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Chapter 2 Conventional and Unconventional Gas Reservoir
Natural gas is a subcategory of petroleum that is a naturally occurring, complex mixture of
hydrocarbons, with a minor amount of inorganic compounds. Natural gas is primarily
comprised of hydrocarbons. Methane or CH4 is the major component. The other components
include C2H6 (ethane), C3H8 (propane), C4H16 (butane), and heavier, more complex,
hydrocarbons. In addition to hydrocarbons, natural gas also contains impurities. These
impurities include: nitrogen (N2), carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and water
vapor (H2O). The impurities do not add any calorific value to natural gas. They can be either
neutral (such as nitrogen), or can cause harmful effects such as corrosion (i.e., water vapor)
or poisoning (i.e., H2S). During the processing of gas, the heavier hydrocarbons beyond
butane are removed from the gas as liquids, and sold as liquids. Therefore, the majority of gas
after processing is methane. The impurities are also removed at the surface to improve the
calorific value of gas as well as to minimize the corrosion. Table 2-1 shows composition of a
typical natural gas. It indicates that methane is a major component of the gas mixture.
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The objective is to determine the inflow performance relationships under pseudo-steady state
flow condition. The solution is achieved by solving the fluid flow equation (Darcy’s Law) at
the specific flow regime.
Qg =
(( )
kh m pr − m( p wf ) )
r
1422T (ln e − 0.75 + s )
rw (2.1)
Where:
k = permeability, md
h = thickness, ft
re = drainage radius, ft
rw = wellbore radius, ft
m(pr) =real gas potential as evaluated from 0 to average reservoir pressure pr,
psi2/cp
s =skin factor
Considering the shape factor CA in equation 2.1, the equation changes to the following
formula:
Qg =
(( )
kh m pr − m( p wf ) )
1
1422T [ ln(4 A / 1.781C A rw2 ) + s ] (2.2)
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Where:
A = drainage area, ft2;
CA = shape factor with values specified in the table 2.1.
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Table 2.1 Shape factors for various single-well drainage areas (after Earlougher, R.,
Advances in well testing analysis, permission to publish by the SPE, copyright SPE, 1977)
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Productivity index (PI) J
Qg kh
J= =
( )
m pr − m( p wf ) 1
1422T [ ln(4 A / 1.781C A rw2 ) + s ]
2 (2.3)
The most used case is the single-well in a circular drainage area. The productivity index is
represented as:
Qg kh
J= =
( )
m pr − m( p wf ) 1422T [ln(re / rw ) − 0.75 + s ]
(2.4)
The absolute open flow potential (AOF), maximum flow rate, is defined when the bottomhole
flow pressure is set to zero or atmospheric pressure. The AOF can be obtained using the PI:
AOF = Qg max = J × m( pr ) (2.5)
( )
m( p wf ) = m pr −
1
J
Qg (2.6)
Different representations
To present the equations using the integration:
r p
kh 2p
Qg =
re ∫ µ Z
dp
1422T (ln − 0.75 + s ) wf
p g
(2.7)
rw
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Figure 2.1 Gas PVT data.
• High-pressure region
When the bottom-hole flowing pressure Pwf and average reservoir pressure ���
𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑟 are both
2p 1
higher than 3000 psia, the pressure functions �𝜇𝜇 𝑍𝑍� and (𝜇𝜇 ) are nearly constant.
𝑔𝑔 𝑔𝑔 𝐵𝐵𝑔𝑔
or
(2.8)
where:
Qg = Gas flow rate, MSCF/day
Bg = Gas formation volume factor, bbl/SCF
k = Permeability, md
(2.9)
• Intermediate-pressure region
Between 2000 and 3000 psia, the pressure function shows distinct curvature.
(2.10)
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For a non-circular drainage area:
(2.11)
• Low-pressure region
2p 1
The pressure is usually less than 2000 psia, the pressure functions �𝜇𝜇 𝑍𝑍� and (𝜇𝜇 )
𝑔𝑔 𝑔𝑔 𝐵𝐵𝑔𝑔
(2.12)
or
(2.13)
for a non-circular drainage area:
(2.14)
Example 2.1: The following table presents the gas PVT data from a dry gas reservoir; the
reservoir is producing under the pseudo-steady state condition. Additional data is available as
k=65 md, h=15 ft, T=600°R, re=1000ft, rw=0.25ft, and s=-0.4. Calculate the gas flow rate
under the following conditions:
• 𝑃𝑃�𝑟𝑟 =4000 psia, and Pwf=3200 psia;
• 𝑃𝑃�𝑟𝑟 =2000 psia and Pwf=1200 psia.
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Solution:
• Calculation of Qg at 𝑃𝑃�𝑟𝑟 = 4000 and Pwf = 3200 psi:
Step 1. Select the approximation method. Because 𝑃𝑃�𝑟𝑟 and Pwf are both greater than
3000, the pressure approximation method is used, i.e., Equation 2.8.
Step 2. Calculate average pressure and determine the corresponding gas properties.
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Step 1. Select the appropriate approximation method. Because 𝑃𝑃�𝑟𝑟 and Pwf ≤2000, use
the pressure squared approximation.
Step 2. Calculated average pressure and the corresponding µg and Z:
Step 3. Calculated Qg by using the pressure –squared equation, i.e., Equation 2.13:
Step 4. Using the tabulated values of real-gas pseudopressure, calculate the exact Qg
by applying Equation 2.1:
Comparing results of the two methods, the pressure- squared approximation predicted
the gas flow rate with an average absolute error of 0.27%.
(2.15)
Where D is the turbulent flow factor and is given:
Fkh
D= (2.16)
1422T
And F is the non-Darcy flow coefficient, and is defined as:
(
F = 3.161 10 −12 ) µβThg r
2
g
(2.17)
g w
Where k = Permeability, md
T = Temperature, °R
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γg = Specific gravity
rw = Wellbore radius, ft
h = Thickness, ft
β = Turbulent parameter given by the following equation
β = 1.88(10 −10 )k −1.47φ −0.53
• Pressure approximation method
(2.18)
(2.19)
To solve above three equations, the following methods are used:
• The simplified treatment approach (Rawlines and Schellardt (1936) method)
Introducing the performance coefficient C into the above equation, as defined by:
(2.20)
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(2.21)
(2.22)
Given n, any point on the straight line can be used to compute the performance
coefficient C from:
(2.23)
Pressure – squared quadratic form Equation 2.15 can be written in a more simplified
form as:
(2.24)
Rearranging this equation gives:
(2.25)
With:
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(2.26)
(2.27)
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Pressure quadratic form Equation 2.18 can be rearranged and expressed in the
following quadratic form:
Rearranging gives:
(2.28)
(2.29)
(2.30)
(2.31)
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Figure 2.5. Graph of real-gas pseudopressure data.
Where the coefficient C describes the gas and reservoir properties by:
• LIT method
Pressure-squared method equation is written as:
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The proposed relationships for adjusting the coefficients are as follows:
(2.32)
(2.33)
With
(2.34)
(2.35)
reh ( L / 2)
rw\ = (2.36)
a[1 + 1 − ( L / 2a ) 2 ][h /(2rw )]h / L
and
L
a= [0.5 + 0.25 + (2reh / L) 4 ]0.5 (2.37)
2
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and
reh = 43560A / π (2.38)
Where
L= Length of the horizontal well, ft
h = Thickness, ft
rw = Wellbore radius, ft
reh = Horizontal well drainage radius, ft
a = Half the major axis of the drainage ellipse, ft
A = Drainage area of the horizontal well, acres
(2.39)
b. Pseudo-pressure method
(2.40)
Example 2.2: A horizontal gas well 2000 ft long is draining an area of approximately 120
acres. The available data is listed below. Please calculate the gas flow rate by using the
pressure-squared and pseudo-pressure methods. Assume pseudo-steady state flow condition.
Solution:
Step 2. Calculate half the major axis of the drainage ellipse by using Equation 2.37:
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Step 3. Calculate the effective wellbore radius rw form Equation 2.36:
Step 4. Calculate the flow rate by using the pressure-squared approximation approach
by using Equation 2.39:
Step 5. Calculate the flow rate by using the approach as described by Equatino
2.40:
2.2 Material Balance Equation Method for Gas Reservoir (pp 201-217)
(2.41)
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• Gas expansion factor is the reciprocal of Bg, or:
(2.42)
(2.43)
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Gas produced = initial gas in place – remaining gas
or
or:
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Calculate the cumulative gas production and recovery factor at 1000 and 400 psi.
Solution:
Step 1. Calculate the reservoir PV:
Step 4. Since the reservoir is assumed volumetric, calculate the remaining gas at 1000
and 400 psi.
Remaining gas at 1000 psi:
Step 5. Calculate cumulative gas production Gp and the recovery factor RF at 1000
and 400 psi.
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2.2.3 The material balance method
2.2.3.2 Assumptions
If enough production-pressure history is available for a gas reservoir in term of:
• Cumulative gas production Gp as a function of pressure,
• Gas properties as a function of pressure at reservoir temperature, and
• The initial reservoir pressure, pi
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Figure. 2.6. Idealized water-drive gas reservoir.
The gas moles can be replaced by their equivalents using the real-gas law, to give:
Knowing Zsc = 1,
2.2.3.3.1 The general material balance equation for volumetric gas reservoirs
• Volumetric reservoir
• No water production
I. MBE in the form of p/Z
(2.46)
or equivalently:
(2.47)
Figure 2.7. Gas material balance equation.
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m is the slope as shown in Figure 2.7. This straight line relationship is perhaps one of
the most widely used relationships in gas reserve determination.
Calculate the gas initially in place volumetrically and from the MBE.
Solution:
Step 1. Calculate Bgi from Equation 2.41:
Step 2. Calculate the gas initially in place volumetrically by applying Equation 2.43:
Step 3. Plot p/Z versus Gp as shown in Figure 2.8 and determine G as:
G = 14.2 MMMscf
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II. MBE in the form of field average p/Z Figure 2.8. Relationship of p/z vs. Gp.
(2.48)
(2.49)
Example 2.5: After producing 360 MMscf of gas from a volumetric gas reservoir, the
pressure has declined from 3200 psi to 3000 psi.
a) Calculate the gas initially in place given:
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b) Recalculate the gas initially in place assuming that the pressure measurements were
incorrect and the true average pressure is 2900 psi, instead of 3000 psi. The gas
formation volume factor at this pressure is 0.00558ft3/scf.
Solution:
• Using Equation 2.49:
(2.50)
(2.51)
2.2.3.3.2 The general material balance equation for water drive gas reservoirs
(2.52)
(2.53)
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(2.54)
Drive indices for gas reservoirs
o Cole plot
(2.55)
o Modified Cole plot
(2.56)
Rock collapse theory
Shale water influx theory
o Roach plot for abnormally pressured gas reservoir
(2.57)
Where
(2.58)
Defining the rock expansion term ER as:
(2.59)
(2.60)
o Modified Roach plot for pot aquifer gas reservoir
(2.61)
With:
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o Fetkovich et al. plot for abnormally pressured gas reservoir
(2.62)
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