998)

\\ecylcyfsvrxfile\xprog\TREE\Projects\Cooling Tower Study\Cooling Tower Reference
Material\Cooling Tower Manual Scans\Ch 2 - CTI Thermal Design.pdf

Chapter 3, Cooling Tower Performance Variables (1998)

\\ecylcyfsvrxfile\xprog\TREE\Projects\Cooling Tower Study\Cooling Tower Reference
Material\Cooling Tower Manual Scans\Ch 3 - Cooling Tower Performance Variables.pdf

Chapter 6, Water Chemistry and Treatments (1990)

\\ecylcyfsvrxfile\xprog\TREE\Projects\Cooling Tower Study\Cooling Tower Reference
Material\Cooling Tower Manual Scans\Ch 6 - Water Chemistry and Treatments.pdf

Chapter 8, Environmental Aspects of Cooling System Operation (1981)

\\ecylcyfsvrxfile\xprog\TREE\Projects\Cooling Tower Study\Cooling Tower Reference
Material\Cooling Tower Manual Scans\Ch 8 - Environmental Aspects of Cooling System
Operations.pdf

Evaporation Loss from Cooling Towers (a list of methods to calculate evaporation loss; web site
addresses provided for reference)
\\ecylcyfsvrxfile\xprog\TREE\Projects\Cooling Tower Study\Cooling Tower Reference
Material\Evaporation Loss from Cooling Towers.doc
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What’s Up with Cooling Towers, Morrison, Frank T., ASHRAE Journal, July 2004.
\\ecylcyfsvrxfile\xprog\TREE\Projects\Cooling Tower Study\Cooling Tower Reference
Material\References from HQ library\What's up with Cooling Towers.pdf

Best Management Practices

Benefits of Clean Water for Cooling Towers, Latzer, Kenneth, ASHAE Journal, September 2002.
\\ecylcyfsvrxfile\xprog\TREE\Projects\Cooling Tower Study\Cooling Tower Reference
Material\References from HQ library\Benefits of Clean Water for Cooling Towers.pdf

Best Management Practice and Guidance Manual for Cooling Towers, prepared by JEA for the control of
pollutants discharged to the sanitary collection system, August
2005.\\ecylcyfsvrxfile\xprog\TREE\Projects\Cooling Tower Study\Cooling Tower Reference
Material\BMP and Guidance.pdf

Cooling System Design for Water and Wastewater Minimization, Kim, Jin-Kuk and Smith, Robin,
American Chemical Society, 2004.
\\ecylcyfsvrxfile\xprog\TREE\Projects\Cooling Tower Study\Cooling Tower Reference
Material\References from HQ library\Cooling System Design.pdf

Cooling Water Best Practices, Environmental Virtual Campus

\\ecylcyfsvrxfile\xprog\TREE\Projects\Cooling Tower Study\Cooling Tower Reference
Material\Environmental Virtual Campus.htm

Water Conservation
Agricultural use of Wastewater Expedites Port of Morrow Plant Startup, Thurman, Greg, Power, Nov/Dec
2001, Vol. 145, Iss. 6, pg. 87.
\\ecylcyfsvrxfile\xprog\TREE\Projects\Cooling Tower Study\Cooling Tower Reference
Material\References from HQ library\Agricultural Use of Wastewater.pdf

Cooling Tower Water Quality Parameters for Degraded Water, by DiFilippo, Michael N., for California
Energy Commission, April 2006.
\\ecylcyfsvrxfile\xprog\TREE\Projects\Cooling Tower Study\Cooling Tower Reference
Material\References from HQ library\Cooling Tower WAter Quality Parameters for Degraded Water.pdf

Cool Ways to Conserve, Conger, Rand, Plumbing Systems & Design, March/April 2005.
..\Cooling Tower Reference Material\Rand's article.pdf

Power plants learn to reuse, recycle, Daniels, David, Power, Sept/October 2001, Vol. 145, Iss. 5, pg. 45.
\\ecylcyfsvrxfile\xprog\TREE\Projects\Cooling Tower Study\Cooling Tower Reference
Material\References from HQ library\Powerplants learn to reuse.pdf

Use of Degraded Water Sources as Cooling Water in Power Plants, California Energy Commission,
October 2003.
\\ecylcyfsvrxfile\xprog\TREE\Projects\Cooling Tower Study\Cooling Tower Reference
Material\References from HQ library\Use of Degraded Water Sources as Cooling Water in Power
Plants.pdf

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Efficiency
Analysis and Performance Optimization of Commercial, Chiller/Cooling Tower Systems, A Thesis
Presented to the Academic Faculty, Liu, Hubert H., June 1997.
\\ecylcyfsvrxfile\xprog\TREE\Projects\Cooling Tower Study\Cooling Tower Reference Material\Thesis
on operational parameters.pdf

Cooling Tower Fan Control for Energy Efficiency, Stout, Malcolm Russell Jr., 2003.
\\ecylcyfsvrxfile\xprog\TREE\Projects\Cooling Tower Study\Cooling Tower Reference
Material\Energy_Efficiency.pdf

Maximizing Cooling Tower Cycles of Concentration, Cunningham, Robert J., Cooling Tower Institute,
TP95-08.
\\ecylcyfsvrxfile\xprog\TREE\Projects\Cooling Tower Study\Cooling Tower Reference Material\CTI
articles\Maximizing Cooling Tower Cycles of Concentration TP95-08.pdf

Water Efficiency, Water Management Options, Cooling and Heating, North Carolina Department of
Environment and Natural Resources’ Division of Pollution Prevention and Environmental Assistance.
\\ecylcyfsvrxfile\xprog\TREE\Projects\Cooling Tower Study\Cooling Tower Reference Material\water
management options.pdf

Chemical Treatment
1999 ASHRAE Applications Handbook, Chapter 47: Water Treatment (fundamentals of water treatment
and some of the common problems associated with water in heating and air-conditioning equipment)
\\ecylcyfsvrxfile\xprog\TREE\Projects\Cooling Tower Study\Cooling Tower Reference
Material\References from HQ library\Water Treatment.pdf

Chemical Treatment for Cooling Water, Mathie, Alton J., Chapter 8 Chemical and Water Usage Should
be Optimized.
\\ecylcyfsvrxfile\xprog\TREE\Projects\Cooling Tower Study\Cooling Tower Reference
Material\ChemicalandWaterSavings.pdf

Development of High Cycle Cooling Water Treatment Program, Khambatta, B. S.., Meier, D. A., and
Kamrath, M. A., Cooling Tower Institute, TP94-03.
\\ecylcyfsvrxfile\xprog\TREE\Projects\Cooling Tower Study\Cooling Tower Reference Material\CTI
articles\Development of High Cycle Cooling Water Treatment Program TP94-03.pdf

Factsheet: Eliminating Hexavalent Chrome From Cooling Towers, Board of Public Works, HTM Office,
City of Los Angeles.
\\ecylcyfsvrxfile\xprog\TREE\Projects\Cooling Tower Study\Cooling Tower Reference
Material\Factsheet Eliminatring Hexavalent Chrome From Cooling Towers.htm

Investing in Chemical Cooling Water Treatment, Demadis, Kostas D., Water & Wastewater International,
Dec 2005/Jan 2006, 20, 9, pg. 21.
\\ecylcyfsvrxfile\xprog\TREE\Projects\Cooling Tower Study\Cooling Tower Reference
Material\References from HQ library\Investing in Chemical Cooling.pdf

Making the Best Choices in Water Treatment Additives, Roy Manley, Betzdearborn Inc., Cooling Tower
Institute, 1998.

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\\ecylcyfsvrxfile\xprog\TREE\Projects\Cooling Tower Study\Cooling Tower Reference Material\CTI
articles\Making the Best Choices in Water Treatment Additives TP98-02.pdf

A Performance-Based Approach to Cooling Water Chemistry Control, Fallon, Hugh P., PowerPlant
Chemistry, 2004.
\\ecylcyfsvrxfile\xprog\TREE\Projects\Cooling Tower Study\Cooling Tower Reference
Material\References from HQ library\A Performance-Based Approach to Cooling.pdf

Risk Management, A Non-Hazardous Biocide for Cooling Water Treatment, Keister, Timothy, EH&S
Products, April 2006.
\\ecylcyfsvrxfile\xprog\TREE\Projects\Cooling Tower Study\Cooling Tower Reference Material\Bromine
as biocide.pdf

Untangling the Complexities of Cooling Water Chemistry, Daniels, David, Power, September 2002, Vol.
146, Iss. 6, pg. 43.
\\ecylcyfsvrxfile\xprog\TREE\Projects\Cooling Tower Study\Cooling Tower Reference
Material\References from HQ library\Untangling the complexities of cooling water chemistry.pdf

Water Treatment for Cooling Towers, HPAC Engineering, January 1999.

\\ecylcyfsvrxfile\xprog\TREE\Projects\Cooling Tower Study\Cooling Tower Reference
Material\References from HQ library\HPAC Engineering Water Treatment for Cooling Towers.pdf

White Rust: An Industry Update and Guide Paper, Association of Water Technologies, 2002.
\\ecylcyfsvrxfile\xprog\TREE\Projects\Cooling Tower Study\Cooling Tower Reference Material\AWT
White Rust Corrosion-A Study.htm

Non-Chemical Treatment
Alternative Water Treatment for Cooling Towers, Wilsey, Charles A., ASHRAE Journal, April 1997.
\\ecylcyfsvrxfile\xprog\TREE\Projects\Cooling Tower Study\Cooling Tower Reference
Material\References from HQ library\Alternative Water Treatment for Cooling Towers.pdf

ASHRAE Green Top #14: Pulse-Powered Chemical-Free Water Treatment, 2006.

Chemical vs. Non-chemical Cooling Water Treatments – a Side-by-Side Comparison, Kitzman, K. A.,
Maziarz, E. F., Padgett, B., Blumenschein, C. D., and Smith, A.
\\ecylcyfsvrxfile\xprog\TREE\Projects\Cooling Tower Study\Cooling Tower Reference Material\Non
chemical treatment\IWC_03_22_.pdf

Cooling Tower Blowdown, Treatment Using an Inclined Plate Clarifier, Salah, Mohamed Ahmed,
Industrial WaterWorld, January/February 2007.
\\ecylcyfsvrxfile\xprog\TREE\Projects\Cooling Tower Study\Cooling Tower Reference Material\2007_02
IndustrialWaterWorld CoolingTowerBlowdown.pdf

Cooling Towers, Non-Chemical Water Conditioning at Schick, A Pollution Prevention Case study,
Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection.
\\ecylcyfsvrxfile\xprog\TREE\Projects\Cooling Tower Study\Cooling Tower Reference Material\CT DEP
Cooling Towers.htm

15
Condenser Water Treatment Using Pulsed Power, Cooling Technology Institute, John Lane, Clearwater
Systems and David F. Peck, Hatch Mott MacDonald, presented at the 2003 Cooling Technology Institute
Annual Conference, San Antonio, Texas.
\\ecylcyfsvrxfile\xprog\TREE\Projects\Cooling Tower Study\Cooling Tower Reference Material\Non
chemical treatment\CTI_lane_peck.pdf

Dolphin System Water Treatment Study, conducted at MCI, Sacramento Local OPS Facility, by BWI
Solutions, Inc., for SMUD Customer Advanced Technologies Program, October 27, 2004.

Effective Chemical-Free Microbiological Control for Industrial Cooling Water Systems, Kuchinski,
Rusznak, Beardwood, Ashland Specialty Chemical, Cooling Technology Institute, presented at the 2005
Cooling Technology Institute Annual Conference.
\\ecylcyfsvrxfile\xprog\TREE\Projects\Cooling Tower Study\Cooling Tower Reference Material\CTI
articles\Effective chemical free microbiological control TP05-19.pdf

Engineering Case Study 1 for the PowerPure System by Chardon

Laboratories.\\ecylcyfsvrxfile\xprog\TREE\Projects\Cooling Tower Study\Cooling Tower Reference
Material\Non chemical treatment\Case_Study_1_updated.pdf

Non-Chemical Water Treatment In Cooling Towers, John Lane/Clearwater Systems, and Gerald
Kitner/Engelhard Corporation, Cooling Tower Institute.
\\ecylcyfsvrxfile\xprog\TREE\Projects\Cooling Tower Study\Cooling Tower Reference Material\Non
chemical treatment\CTI TP00-03 Non-Chemical Treatment.pdf

Ozone Treatment for Cooling Towers, Federal Technology Alert, U.S. Department of Energy, New
Technology Demonstration Program, December 1995.
\\ecylcyfsvrxfile\xprog\TREE\Projects\Cooling Tower Study\Cooling Tower Reference Material\Non
chemical treatment\Ozone.pdf

Pulse-Power Water Treatment Systems for Cooling Towers, by Bisbee, D., Energy Efficiency &
Customer Research & Development, Sacramento Municipal Utility District, November 10, 2003.
\\ecylcyfsvrxfile\xprog\TREE\Projects\Cooling Tower Study\Cooling Tower Reference Material\Non
chemical treatment\SMUD_PulsePower.pdf

The Strategic Envirotechnology Partnership, Green Book Technology Summary Report Utilizing: VRTX
Technology, A.W. Chesterton Company, by Grogan, L., Bizzozero, R., and Cain, J., Massachusetts Office
of Technical Assistance, December 2001.
\\ecylcyfsvrxfile\xprog\TREE\Projects\Cooling Tower Study\Cooling Tower Reference Material\Non
chemical treatment\vrtx_green_book_summary_report.pdf

Synergistic Application of Chemical and Electromagnetic Water Treatment in Corrosion and Scale
Prevention, Colic, Chien, and Morse, R&D Division, ZPM Inc., and Materials Department, UC Santa
Barbara, CA, Croatica Chemica Acta, 1998.
\\ecylcyfsvrxfile\xprog\TREE\Projects\Cooling Tower Study\Cooling Tower Reference Material\Non
chemical treatment\CCA_71_1998_905_916_COLIC.pdf

16
Appendix B: Site Visit and Seminar Reports

1. Crown Beverage Corporation

March 31, 2006 Site Visit

Madeline Wall
Tony Cooper
Lynn Coleman
Cristiana Figueroa

Purpose: Learn about the cooling tower operation and processes that depend upon it at the site.

We met with Cam McCleary, Plant Engineer, and Bob Powell, Maintenance.

Cooling towers maintain two 600-hp air compressors and a vacuum pump operating at optimum
conditions. The towers provide cooling water to a closed loop heat exchanger that absorbs the heat from
the air compressors and vacuum pump. The make up water flow rate is not measured. Temperatures of
water into or out of the cooling towers are not tracked. Thermometer gauges are installed in the closed
loop system.

The facility has two Baltimore Aircoil Company Model 15146CR cooling towers. The towers have the
combined capacity of approximately 300 tons. Two 124 hp pumps provide a combined flow rate of 1200
gpm to the towers. The towers are about 10 years old.

In terms of maintenance, the basins are cleaned once per year, and the fans and belt are changed annually.
The company CH2O provides maintenance once per month through a service contract, so the company
does not know the actual cost of the chemicals used. We obtained the log of the chemicals used. The film
media was recently replaced. The Legionelle’s test was conducted to ensure that Legionelle bacteria is
not present. Environmental Hygiene Services (Larysa Slobodian, lslobodian@nalco.vom) provided the
Legionelle’s testing services.

Follow-up:

• Measure make up water flow rates and temperatures to inform us on water usage and tower
efficiency.
• Meet with Doug Vliet of CH20, who services the towers on a monthly basis, to obtain information
about the chemicals used.
• Calculate chemical useage per volume of water used.

April 19, 2006 and May 16, 2006 Site Visits

April 19 - Guy Hoyle-Dodson and Lynn Coleman
May 16 - Guy Hoyle-Dodson and Cristiana Figueroa

TREE staff measured water flow in and out of the evaporative side of the cooling tower during the
timeframe April 19, 2006 to May 16, 2006. Two Fuji Electronics PortaFlow transit meters were installed
to measure flow and log totalized volumes. These meters attach to the outside of piping and measure flow
17
by sending an acoustic signal through the pipe and fluid inside the pipe. Total inflow was measured at
244,000 gallons over the period of 27 days. Total discharge was measured at 46,000 gallons. Inflow was
typically 20 gpm with spikes to 60 to 70 gpm several times during a 24 hour period.

The amount of water evaporated from a tower is typically significantly higher than the bleed off except
for towers operating in a single flow mode or at low cycles of concentration. In our case study, 80% of
the incoming water to the towers (about 250,000 gallons per month) evaporated or was lost as drift, and
20% was removed as bleed off with the cycles of concentration estimated at 5.3.2

TREE also measured conductivity of inflow and discharge on the evaporative side of the cooling tower
using a YSI 63 portable handheld meter. The two grab samples were taken on April 19. The inflow
sample was taken at the outside hose bib next to the cooling towers. This was considered the most
representative location since no tap in the inflow pipe to the cooling towers exists. Discharge sample was
collected from the end of the cooling tower discharge pipe. Inflow conductivity was 140 uS/cm and
discharge conductivity was 790 uS/cm.

Based on these data, cycles of concentrations would be 790/140= 5.6. TREE staff had questions about
this value and did a single point calibration check on the meter. The meter read 103.5 μS/cm when using
a 100 μS/cm standard and the meter was deemed to be reading accurately. It was later discovered that the
outflow was measured during a time when the sand filter may have been back flushing. Because the
sample was not taken during normal blowdown, calculating cycles of concentration is not possible.
When TREE takes these measurements in the future, care must be taken to collect samples at the correct
place and time. Also, discharge was intermittent and infrequent, making it difficult to take a sample.

Table B1 Temperatures of inflow and discharge were taken on May 16, 2006
Location Temperature In to Heat Temperature Out of Heat
Exchanger (oF) Exchanger (oF)
Evaporative cooling 66.8 73.3
water
Closed loop water 80 78

TREE was not able to develop a ratio between chemical use and water use at this facility because the
chemical additions varied, were infrequent, and additions did not correspond to the dates that water use
data was collected.

2. Twin City Foods, Ellensburg

November 16, 2006

Tony Cooper
Cristiana Figueroa
Madeline Wall

Purpose: Learn about evaporative condensers used in an ammonia refrigeration system

The seven cooling towers (evaporative condensers) at the facility are part of an ammonia refrigeration
system. In the system, ammonia flows in a closed loop from a storage tank, to product freezers, to
compressors, through the condensers and back to the storage tanks. The ammonia is liquid in the storage

2
244,000 gallons/46,000 gallons = 5.3
18
tanks, picks up heat in the freezers and leaves as a gas. The compressors and condensers change the gas
back to liquid.

In the evaporative condensers, city water flows over the pipes that contain ammonia, cooling the ammonia
as it passes through. Some water is evaporated during the process. The water recirculates through the
condenser while 3 to 5 gallons per minute of cooling water are continuously discharged from each
condenser to maintain a chlorine concentration of less than 1%. More discharge is needed during periods
of hot weather.

The facility uses about 60,000 gallons per day (gpd) of city water in the evaporative condensers.
Approximately 7,500 gpd of water is lost to evaporation.

A biocide is added to each of the seven condensers to control biological growth. Facility staff place Bio
Clor tablets into a holder in the bottom tank portion of each condenser. No other chemicals are used.

3. Dolphin Treatment System at Good Samaritan Hospital, Puyallup

December 6, 2006

Lynn Coleman
Cristiana Figueroa
Madeline Wall

The team visited Good Samaritan Hospital to observe the Dolphin Treatment System installed on the
facility’s cooling tower. The evaporative cooling tower is a 400 ton Baltimore Air Coil unit. It was
installed in 1990, and it cools water for a 200 ton plate and frame heat exchanger (chiller/condenser). The
water treatment system had been in place for about four years. Rand Conger, sales engineer with Johnson
Barrow Inc and the facility manager, Steve Prideaux, showed us the treatment system and explained how
it worked and the results seen at this facility. The facility manger was very happy with the system. Since
it was installed, they have not had to use treatment chemicals.

They use City of Puyallup well water with variable hardness. Silica levels can be extremely high (up to
60 ppm Si). The results they have experienced after installing the Dolphin system are:

• Reduced cooling tower water usage by about 14% by increasing their cycles of concentration.
(Because sewer rates are 2.75 times the water rates, they focus on water usage from a cost
standpoint.)
• Energy savings of about 11-12%.
• Cut labor costs.
• Reduced corrosion and bio-films.
• More efficient operation of chiller and cooling tower.
• Less frequent back-flushing required for tower sand filter.
• Extended equipment life.
• Consistent colony counts (previously they had large fluctuations)

The Dolphin System is pulse-powered physical water treatment. It uses pulsed, electric fields to control
scaling, biological growth, and corrosion. The vendor doesn’t know exactly how it works and didn’t
provide any specifics on the mechanisms for controlling scale, biological growth, or corrosion. However,

19
he provided a contact at UW (Guarrin Sakagawa) who was involved in a study evaluating the Dolphin
system.

4. WCTI Alternative Technology Site Visit

March 16, 2007

Lynn Coleman

Lynn, Phil Paschke (Seattle Public Utilities) and Roger Van Gelder (SPU contractor) met with Tom
Aeschliman (Wesmar Company – equipment vendor) and Dean Collins (Westin Building facilities
manager) to tour a non-chemical cooling tower water treatment system. Lynn came at the invitation of
SPU.

The Water Conservation Technology International (WCTI) unit is installed at the Westin Building, a 34
story telecommunication facility in Seattle, Washington. The building houses office space and a number
of telecommunication servers for the region.

The peak summer heating load was estimated by Dean at 1700 to 1800 T. Evaporative losses were
estimated at 36,000 gpd.

Some basic information about the cooling water technology was provided. Incoming water is treated with
a water softener to remove scaling constituents. The unit is run with little to no blowdown which
effectively makes the cooling water total dissolved solids (TDS) extremely high. It is essentially brine
(concentration of sodium chloride from the water softener). The high TDS keeps bacteria from growing,
addressing biological fouling concerns. The vendor did not explain how corrosion issues were addressed
given the high salt content. The units at this facility were mostly fiberglass rather than galvanized
aluminum. But he stated that other facilities with galvanized units were exhibiting low corrosion rates as
measured by coupons kept in the reservoir tanks. Coupons were measured on an occasional basis to track
corrosion.

Tom also extended the invitation to a seminar that they were giving on April 13, 2007 on alternative
cooling water technologies including information on the unit installed at the Westin Building.

5. Technology for Evaporative Cooling Water Treatment and Water

Conservation Seminar

April 13, 2007

Tony Cooper

Summary of information presented on non-chemical water treatment alternatives:

Elysator® by International Water Treatment Maritime AS

The Elysator® model line is a treatment option for closed loop water containing systems such as chilling
and radiant heating loops. The Elysator® has a large range of product application with flow rates from 2
L per min to 200 L per min. It must be used in a system that can get above 1.5 cycles of concentration. It
20
was initially invented as a maritime product, but has found use in nuclear power plants (Sweden, Norway)
and hospitals (St. Peter’s Hospital – Olympia, Children’s Hospital – Seattle). IWTM claims a payback
period of 18-24 months.

Corrosion of fluid piping is a prime concern for longevity of equipment and must be minimized. Example
causes of corrosion include:
• High dissolved oxygen content
• Low pH levels
• High electrical conductivity
• Chlorides
• Interaction between different metals and alloys

The Elysator® attempts to minimize the first three of these through the use of a sacrificial magnesium
anode. Through a cathodic/anodic reaction, the magnesium anode is oxidized to form magnesium
hydroxide as follows:

Mg (s) + 2H2O (l) + ½O2 (aq) ÅÆ Mg(OH)2 (aq) + H2O (l)

This reaction accomplishes the first two points simultaneously. First, the dissolved oxygen is reacted and
thus removed from solution and prevents the oxidation of the metals that constitute the heat transfer loop.
Secondly, the creation of magnesium hydroxide (a strong base) raises the pH of the water in the system to
approximately pH 9.5. These two steps also severally limit the ability of aerobic organisms to grow.
Finally, the water is now softened and thus limits its ability to conduct electricity, further preventing
corrosion.

Any iron, copper, or other metal deposits that have formed as a product of corrosion will be collected via
a cyclonic-action filter that can be emptied. The anode must be cleaned “as needed” and changed every
three to five years.

Contact information:
Arne Vestad
Owner
2607 Bridgeport Way W.
Suite 1J
University Place, WA 98466
Phone 253.566.1438
Fax 253.566.1512
Mobile 253.279.7680
arnevestad@iwtna.com
www.iwtna.com

Polymerized Silica/Sodium Chloride Treatment by Water Conservation Technology International, Inc.

(Water-CTI)

Water-CTI is the licenser for a technology that utilizes polymerized silica and sodium chloride (termed
“New Dimension”) softening system to remove scale forming ions, prevent microbial growth, and prevent
corrosion. The system is intended to work in large scale, open-loop cooling applications. The system
functions at high TDS and high pH to discourage microbial growth. At high TDS, the polymerized silica
form s a good corrosion inhibiting layer on piping. The sodium hydroxide and polymeric silica cohabitate

21
to create a colloid. This colloid is critical to the functioning of the system in order to provide excess silica
to buffer the system’s silica concentration. Since polymeric silica will not form a colloid with other
metalloid salts (i.e., calcium), sodium chloride is used. Mononuclear silica is in makeup water to recharge
the polymeric silica/sodium hydroxide colloid. It is important, though, that makeup water is softened
through pretreatment.

The overall effect is that the silica system will reduce water use due to the high number of cycle of
concentrations possible (as high as 300 with corresponding TDS of ~15,000) with an overall goal of
(near) zero discharge. Water-CTI has information on their website that provides claims of corrosion
levels of only 0.004 mils per year on mild steel.

Further study needs to include disposal of brine water waste from (near) zero discharge systems and how
a facility’s local POTW is handling the waste stream.

Local examples of this technology include Orca Bay Foods (Renton) – had 300 cycles of concentration
before reverting to 80 due to the turbid appearance of the water. There is also a high rise in Seattle that is
operating at 300 cycles.

Contact information:
Dan Duke
President
Water Conservation Technology International, Inc.
31805 Highway 79 South #622
Temecula, CA 92592
Phone (951) 491-9563
savewater@water-cti.com

22
Appendix C: A Case Study of the Crown Beverage Cooling Towers
Crown Cork and Seal, a business located in Olympia, WA that manufactures beverage cans from
aluminum rolls, uses two single-cell evaporative cooling towers to provide cooling for the facility’s
closed cooling water loop. This loop cools machines and tools used in the aluminum can manufacture
process, such as air compressors and aluminum cutting machines. This study focused on the evaporative
side of the cooling towers.

Crown Cork and Seal has two single cell Baltimore Aircoil Model 15146CRs side by side. The
15146CRs have a nominal tonnage of 146 tons and an air throughput of 40,320 cubic feet per minute
each. Crown Cork and Seal meters out a measured amount of chemical based on flow rate or totalized
flow of water through the cooling system.

Toxicity Analysis

Chemicals Used
Crown Cork and Seal uses several chemicals to increase the lifespan of their cooling tower: 6324,
Unibrom, MXT-1, 6436, and BIOTROL 20. Chemical constituent data was obtained from Material
Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) from CH2O’s website, www.ch2o.com.

6324’s active ingredients are phosphonic acid (5 wt%) and sodium hydroxide (5 wt%) which creates a
buffered solution to help the cooling tower water resist pH change and prevent scale build up and
corrosion.

Unibrom, a biocide, contains sodium bromide (10 wt%), sodium hydroxide (5 wt%), and sodium
hypochlorite (10 wt%). According to Doug Vliet of CH2O, the chemical treatment vendor for Crown
Cork and Seal, bromine is a preferred biocide to chlorine because it is more effective at elevated pH levels
than chlorine compounds and the bromine solutions are not as corrosive similar chlorine products.
However, chlorine compounds are frequently included in several bromine products (i.e., Unibrom).

MXT-1 is a quaternary ammonium compound (10 wt%) based product that is a broad spectrum, non-
oxidizing biocide.

Biotrol 20 is a biocide used in the cooling towers’ chilled loop.

6436 contains sodium molybdate (10 wt%) and sodium nitrite (10 wt%). The nitrite is an oxygen
scavenger and works with the molybdenate to inhibit corrosion. This chemical is used primarily in the
boilers.

Toxicity
Chemical toxicity was reviewed with an end-of-life focus. Cooling tower blowdown and bleed off
primarily end up in large bodies of water such as Puget Sound or the Columbia River and, thus, toxicity
was reviewed for fish species. Fathead Minnow, Brook and Rainbow Trout, and Coho Salmon were used
to determine toxicity for the above mentioned chemicals. LC50 data was obtained from the RTECS
database (http://ccinfoweb.ccohs.ca/rtecs/search.html) and is summarized in Table C1.

23
In order to determine what chemicals were causing the largest risk to the environment based on LC50
toxicity, the maximum amount of chemical constituent used was divided by the LC50 to create an adhoc
toxicity factor (lbs chemical*L/mg toxicity). The larger the number, the more of a negative
environmental impact potential. This data can be seen in Table C2, calculated from the maximum usage
amount for each chemical over a twelve month period. From this data, it is possible to determine the
relative toxicity of each product based on its usage at Crown Cork and Seal.

Table C1 LC50 Data

Product Name/Chemical CAS # Wt% LC50fish Duration Species

Constituents (mg/L) (h)
6324
Phosphonic acid 13598-36-2 5% Fathead Minnow
Sodium hydroxide 1310-73-2 5% 25 24 Brook Trout
UNIBROM
Sodium bromide 7647-15-6 10% 0.068 96 Rainbow Trout
Sodium hydroxide 1310-73-2 5% 25 24 Brook Trout
Sodium hypochlorite 7681-52-9 10% 0.032 96 Coho Salmon
MXT-1
Quaternary ammonium compound 3152-74-0 10% 0.353 48 Fathead Minnow
6436
Sodium molybdate 7631-95-0 10% 0.73 672 Rainbow Trout
Sodium nitrite 7632-00-0 10% 0.11 96 Rainbow Trout
BIOTROL 20
Tetrakishydroxymethylphosphonium 55566-30-8 20% 94 96 Rainbow Trout
sulfate

Table C2 Toxicity Ranking Compensating for Usage of Water Treatment Chemicals at Crown
Cork and Seal
Chemical Toxicity Factor Toxicity Rank
Max Use / LC50
(lbs*L/mg)
6324
Phosphonic Acid NA
Sodium hydroxide 0.551 6
UNIBROM
Sodium bromide 82.8 2
Sodium hydroxide 0.113 7
Sodium hypochlorite 176 1
MXT-1
Quaternary Ammonium Compound 12.1 3
6436
Sodium molybdate 0.686 5
Sodium nitrite 4.55 4
BIOTROL 20
Tetrakishydroxymethylphosphonium sulfate 0.0968 8

24
Figure C1 shows the mass of each treatment chemical used per month for a twelve month period. General
usage data shows the order of chemical use (in descending order): 6324, Unibrom, MXT-1, BIOTROL
20, and 6436.

Figure C1 Water Treatment Chemical Use Diagram Showing Usage of Chemicals from May 2005
to April 2006
Water Treatment Chemical Use
275
250
225
Chemical Use (lbs)

200
175 6324

150 UNIBROM
125 MXT-1
100 6436
75
BIOTROL 20
50
25
0
Apr-05 May-05 Jul-05 Sep-05 Oct-05 Dec-05 Feb-06 Mar-06 May-06
Date

Toxicity Analysis Conclusions

The relative order of chemical use-toxicity is (in descending order): Unibrom, MXT-1, 6436, 6324, and
Biotrol 20. This was an expected result due to the antibiotic properties of sodium hypochlorite, sodium
bromide, and quaternary ammonium compounds found in Unibrom and MXT-1. For Crown Cork and
Seal, a system that monitors water conductivity and doses the chemicals according to a set algorithm
defined by conductivity is recommended.

Water Usage
Guy Hoyle-Dodson installed flow meters to measure the flow into and out of the towers at Crown
Beverage Corporation.

The flow meters obtained data from April 19th through May 16, 2006. During this period of time, the
cooling load changed. Only one compressor was operating. Small discharge flows occurred periodically
during that timeframe with a total volume of 46,000 gallons discharged from close to 250,000 gallons that
went into the system.

Eighty percent of the incoming flow was lost to evaporation and drift (200,000 gallons). The amount of
water that evaporated seemed high. To ascertain whether the flow measurements were accurate, and the
evaporated volume truly that high, an energy-mass balance calculation (from The Cooling Tower Manual
(Chp.2, pg 3), Cooling Tower Institute, March 1998) was employed. The energy-mass calculation was
based on temperature measurements of the water coming into and out of the tower at the end of the time
period as well as the average ambient temperature during that time period. Calculations showed that the
design evaporation rate is 1.4%, or 4.95 gpm, of the total volume of water in the system, at the design
load. At the current load the evaporation rate was estimated to be 0.43%, or 1.52 gpm. The calculated
design evaporation rate was close to the range (1.7-2%) estimated with the “rules of thumb” equations
below:
25
 Rules Of Thumb for Calculating Evaporation Rate

(1) Evaporation Loss from a cooling tower (E) = .001 (Cr) (DT) where Cr = circulation rate in gallons per
minute and D T = temperature differential between hot and cold water in °F. The evaporation rate amounts to
1% of the recirculation rate for every 10°F DT.
http://www.thermidaire.on.ca/ctcci.html

(2) Evaporation Loss = 0.00085 * water flowrate (T1-T2)

http://www.cheresources.com/ctowerszz.shtml
A Water Conservation Guide for Commercial, Institutional and Industrial Users, New Mexico Office of the State
Engineer, July 1999

… the water balance in a cooling tower system can be stated as the relationship between make-up water (M),
evaporation (E), bleed-off (B), and draft (D):

M=E+B+D

Drift is usually so small, if you meter the bleed-off (B) and makeup (M) rates, you can calculate the
evaporation rater (E): E = M – B. An approximate guideline states that cooling towers lose 2.4 gallons per
minute per 100 tons of cooling. For example, a 700 ton tower loses 16.8 gallons per minute (2.4 gpm/100tons
X 700 tons). (Tons: Unit of cooling capacity equal to 12,000 BTUs per hour. Cooling towers in typical
facilities range from 50 tons to more than 1,000 tons.) http://www.ose.state.nm.us/water-info/conservation/pdf-
manuals/cii-users-guide.pdf

Given that the circulation rate is: 700 gpm*27 days*24hours*60 min= 27.2E6 gallons over the time
period we monitored, and utilizing the "rules of thumb" equations, and only one set of temperature (delta
T=6.5 with only one compressor running--which happened for only one week of the time period), we get:
1) 176,900 gallons evaporated or 2) 150,400 gallons.

The true rate would be higher because the delta T would have been definitely higher for the first three
weeks when both compressors operated--Bob Powell (Maintenance staff) commented on this. The
energy-mass balance calculations resulted in 116,000 gallons evaporated with only one compressor
running the whole time. The evaporation rate needs only be 0.74% (well below the design rate) with both
compressors running to reach 200,000 gallon number.

26