Professional Documents
Culture Documents
In the mobile radio, since the multipath fading distorts the amplitude of the carrier, the signal is sent by modulating the phase
or frequency of the carrier, which has no impact on the amplitude. We call those modulations constant envelope
modulations; that is, no signal is modulated on the amplitude. The distortion of carrier amplitude by other factors such as
fading or nonlinear amplification will not affect the signal. Therefore, it is possible to use a nonlinear amplifier. Although, the
non-linear amplifier can distort the amplitude but not the phase, as we have mentioned in the inverse-sine modulation
method in Sec. 12.5. But the intermodulation introduced by the AM-PM conversion in a nonlinear amplifier can be taken care
of by a few particular modulations.
Constant envelope modulation can be a linear or a nonlinear modulation in digital mobile systems. In general, constant
envelope modulation is used for the nonlinear modulation (FM) in analog mobile systems.
QAM signaling can be viewed as a combination of amplitude shift keying (ASK) and phase shift keying (PSK). It can also be viewed as
an amplitude shift keying in two dimensions. In an M-ary QAM signal, the signal in each state I is
where A is a constant, representing the amplitude of the lowest state, and ( a i, b i) is a pair of identifying states in the
constellation of the ith state. The 16-QAM constellation diagram is shown in Fig. 8.22.
Constant envelope modulations such as FSK, GFSK, MSK, GMSK and Feher's IJF -
nonlinearly filtered ISI-free modulations offer not only enhanced spectral efficiency in
DS systems, they also provide an inherent transmitted power advantage. All constant
envelope modulations allow a DS transmiter's power amplifiers to operate at or near
saturation levels. On the other hand, standard BPSK, QPSK, QAM and even π/4-
DCQPSK modulations contain AM components in the modulated envelope, which
require from 3 to 6 dB of back off (from saturation) in the output power amplifier to
reduce or eliminate spectrum splatter of sideband components that might cause
Adjacent Channel Interference (ACI).
Next time you design a new DS system, consider a Constant Envelope Modulation!
This page covers comparison between QPSK and MSK modulation techniques with respect
to various system parameters. Following table covers difference between QPSK and
MSK.
Specifications QPSK modulation MSK modulation
Null Bandwidth equal to 1.0 times data rate equal to 1.5 times data rate
Power 99% power is concentrated in 1.0(data rate) 99% power is concentrated in 1.2(data rate)
PSD(Power PSD falls off proportional to inverse PSD falls off proportional to inverse fourth
Spectral Density) second power of frequency power of frequency
Amplitude modulation (AM): here the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied in accordance to the
instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal.
Double-sideband modulation (DSB)
Double-sideband modulation with carrier (DSB-WC) (used on the AM radio broadcasting band)
Double-sideband suppressed-carrier transmission (DSB-SC)
Double-sideband reduced carrier transmission (DSB-RC)
Single-sideband modulation (SSB, or SSB-AM)
SSB with carrier (SSB-WC)
SSB suppressed carrier modulation (SSB-SC)
Vestigial sideband modulation (VSB, or VSB-AM)
Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM)
Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier Modulation
Double-sideband suppressed-carrier transmission (DSB-SC) [4] is a transmission in which-
(a) frequencies produced by amplitude modulation are symmetrically spaced above and
below the carrier frequency and
(b) the carrier level is reduced to the lowest practical level, ideally completely suppressed.
In the double-sideband suppressed-carrier transmission (DSB-SC) modulation, unlike AM,
the wave carrier is not transmitted; thus, a great percentage of power that is dedicated to it is
distributed between the sidebands, which implies an increase of the cover in DSB-SC,
compared to AM, for the same power used.
For double-sideband suppressed carrier (DSB-SC) modulation the amplitude is related to the
message as follows:
A(t)=Ac(t) m(t)
Single-sideband modulation (SSB) [3]:
Single sideband, SSB modulation is basically a derivative of amplitude modulation, AM. By
removing some of the components of the ordinary AM signal it is possible to significantly
improve its efficiency.
It is possible to see how an AM signal can be improved by looking at the spectrum of the
signal. When a steady state carrier is modulated with an audio signal, for example a tone of
1 kHz, then two smaller signals are seen at frequencies 1 kHz above and below the main
carrier.
If the steady state tones are replaced with audio like that efficiency with speech of music,
these comprise many different frequencies and an audio spectrum with frequencies over a
band of frequencies is seen. When modulated onto the carrier, these spectra are seen above
and below the carrier.
It can be seen that if the top frequency that is modulated onto the carrier is 6 kHz, then the
top spectra will extend to 6 kHz above and below the signal. In other words the bandwidth
occupied by the AM signal is twice the maximum frequency of the signal that is used to
modulated the carrier, i.e. it is twice the bandwidth of the audio signal to be carried.
VSB-vestigial sideband[3]?
VSB is a form of amplitude modulation intended to save bandwidth over regular AM. Let’s say we
have a baseband signal that extends up to 1 MHz that we want to transmit using some form of
amplitude modulation. Let’s say it also has to be compatible with a simple receiver using a diode AM
detector. Our choices for amplitude modulation format would be single sideband suppressed carrier,
double sideband suppressed carrier, plain old AM (double sideband with carrier) or vestigial
sideband. Let’s consider the choices…
SSB/suppressed carrier – transmit bandwidth is the same as baseband bandwidth (= 1 MHz). This is
clearly a good choice for minimizing bandwidth, but the problem is that we can’t detect it with a
simple diode detector found in most consumer AM radios (and analog TV receivers) because it is
transmitted with no carrier signal.
DSB/suppressed carrier – transmit bandwidth is twice the baseband bandwidth (= 2 x 1 MHz). Not
best choice for saving bandwidth, plus it has the same detection problem that SSB has.
Plain old AM – transmit bandwidth is twice the baseband bandwidth (= 2 x 1 MHz), but it can be
detected with the simple diode detector. Good choice for the receiver, not so good for bandwidth.
M-ary Equation
If a digital signal is given under four conditions, such as voltage levels,
frequencies, phases and amplitude, then M = 4.
The number of bits necessary to produce a given number of conditions is
expressed mathematically as
[Math Processing Error]N=log2M
Where,
N is the number of bits necessary.
M is the number of conditions, levels, or combinations possible with N bits.
The above equation can be re-arranged as −
[Math Processing Error]2N=M
For example, with two bits, 22 = 4 conditions are possible.
M-ary ASK
This is called M-ary Amplitude Shift Keying (M-ASK) or M-ary Pulse
Amplitude Modulation (PAM).
The amplitude of the carrier signal, takes on M different levels.
M-ary FSK
This is called as M-ary Frequency Shift Keying.
The frequency of the carrier signal, takes on M different levels.
Representation of M-ary FSK
[Math Processing
Error]Si(t)=2EsTScos⟮ ΠTs(nc+i)t⟯0≤t≤Tsandi=1,2.....M
where [Math Processing Error]fc=nc2Ts for some fixed integer n.
This is not susceptible to noise as much as ASK. The transmitted M number
of signals are equal in energy and duration. The signals are separated
by [Math Processing Error]12Ts Hz making the signals orthogonal to each
other.
Since M signals are orthogonal, there is no crowding in the signal space.
The bandwidth efficiency of an M-ary FSK decreases and the power
efficiency increases with the increase in M.
M-ary PSK
This is called as M-ary Phase Shift Keying.
The phase of the carrier signal, takes on M different levels.
What is PSK?
Introduction:
It is a digital modulation technique which uses phase of the analog carrier to
represent digital binary data. Phase of the carrier wave is changed according to
the binary inputs (1 or 0). In two level PSK, difference of 180 phase shift is used
between binary 1 and binary 0.
There are many different types of modulation techniques which utilizes this
concept to transmit digital binary data. It include two level PSK (i.e. BPSK), Four
level PSK (i.e. QPSK) etc. Some techniques employ both amplitude and phase
variation to represent binary data such as 16-QAM, 64-QAM, 256-QAM etc. Two
level PSK represents single bit by each signaling elements while four level PSK
represents two bits by each signaling elements and so on. 8-PSK represents
three bits by each signaling elements.
Pseudo-Noise Sequence
A coded sequence of 1s and 0s with certain auto-correlation properties,
called as Pseudo-Noise coding sequence is used in spread spectrum
techniques. It is a maximum-length sequence, which is a type of cyclic
code.
Narrow-band Signals
The Narrow-band signals have the signal strength concentrated as shown in
the following frequency spectrum figure.
Hard to find the user’s frequency at any instant of time User frequency, once
allotted is always the
same
It is cheaper It is expensive
Cross-talk elimination
Better security
Reduction in noise
Hard to detect
Process Gain:
In a spread-spectrum system, the process gain (or "processing gain") is the ratio of the spread (or RF)
bandwidth to the unspread (or baseband) bandwidth. It is usually expressed in decibels (dB).
For example, if a 1 kHz signal is spread to 100 kHz, the process gain expressed as a numerical ratio would
be 100000/1000 = 100. Or in decibels, 10 log10(100) = 20 dB.
Note that process gain does not reduce the effects of wideband thermal noise. It can be shown that a direct-
sequence spread-spectrum (DSSS) system has exactly the same bit error behavior as a non-spread-
spectrum system with the same modulation format. Thus, on an additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN)
channel without interference, a spread system requires the same transmitter power as an unspread system,
all other things being equal.
Unlike a conventional communication system, however, a DSSS system does have a certain resistance
against narrowband interference, as the interference is not subject to the process gain of the DSSS signal,
and hence the signal-to-interference ratio is improved.
In frequency modulation (FM), the processing gain can be expressed as
where:
Gp is the processing gain,
Bn is the noise bandwidth,
Δf is the peak frequency deviation,
W is the sinusoidal modulating frequency.
frequency-shift keying (FSK)
Frequency-shift keying (FSK) is a method of transmitting digital signals. The
two binarystates, logic 0 (low) and 1 (high), are each represented by an analog waveform.
Logic 0 is represented by a wave at a specific frequency, and logic 1 is represented by a
wave at a different frequency. A modem converts the binary data from a computer to FSK
for transmission over telephone lines, cables, optical fiber, or wireless media. The modem
also converts incoming FSK signals to digital low and high states, which the computer can
"understand."
The FSK mode was introduced for use with mechanical teleprinters in the mid-1900s. The standard
speed of those machines was 45 baud, equivalent to about 45 bits per second. When personal
computers became common and networks came into being, this signaling speed was tedious.
Transmission of large text documents and programs took hours; image transfer was unknown. During
the 1970s, engineers began to develop modems that ran at faster speeds, and the quest for ever-
greater bandwidth has continued ever since. Today, a standard telephone modem operates at
thousands of bits per second. Cable and wireless modems work at more than 1,000,000 bps (one
megabit per second or 1 Mbps), and optical fiber modems function at many Mbps. But the basic
principle of FSK has not changed in more than half a century.
Bit rate Suitable upto 100 bits/sec Suitable upto about Suitable for
1200 bits/sec high bit rates
Analog Modulation
Analog modulation is the term refers to modulation of the analog signals. The figure-1
depicts this type of modulation with AM as example. As shown here input signal and carrier
signal both are analog in nature. The parameters of carrier i.e. amplitude or frequency or
phase is varied according to the input frequency signal.
Examples:
• AM (Amplitude Modulation): Ampitude of the carrier varies according to amplitude of
analog input signal.
• FM (Frequency Modulation): Frequency of the carrier varies according to frequency of
analog input signal.
• PM (Phase Modulation): Phase of the carrier varies according to phase of analog input
signal.
Refer
Digital Modulation
Examples:
ASK (Amplitude Shift Keying): The carrier signal with constant amplitude and frequency is
present when binary 1 digital signal is being transmitted. No carrier during binary 0
transmission period.
FSK (Frequency Shift Keying): The carrier signal with different frequencies are transmitted
during binary 1 and binary 0 periods.
PSK (Phase Shift Keying): The carrier signal with different phases are transmitted during
binary 1 and binary 0 period.
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) is a variation of BPSK, and it is
also a Double Side Band Suppressed Carrier (DSBSC) modulation scheme,
which sends two bits of digital information at a time, called as bigits.
Instead of the conversion of digital bits into a series of digital stream, it
converts them into bit pairs. This decreases the data bit rate to half, which
allows space for the other users.
QPSK Modulator
The QPSK Modulator uses a bit-splitter, two multipliers with local oscillator,
a 2-bit serial to parallel converter, and a summer circuit. Following is the
block diagram for the same.
At the modulator’s input, the message signal’s even bits (i.e., 2 nd bit,
4th bit, 6th bit, etc.) and odd bits (i.e., 1st bit, 3rd bit, 5th bit, etc.) are
separated by the bits splitter and are multiplied with the same carrier to
generate odd BPSK (called as PSKI) and even BPSK (called as PSKQ).
The PSKQ signal is anyhow phase shifted by 90° before being modulated.
The QPSK waveform for two-bits input is as follows, which shows the
modulated result for different instances of binary inputs.
QPSK Demodulator
The QPSK Demodulator uses two product demodulator circuits with local
oscillator, two band pass filters, two integrator circuits, and a 2-bit parallel
to serial converter. Following is the diagram for the same.
QPSK
Fig1.
QPSK-OQPSK block diagram
As mentioned Quadrature Phase Shift Keying is referred as QPSK. Here maximum phase
shift is limited to about 90 degree.
In QPSK, first input bit stream is split into two bit streams referred as odd and even. These
streams are applied simultaneously to the mixers.
Refer BPSK vs QPSK page for power spectrum density of QPSK modulated spectrum.
OQPSK
Offset Quadrature Phase Shift Keying is referred as OQPSK. Here maximum phase shift is
about +/- 90 degree.
In OQPSK, after splitting the bit stream into odd and even, one bit stream is made offset by
1 bit period with respect to the other. After this, the direct and shifted bit streams are fed to
the mixers.
Power spectral density(PSD) of OQPSK modulated spectrum is same as QPSK. Pls. note
offset in bit stream will not have any effect on the PSD.
Fig.2
QPSK-OQPSK time domain signal waveforms
As shown in the fig.2, as transitions are offset for both the odd and even bit streams at any
given time; only one of the bit stream can change the values.
As shown above in the constellation diagram, phase transition goes through the origin and
this results into suddon phase reversal in the time domain signal envelope. When such
signal goes through the nonlinear amplification will result into spectrum widening. To
overcome regeneration of sidelobes and spectrum widening, linear amplifier is employed.
But linear amplifiers are less efficient. Hence OQPSK has been developed. OQPSK
prevents phase transition from the origin by shifting one stream by a bit period and allowing
only one bit to change between the transitions.
pi/4 QPSK
pi/4 QPSK modulation scheme is obtained by adding additional π/4 phase shift in the phase
of the carriers of the symbols.
00 O degree -π/4
01 π/2 3π/4
10 Π -3π/4
Table mentions phase output values for different input bit combinations for both the QPSK
and pi/4QPSK modulations.
The table below summarizes QPSK, OQPSK and pi/4 QPSK modulation types.
Main lobe width is 1.0 X data rate Same as QPSK Same as QPSK
Diversity:
Diversity- is a powerful communication technique that
provides wireless link improvements at relatively low
cost.
Diversity exploits the random nature of radio
propagation by finding independent signal path for
communication.
Time Diversity:
the channel.
providing diversity.
Our modern implementation of time diversity
spectrum CDMA.
garden rake, each finger collecting symbol energy similarly to how tines
and Green”.
Each correlator detects a time-shifted version of the original
component.
Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing, OFDM: OFDM is possibly the most widely used form of
multicarrier modulation. It uses multiple closely spaced carriers and as a result of their orthogonality, mutual
interference between them is avoided. Read more about OFDM
Generalised Frequency Division Multiplexing, GFDM: GFDM is a multicarrier modulation scheme that
uses closed spaced non-orthogonal carriers and provides flexible pulse shaping. It is therefore attractive for
various applications such as machine to machine communications.
Filter Bank Multi Carrier, FBMC: FBMC is a form of multicarrier modulation scheme that uses a
specialised pulse shaping filter known as an isotropic orthogonal transform algorithm, IOTA within the digital
signal processing for the system. This scheme provides good time and frequency localisation properties and
this ensures that inter-symbol interference and inter-carrier interference are avoided without the use of cyclic
prefix required for OFDM based systems. Read more about FBMC
FDM VS OFDM: FDM stands for Frequency Division Multiplexing and OFDM stands for
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing.
Coherence bandwidth is a statistical measurement of the range of frequencies over which the channel can be
considered "flat", or in other words the approximate maximum bandwidth or frequency interval over which two
frequencies of a signal are likely to experience comparable or correlated amplitude fading. If the multipath time delay
spread equals Dseconds, then the coherence bandwidth in rad/s is given approximately by the equation:
It can be reasonably assumed that the channel is flat if the coherence bandwidth is greater than the data
signal bandwidth. The coherence bandwidth varies over cellular or PCScommunications paths because the
multipath spread D varies from path to path.
Selective fading[edit]
Selective fading or frequency selective fading is a radio propagation anomaly caused by partial cancellation of a
radio signal by itself — the signal arrives at the receiver by two different paths, and at least one of the paths is
changing (lengthening or shortening). This typically happens in the early evening or early morning as the various
layers in the ionosphere move, separate, and combine. The two paths can both be skywave or one be groundwave.
Selective fading manifests as a slow, cyclic disturbance; the cancellation effect, or "null", is deepest at one particular
frequency, which changes constantly, sweeping through the received audio.
As the carrier frequency of a signal is varied, the magnitude of the change in amplitude will vary. The coherence
bandwidth measures the separation in frequency after which two signals will experience uncorrelated fading.
In flat fading, the coherence bandwidth of the channel is larger than the bandwidth of the signal. Therefore, all
frequency components of the signal will experience the same magnitude of fading.
In frequency-selective fading, the coherence bandwidth of the channel is smaller than the bandwidth of the
signal. Different frequency components of the signal therefore experience uncorrelated fading.
Since different frequency components of the signal are affected independently, it is highly unlikely that all parts of the
signal will be simultaneously affected by a deep fade. Certain modulation schemes such as orthogonal frequency-
division multiplexing (OFDM) and code division multiple access (CDMA) are well-suited to employing frequency
diversity to provide robustness to fading. OFDM divides the wideband signal into many slowly modulated
narrowband subcarriers, each exposed to flat fading rather than frequency selective fading. This can be combated by
means of error coding, simple equalization or adaptive bit loading. Inter-symbol interference is avoided by introducing
a guard interval between the symbols. CDMA uses the rake receiver to deal with each echo separately.
Frequency-selective fading channels are also dispersive, in that the signal energy associated with each symbol is
spread out in time. This causes transmitted symbols that are adjacent in time to interfere with each
other. Equalizers are often deployed in such channels to compensate for the effects of the intersymbol interference.
The echoes may also be exposed to Doppler shift, resulting in a time varying channel model.
The effect can be counteracted by applying some diversity scheme, for example OFDM (with
subcarrier interleaving and forward error correction), or by using two receivers with separate antennas spaced a
quarter-wavelength apart, or a specially designed diversity receiver with two antennas. Such a receiver continuously
compares the signals arriving at the two antennas and presents the better signal.
GMSK:
Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying, or to give it its full title Gaussian filtered Minimum Shift Keying, GMSK, is a form of
modulation used in a variety of digital radio communications systems. It has advantages of being able to carry digital
modulation while still using the spectrum efficiently. One of the problems with other forms of phase shift keying is that
the sidebands extend outwards from the main carrier and these can cause interference to other radio
communications systems using nearby channels.
In view of the efficient use of the spectrum in this way, GMSK modulation has been used in a number of radio
communications applications. Possibly the most widely used is the GSM cellular technology which is used worldwide
and has well over 3 billion subscribers.
GMSK basics
GMSK modulation is based on MSK, which is itself a form of continuous-phase frequency-shift keying. One of the
problems with standard forms of PSK is that sidebands extend out from the carrier. To overcome this, MSK and its
derivative GMSK can be used.
MSK and also GMSK modulation are what is known as a continuous phase scheme. Here there are no phase
discontinuities because the frequency changes occur at the carrier zero crossing points. This arises as a result of the
unique factor of MSK that the frequency difference between the logical one and logical zero states is always equal to
half the data rate. This can be expressed in terms of the modulation index, and it is always equal to 0.5.
o A channel is classified as fast fading or slow fading depending upon how the
transmitted signal changes as compared to the rate of change of the channel. In
multipath component fast fading occurs due to speed of mobile terminal and
bandwidth of the signal.
o In fast fading the channel impulse response changes rapidly within the symbol
duration i.e. the coherence time of the channel is smaller than the symbol period of
the transmitted signal.
o This causes frequency dispersion due to Doppler spreading which leads to signal
distortion.
o In the frequency domain, signal distortion due to fading increases with increasing
Doppler spread relative to the bandwidth of the transmitted signal. Therefore a signal
undergoes fast fading if
Ts> Tc and Bs <bd <="" p="">
Ts= symbol period of transmitted signal,
Tc= coherence time of channel,
Bs=signal bandwidth,
BD= Doppler spread
Thus due to Doppler spreading the frequency dispersion or time selective fading occurs. - Fast
fading only deals with the rate of change of channel due to motion. Fast fading channel is the
channel in which the amplitude of the delta function varies faster than the rate of change of the
transmitted baseband signal. - In case of frequency selective fast fading channel the amplitudes,
phase and time delays of any of one of the multipath components vary faster than the rate of change
of the transmitted signal. - Fast fading occurs for very low data rates.
B. Slow fading:
In slow fading the channel impulse response changes at a rate much slower than the
transmitted baseband signal. In this channel is assumed to be static over one or several
bandwidth interval.
In frequency domain in slow fading Doppler spread is much less than the bandwidth of the
baseband signal. Thus the signal undergoes slow fading if
Ts<< Tc and Bs >>BD
Ts= symbol period of transmitted signal,
Tc= coherence time of channel,
Bs=baseband signal bandwidth,
BD= Doppler spread.
It occurs when the channel variations are slower than base station signal variation. If channel
variations are less Doppler spread is less and thus slow fading takes place.
Macro diversity: provides a method to mitigate
scale fading.
scale fading.
wavelengths.