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Chapter 5

CONTEMPORARY POTTERY PRACTICES:

AN ETHNOGRAPHIC STUDY

The present ethnographic research highlights the role of traditional view in material practice,

and material practice’s role in reproducing traditional views. It consciously locates material

practices within the reality of life in the 21th century and attempts to show how objects and

activities guide us to the roots of social, conceptual, cost-effective, ecological and

methodological aspects of contemporary potters.

Traditionally pottery manufacturing processes can be divided into six major phases

which further can be bifurcated into sub-stages:

Phases Sub-stages
I Clay procurement/ acquisition Ǧ transportation,
Ǧ storing
II Clay preparation Ǧ pounding and sieving,
Ǧ mixing of temper,
Ǧ paste preparation,
Ǧ kneading, wedging
III Product making Ǧ wheel throwing,
Ǧ turning and wheel throwing,
Ǧ beating and coiling,
Ǧ only beating
IV Drying and surface finishing Ǧ carving and / or scraping,
Ǧ slip application
V Firing Ǧ gathering of fuel,
Ǧ pots and other required resources;
Ǧ loading of pile or kiln with pots and fuels;
Ǧ lighting and fire control and
Ǧ unloading of kiln or pile
VI Post-firing finishing or Ǧ slip application by dipping or pouring,
designing Ǧ painting by brush
Table 3: Phases and sub-stages of traditional pottery manufacturing process
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REGION-A
(AHAR: Ahar –Banas culture – Mewar region)

5.1. Catchment for Potters

Previous scholars documented and studied ethnographic data on pottery making from

various sites in Ahar-Banas culture region as Nagar has visited Ahar (Ayad), Parla, Chor

Bavli, Eklingpura, Subhagpura villages in and nearby Udaipur city. These villages are now

incorporated in the urban Udaipur zone. During the present study not a single potter was

found who practised pottery making in the traditional way. Many of them have diverted to

other professions. A few of them work only as vendors of pottery goods; they import pottery

from Udaipur or Gogunda Kumharwada but do not engage themselves into pottery

production.

As earlier mentioned (Chapter 2), Kramer has done extensive research on socio-

economic aspect of Udaipur city potters during 1982-83 (Kramer 1991, 1994, 1997). Mishra

in 1997 visited Vallabhnagar, a taluka town in Udaipur district which is situated six

kilometres south-east of Ahar-Banas culture site of Balathal (Mishra 2006, 2008). He studied

and documented the potter’s technology in a commendable way. In 2008-2010 Sarkar visited

and studied potters of Gilund which is also an Ahar-Banas culture site and gave a general

idea of contemporary pottery practices at Gilund (Sarkar 2011). As Mishra and Sarkar’s

documentations are very recent, it was decided that the focus of the study would be on other

places where contemporary traditional potters were found to be practicing in the same region

and later to compare the research data.

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The ancient mound of Ahar is located 3 kilometres from Udaipur railway station

which now is a part of the city. The survey and documentation of Region-A has been carried

out from December 2010 to March 2012. Presently there no contemporary traditional potters

or pottery clusters near the ancient mound of Ahar.This might be probably because of

urbanisation.

Udaipur city

In Udaipur city two pottery clusters were visited (Fig.16 and Table 4). One potters’

colony known as ‘Data Bheru’ is located in the main market of the city and the other,

‘Kumharon ka Bhatta’, is located 2 km away from the market. These potters work full time

in pottery making.

In addition two other pottery clusters were visited and documented, Tus Dangiyan

(Udaipur district) and Molela (Rajsamand District) (Fig. 16 and Table 4).

A. Cluster-I [Data Bheru Kumharwada]

Located in the Udaipur market, nearly 40-50 Kumhar families reside in the Data Bheru area.

Data Bheru is named after the lord Shiva, ‘Bheru’ is derived from ‘Bhairava’, one of the

names of Shiva. A small shrine of Data Bheru is also located in this area. Data Bheru

comprises of Hindu Kumhar families belonging to Prajapati Mewada, Mewalia subcastes

and naga gotra. These potters worship the goddesses Dihadi mata, Gorjiya mata, Siriya

Devi. One of the shrines of goddess Siriya Devi is located near Eklingaji at Nathdwara.

Besides, several other shrines of these deities are located at Udaipur, Rajasmand, Bhilwara

and elsewhere in Rajasthan state. The potters believe that they are descendants of Raja

Daksh Prajapati.

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Figure 16: Map showing selected clusters of Potters’ of Region-A, Udaipur district,
Rajasthan

Region Region A
No. Cluster Potters visited
Data Bheru 1. Lalitkumar
Kumharwada (Udaipur 2. Mangilal
I
City) 3. Sitadevi

Kumhoron ka Bhatta 1. Munnalal

II
(Udaipur City) 2. Bhagavatilal

1. Babulal
Tus Dangiyan
III 2. Omkar
(Udaipur District)

Molela 1. Ambalal
IV
(Rajsamand District) 2. Lakshmilal

Table 4: Studied clusters of potters of Region-A

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Out of, say, 10 persons in a family, now only 3-4 persons are working and practicing

pottery. Most of them are elder persons of the family. Youth have diverted to other

professions like brick manufacturing, and/or other private or government jobs. Three

families were visited and selected in the Data Bheru Kumharwada for detailed

documentation viz. Potter-I: Lalitkumar Prajapat, Potter-II: Mangilal Prajapati and Potter-III:

Sitadevi Prajapat based on the criterion that they work throughout the year in pottery.

Potters of Data Bheru produce only red coloured pottery. They do not produce black

coloured pottery. According to them black coloured pottery is produced only by lower caste

potters and they are settled outside the main city. Data Bheru potters, who work as vendors,

acquire black pottery from outside potters.

B. Cluster-II [Kumharon ka Bhatta]

Kumharon ka Bhatta is located on the Airport Road approximately 4 km from Udaipur

railway station, 3km from Data Bheru- Kumharwada and 2 km from the ancient Ahar

mound. According to these potters, Maharajas of Udaipur brought them from Allahabad,

Uttar Pradesh during late medieval period and they were given land outside the Udaipur city

to settle down and produce pottery. They belong to Vardia Prajapat Samaj and their

kuldevta is god Bheruji. These potters are also known as Gadahia Kumhar. These potters do

not speak Mewari language. Only 6-7 families had migrated from Uttar Pradesh; now their

population is more than hundred. Vardiya Samaj Kumhars are also diverting from their main

occupation as only a few families are seen practicing pottery at Kumharon ka Bhatta.

Vardiya Prajapat Kumhars do not produce globular pots. At Kumharon ka Bhatta two

families were documented in detail, viz. Potter-I: Munnalal Prajapat and Potter-II:

Bhagavatilal Prajapati. Their residences are different from their working places and are

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located within 5 to 10 min. distances. Potters of Kumharon ka Bhatta do not produce black

pottery; they only practice in red coloured pottery. Majority of them produce pottery on

modern electric potter’s wheel. In the Vardiya Samaj Kumhars at Kumharon ka Bhatta

females are allowed to work on potter’s wheel.

C. Cluster-III [Tus Dangiyan]

Tus Dangiyan village is located behind the Dabok Airport approximately 25 km east of

Udaipur. At present, only a few potters in this village practice pottery. These potters belong

to Mewara Prajapat but belong to lower caste than potters from Data Bheru.Two potters viz.

Potter-I: Babulal Prajapat and Potter-II: Omkar Prajapat were visited and documented.

Potters of Tus Dangiyan produce both black and red coloured pottery. They produce various

modern designs of terracotta along with large-sized black globular pots (mataka) and baking

pans or bread griddle (tawa). The Tus Dangiyan potters practice pottery as a full time

occupation. Most of the activities of pottery making are in their courtyards or verandas. They

have well-structured houses, rooms for living and workshop. Raw clays and fired products

are stored in separate rooms or corners. Excess products are sometimes stored on the terrace.

A few of them produce pottery on modern electric potter’s wheel.

D. Cluster-IV [Molela] (Rajsamand District, Rajasthan)

The village of Molela is located (24° 56’, 73° 43’) about 50 km from the Chalcolithic site of

Ahar, Udaipur. In Molela, Potter-I: Ambalal Kumhar and Potter-II: Lakshmilal Kumhar

were studied. Currently in Molela over 30 potter’s families practice semi-traditional way of

making terracotta artifacts. These potters practice pottery as a full time occupation. A few

potters work in their verandas or courtyards whereas some other potters whose production is

on a large basis have separate workshops, storage places for raw clays, fired pottery and kiln.

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The two clusters, Data Bheru and Kumharon ka Bhatta were documented

systematically and the documentation process included the following aspects: Clay

resources, clay composition, pottery manufacturing process (including fabrication

methodology and firing technology) and selling strategies.

5.2. Clay

A. Cluster-I [Data Bheru Kumharwada]

Clay source

The selected potters obtain clays from various locations within 3 km to 60 km distances such

as from local lakes of Udaipur, Chittorgarh, Molela etc. During the first season visit to

Potter-I, yellow clay obtained from Chittorgarh was used. In the next season, the clay source

was from Molela. According to the potter, clays obtained from lakes or from the quarries

were preferred over clays from agricultural fields. In the first season along with Chittorgarh,

red clays from nearby locations Tithadi and Loara and black clay from Sukhadia circle,

located within Udaipur city was also obtained. The clay is brought on a tractor. There is no

proper storage for clays, and they were stored in front of his residence, nearly in the centre of

chowk. Potter-II and Potter-III have clay storage space in their verandas where they store

large quantities of clay which can last over a year. Potter-III’s family were using clay

obtained from Molela for nearly two seasons. In the third season Potter-II imported clays

from Bajmer near Mavli and Bijanvas near Khemli which are considerably plastic in nature.

Numerous traditional potters add temper to their clays. Temper is a universal term

referring to organic or inorganic material such as sand, dry powdered donkeys’ dung that

improves the malleability, drying qualities and porosity of clays. A few potters of Cluster-I

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obtain sand from building material suppliers and a few recover it from the Jaisamand Lake

of Udaipur; while donkeys’ dung is acquired usually from the neighbourhood.

Clay composition

Though they need to experiment with clays usually they do not tend to change their raw

materials easily. Change of clay source eventually leads to clays being tested for the

feasibility of the use of that particular clay as needed for vessels by the potters. According to

Potter-I, he is the only person who uses saw dust in clay composition rather than donkey’s

dung in their area; besides, he also uses sand as temper. The clay composition of Potter-I

were made of yellow clay, red clay and saw dust or sand in respective ratio of 10: 05: 02

tagaris (a plastic or iron pan of scales which is used as measuring unit by the contemporary

traditional potters) in the first visit. In the second and third visit only yellow clays (imported

from Molela) were mixed with sand in 10: 02 proportion. In first two visits Potter-II also

used the same clay (from Molela) and proportion for making pottery. Potter-III mixed

crushed powdered donkey’s dung, instead of sand, with clay. In the third season Potter-II

changed the clay composition with yellow clay, black clay and ash in 05: 05: 02 ratio as his

clays were imported from different areas than previous seasons. Potter-I, while preparing

clay, used ash (normally left out ash of previous firing) as non-plastic tempering material.

Clay preparation

Clay preparation at Cluster-I is done by both men and women (Fig. 17 and 18). Clay is

usually prepared at Potter-II’s place, normally in the morning, such that they can use it

during the day. Working area for preparation of clay is normally outside their house;

sometimes it can be prepared on the path approaching their house. Storage place for clay is

also outside their house. Whenever they need to mix and prepare clay, the area is first

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cleaned. Then they take raw yellow clay in the tagari in required quantity (as 10 tagaris one

by one) and spread over the floor. The large lumps of clay are generally crushed by

pounding stone. Stones or some other granules found are thrown away. The clay is made

homogeneous, after that they make a hole in the centre of the clay to pour water and then

leave it for a few minutes to absorb the water evenly. In the meanwhile they sieve the sand in

required quantities and spread over the wet clay. The mixture is mixed by hands and large

lumps of approximately 4-5 kilograms are made and kept aside. Normally, 10 to 12 lumps

are made in the 10:02 ratio. After initial clay preparation, the work is continued further by

only males. Selecting a suitable place, the potter sits and takes clay lumps, one by one, for

wedging and kneading. Usually each lump takes 10 to 15 minutes for preparation. During

this process, impurities of clay of medium to small sizes are removed and the lumps are kept

aside, covered with damp cloth or rug, to be used for the rest of the day.

Preparation of clay by Potter-I is different from that by Potter-II. The storage place of

Potter-I as shown in the Appendix-I (Workshop Plan No.1), is outside his house. Potter-I’s

sons assist him in the preparation. First, the sand or ash is spread over the ground that is just

next to storage. The required amount clay is taken out and spread on the ash. While taking

out the clay, they remove stone granules or impurities. The water is then added to the clay

and then while mixing it by hands they start to make clay lumps. All the clay lumps are

placed on empty plastic grain bags and the bag is then lifted out and placed in the working

area (Fig. 17). For the wedging, clay is spread over the plastic bag evenly and is crushed and

beaten by feet constantly until the ash, water and clay gets merged uniformly and the clay

becomes devoid of clay lumps and possesses good plasticity. The required amount of clay is

taken out again and it is then kneaded by hands appropriately for the use. The prepared clay

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is kept in wet or damp cloth or plastic bag to maintain its moisture and stored in the

courtyard or near the potter’s wheel. Potter-I usually prepares clay that can last for two to

three days; sometimes it is also stored inside the house. Potter-III fabricates large storage jars

and stoves (chulhas), therefore, donkeys’ dung is added to the clay as tempering material.

Potter-II and Potter-III follow the same process for clay preparation.

i) Mixing of clay with ash ii) Mixed clay being kneaded with feet

iii) Mixing clay using hands before iv) Kumhar kneading and wedging
making large lump the clay before use on wheel

Figure 17: Images of clay preparation process – Potter-I, Cluster-I: Region-A

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i) Female removing granules ii) Mixing of water in required quantity

iii) Female mixing clay and water iv) sieving of ash

v) Sieved ash spread over mixed clay vi) Wedging clay before use
Figure 18: Images of clay preparation process –Potter-II, Cluster-I: Region-A

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B. Cluster-II [Kumharon ka Bhatta]

Clay source

Potters of Cluster-II keep changing their clay sources according to availability of appropriate

clays. Their sources include lakes from Dingari, Mavli, Udaipur Pichola, Fatehsagar Jheel,

Molela, Chittorgarh and others.

Clay composition

Potters of Cluster-II normally use single clay to prepare pottery. As temper, they use only

sand in 5 to 15% proportion to the clay as needed but they do not use ash or donkeys’ dung.

Clay preparation

Process of clay preparation at Cluster-II varies from Cluster-I potters. As mentioned earlier,

potters of Cluster-II have settled outside old Udaipur city; they have specific land as their

work place. Each kumhar has a definite space to store and prepare his clay. Usually they

have three to four quadrants dug in the clay preparation area. In the very first quadrant they

store their raw clay, the next one is used as a pond where they mix clay with excess water

and leave it out for levigation. To prepare the slurry, the potter mixes it well by hands or feet

or sometimes by wooden stick. Once the slurry is made and heavier particles settle down and

unwanted light weight granules or particles flow on the surface, the slurry is then sieved

using square iron mesh in the following quadrant. By this sieving process unwanted

materials like small stones and sand, etc., are removed from the clay. After sieving, the clay

is left out to dry naturally in the sun. When the clay dries, it is removed from the quadrant

for further process. Subsequent processes of wedging and kneading are done by hand in the

shade where the clay can also be stored (Fig. 19-iv).

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i) Mixing wet clay in a quadrant ii) Sieving wet clay into another quadrant

iii) Clay left over to dry in sunlight in next quadrant

iv) Dried clay kept under shade for kneading

Figure 19: Images of clay preparation process – Potter-I, Cluster-II: Region-A

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C. Cluster-III [Tus Dangiyan]

Clay source

Potters of Cluster-III obtain clays from lakes, from nearby water sources and from fields

within 25-40 km distance. Their source locations are sometimes similar to Data Bheru and

Kumharon Ka Bhatta potters.

Clay composition

Cluster-III potters normally use two types of clays, red or black and yellow coloured for

composition. Donkeys’ dung and ash is used as temper to clay. The composition varies

according to the product they need to produce. For black pottery normally black clay, yellow

clay, dung and ash are used in the ratio 05:05:02: 02. For red coloured pottery they do not

use ash. This ratio, however, keeps changing from time to time, based on clay properties.

Clay preparation

Clay preparation at Cluster-III potters’ village is done prior to use, and it is prepared by

either men or women or by both and is done in the courtyard. Similar to the Cluster-I, ash is

spread over the ground, over which two to four or more tagaris of required clay are spread

and water is then sprinkled or poured into the clay. Tempering material, i.e., donkeys’ sieved

crushed dry dung or sand is then added to the clay and mixed well by hands. If pots are to be

made in red then ash is not used in the entire clay preparation. While mixing clay, they keep

removing granules and impurities. If they need to use the clay immediately, they proceed to

wedging and kneading; otherwise, after wedging, clay is kept covered in a wet bag or cloth

for later use. Before throwing, clay is always kneaded.

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Cluster Potters Variety of clays Clay Source of

Composition Clays
a. Yellow clay + Red Chittaurgarh
Lalit Kumar 10: 05: 02
clay + Saw dust / Sand
Cluster –I
Lalit Kumar, b. Yellow clay + Molela
(Data Bheru 10: 02
Mangilal Sand
Kumharwada )
c. Yellow clay + Mavli and
Mangilal 05: 05:02 Khemali
Black clay + Ash

d. Yellow clay + Molela

Sitadevi 10: 02
Powdered Donkey dung
Cluster –II Mavli,
(Kumharon ka Majority Yellow clay + Sand 10: 0.5-1.5 Udaipur lakes,
Bhatta) Molela
Chittaurgarh,
Cluster –III Black clay+ Yellow clay +
Majority 05: 05: 02: 02 Mavli and
(Tus Dangiyan) Donkey Dung + Ash
Khemali
Yellow clay + Dung of Local lakes
Cluster –IV
Majority Donkey/Cow /Goat or 02:01
(Molela)
Husk powder or Ash
Table 5: Clay Compositions of Region-A Potters

D. Cluster-IV [Molela] (Rajsamand District, Rajasthan)

Clay source and composition

Potters of Cluster-IV obtain yellowish clay from the local lakes and nearby fields. While

preparing the composition, they use this single yellow clay with tempering material in 02:01

ratio. Sometimes, for wheel pottery, sand is used as needed. Besides dry crushed donkeys’

dung, crushed cow dung, goat droppings, dry husk powder and ash are used as tempering

materials. In other raw materials, chalk powder for white colour, geru (red ochre) for red

colour and paliya as golden pigment are used.

Clay preparation

Clay preparation process of Cluster-IV potters is more or less similar to that of Cluster-III

potters.

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5.3. Clay Products and Fabrication Methodology

Clay Products

Extensive research has been carried out by Nagar (1967), Kramer (1994, 1997), Mishra

(2008) and Sarkar (2011) of Mewar pottery forms and their usage. Nagar (1967) categorised

the typology of shapes according to their functions; Sarkar (2011) classified them as storage,

cooking and food processing, eating and drinking, ceremonial and miscellaneous function

groups. Based on the above categorization, the author has grouped the pottery types of all

clusters visited for the present study, into five categories according to their usage which are

outlined in Table 6.

Cluster-I, Cluster-II and Cluster-IV potters manufacture only red coloured pottery of

various types; none of them manufactures black coloured pottery. Cluster-II potters do not

manufacture matakas of large size used for water storage, they produce only different sized

tea and buttermilk cups (kulhad), curd bowls, various types of diyas, dhupdanis, and small

spouted pots. Potters of Cluster-I produce a variety of clay products (Fig. 20) such as storage

jars of large size, stoves (tandoor and chulha), diyas of various sizes, and spouted pots with

lid, globular pots (mataka) of small to large size, dhupdanis, lampshades, kulhads of

different sizes, baking pans, dishes, piggy banks and multi-spouted pots. Cluster-III potters

produce both red and black colour potteries; their product includes globular pots of large to

small size, baking pan, dhupdani, diyas of different sizes, diyas with various combinations

such as ganesha, pots and stands; bells of different sizes, carved or complete animal and

reptile figures and lampshades. Whereas the product range of Cluster-IV potters varies from

votive plaques and idols of gods, folk male and female idols, human masks, animal and

reptile figures, various shapes of modern pottery, different types of diyas, lampshades, to

baking pans, body scrubbers, medium bowls with lid, water jars etc.

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i) Karwa ii) Piggy Bank

iii) Top view of various sizes of diya iv) large size diya

v) Various sizes of dhupdani

Figure 20: Images of clay products: Cluster-I, Region- A

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i) Large painted globular pots ii) large size painted carinated pots

iii) Pot with several mouths (kalash) iv) Types of chulha and medium size
painted globular pots
Figure 21: Images of clay products: Cluster-I, Region- A

Fabrication Methodology

Potters use different methods for making different products. Following methods have been

observed during the visits to all visited potters; coiling, pinching, beating, scraping, pressing,

wheel throwing, turning, finishing and carving. The methods are described below clarifying

their suitable application while making specific product. Region-A women help in

fabrication of non-wheel products such as tandoor, chulha, baking pan, handles, spouts,

engraving and designing on pots, polishing and slip decoration. Potters of Cluster-I, Cluster-

III and Cluster-IV, produce a larger variety of products than Cluster-II.

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Wheel thrown products

Large varieties of products are made on potter’s wheel. Cluster-I, Cluster-III and Cluster-IV

women do not work on potter’s wheel. At Cluster-II women are sometimes allowed to work

on the wheel. A few potters of Cluster-I for e.g. Lalitkumar, Munnalal of Cluster-II and

majority of Cluster-IV potters use modern electric potter’s wheel whereas others from the

same clusters and Cluster-III still practice and produce pottery on traditional potter’s wheel

which is either made of cement or stone.

Traditional potter’s wheel: Potters use solid rotating wheel, about 3-4 inches thick. The

wheels have spokes fixed to a bearing pivot or tripod made of metal. The wheel can be

rotated by hand or by a wooden stick. The heavy wheel provides continuous momentum for

longer time, while at the same time requiring less strength for making the products (Fig. 22-

ii).

Electric potter’s wheel: A rotating iron disc which is motivated by external power, such as

electricity and can have one or more consistent controlled speeds. Compared to traditional

wheel, electric wheel saves potter’s energy and time (Fig. 22-i).

Wheel throwing

The action of creating pots on a rapidly rotating wheel using only hands, fingers and water is

termed as Throwing. The wheel-disc usually rotates in an anti-clockwise direction. The

method involves centring a spinning lump of malleable clay upon the wheel-disc. When the

wheel is running true, the lump is opened in the centre, an inner base is shaped and the walls

of the pot are lifted from the rest of the clay by a continuous and consistent chain of upward

movements involving the balanced pressure of fingers inside and outside the pot. While

lifting the clay’s workability has to be maintained using appropriate water level. Once the

required shape is made on the wheel, it is removed by using a thread and is kept for drying

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until it becomes leather hard or reaches semi wet condition; one can work on the leather-hard

pot further.

i) Electric potter’s wheel ii) Traditional potter’s wheel made of cement

Figure 22: Types of Potter’s Wheels used for throwing pots (i & ii – Region-A)

Products like globular pots, small designer pots, variety of diyas, kulhads, bowls,

lampshades, dhupdani, dishes, piggy banks, diya holders, hanging bells, karwa etc. are made

on wheel by men. Small globular pots or handis of medium thickness are made only on

wheel. A few wheel thrown pots are purposely made thick to handle safely while beating.

Potters can later give required round shape to the leather hard pot.

Turning

This process generally applies to thrown articles of leather hard stage for removing

unwanted or excess clay with the help of a sharp edge or point made of wooden or metal

tool.

Piggy bank

The closed shape of the piggy banks is made first on the wheel. Later in leather hard stage,

further designing is done by adding and pressing coil and clay dots. At the same stage, a slit

is made so that coins can be inserted. These types of piggy banks or coin boxes are meant to

be broken when they are full with coins (Fig. 20-ii).

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—…–‹‘ƒŽ Žƒ› Ž—•–‡” Ž—•–‡” Ž—•–‡”Ǧ Ž—•–‡”Ǧ •‡‘ˆ

…ƒ–‡‰‘”› ”‘†—…–• Ǧ Ǧ ”‘†—…–

  ‡† ‡† ‡† Žƒ… ‡† Žƒ… 

: chulha 2 types ¥ X X X a. Stove
: tandur ¥ X ¾ large granary
X X X X
size stove
‘‘‹‰

b. Cooking
: Baking pans ¥ X X ¥ ¥ X process
(tawa) ¾ for baking roti.
: Deep pan ¾ for preparing
: Small globular ¥ X X X X X dough
pot (handi) ¾ for cooking
X X X ¥ ¥ ¥
: Medium size ¾ to store Chas
¥ X ¥ X X X
–‘”ƒ‰‡
‹“—‹†

globular pots (buttermilk)

: Jar with handle X X X X ¥ X ¾ water storage
: Large globular X X X ¥ X X ¾ water storage
pots
: Large storage

”ƒƒ”›

pots
Height: apprx.3 ¾ to store large
ft. ¥ X X X X ¥ amount of
Width: up to 2 ft. grains
Thickness: up to
2in.
: Bowls (with or ¥ X X X ¥ X ¾ used to eat and
”‹‹

without lid) to set curd

¥ ¥ X X X X
‰

¾ used to drink
tea, buttermilk
: Cups: kulhad
: diya – small to
medium Daily offerings &
¥ ¥ ¥ X ¥ X during festivals
: diya -:with
animal, human X X ¥ X ¥ X e.g. Diwali
or god figures
Globular During Marriages
designer pots ¥ X ¥ X ¥ ¥ & festivals e.g.
‡”‡‘‹ƒŽ

of different Navratri/ Dasehra

sizes
Kalash (pot During Marriages


with several ¥ X X X X X & ritual offerings

mouths)
Dhupdani (with Daily offerings, in
stand & ¥ ¥ ¥ X ¥ X temples & mosque
handle)
Small globular Death Ritual
spouted pots ¥ ¥ X X X X offerings

Karwa (small offering during

spouted pot) ¥ ¥ X X X X karwa chawth
Continued...
Table 6: (a) Comparative Study of Contemporary Clay Products of selected pottery
cluster of Region-A
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Continued from last page....

—…–‹‘ƒŽ Žƒ› Ž—•–‡” Ž—•–‡” Ž—•–‡”Ǧ Ž—•–‡”Ǧ •‡‘ˆ
…ƒ–‡‰‘”› ”‘†—…–• Ǧ Ǧ ”‘†—…–

  ‡† ‡† ‡† Žƒ… ‡† Žƒ… 

diya holders, ¥ X ¥ X ¥ X engraved lamp
Lampshades cover
‹•…‡ŽŽƒ‡‘—•Ȃǣ‘–Š‡”…Žƒ›

Ring Base ¥ X X X X X used as stand for

large size pots

Piggy banks ¥ X ¥ X ¥ X to store coins

’”‘†—…–•

God and goddess X X ¥ X ¥ X Religious,

mask decorative
& figures
Animal-Bird - X X ¥ X ¥ X decorative
Reptile figures
Human masks X X X X ¥ X decorative

Body scrubs X X X X ¥ X for bathing

Bells X X ¥ X ¥ X decorative

 Planters ¥ X ¥ X ¥ X
Container for
plants
God and X X X X ¥ X
goddesses
‹•…‡ŽŽƒ‡‘—•

Local deities
¥
ȂǣŽƒ“—‡•

X X X X X
Rajput and folk
heroes X X X X ¥ X Religious and /
decorative
Daily household
chores
X X X X ¥ X

Mythological X X X X ¥ X
stories
Table 6: (b) Comparative Study of Contemporary Clay Products of selected pottery
cluster of Region-A

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i) Potter making karwa ii) Female attaching a spout to karwa

iii) Female finishing karwa by scraping

v) Female applying red slurry on karwa by dipping vi) Applying white colour on karwa

Figure 23: Images of product fabrication: Cluster-I, Region-A

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i) Potter making lampshade on wheel ii) potter preparing base of clay for turning the lampshade

iii) Potter placing cloth on turning base iv) Finishing lampshade in semi-wet stage on wheel
made of clay

v) Female perforating lampshade at leather-hard stage

Figure 24: Images of product fabrication: Cluster-I, Region-A

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Lampshade

Cluster-I potters manufacture products on demand and order basis. The making of a specific

design of lampshade or lamp cover was observed at the workshop of Potter-I (Fig. 24). A

vertical dome shape is prepared by him on his electric potter’s wheel and kept aside for

drying till it turns to leather hard stage. When it becomes leather hard he gives required

appropriate shape by turning procedure on the wheel, also reducing its excess thickness.

After turning procedure, rest of the designing and finishing was done by his wife. Designing

includes engraving with sharp steel pipe (tool) so that light can pass through the holes in the

shade.

i) Potter beating mataka using paddle & anvil ii) Potter finishing the cracks occurred
during beating

iii) Potter placing the ready mataka in ash for gradual drying
Figure 25: Images of product fabrication: Cluster- III, Region-A
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Large globular pots (mataka)

Cluster-III potters produce large sized globular pots in black colour. These pots are meant

only for water storage. To produce these large matakas the potters use wheel throwing and

beating methods. Cluster-III potters use traditional type stone or cement wheel for throwing

pottery. After clay preparation, about 15-20 pots are made on wheel and kept in open for

drying until they become leather hard so that the potter can continue further processing.

While throwing the pot, the potter purposely keeps extra thickness so that the pot does not

break during the beating process.

Beating: Beating is a method of thinning and compressing the clay wall of a pot by

hammering it against an anvil with a paddle. The anvil is a pebble or stone dabber held

inside the pot and the paddle is a wooden bat used to beat from the outside. The anvil is

locally known as pindi and the paddle is called thapa. Cluster-III potters use 2-3 types of

wooden bats in round, square or rectangular shapes. Anvils and paddles of different sizes

are used, based on the size and surface of the pot. Typically, to achieve a round surface, a

convex-surfaced dabber is used; for a flat surface, a flat-topped dabber is used. When the pot

loses some of its water content, while still retaining enough moisture to enable further

handling, the potter squats placing the pot in front of him in a metal or plastic basket which

is covered with jute. A water pot and pot of sieved ash are also placed within reach of his

hands. While beating, finely sieved ash is spread on a portion where potter intends to beat on

the pot. The dabber is held in one hand to give support to the surface, while beating from the

inner side of the pot with thapa or bat. While beating, excess clay is scraped with a flat

bamboo tool. Beating is done very finely so that no marks are left on the surface. If the pot

starts getting hard during beating process, both tools pindi and thapa are dipped in water to

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maintain the moisture. Once the beating is over, ash is spread over the whole pot and

smoothened by hands and the pot is then lifted and carefully placed for drying in the shaded

place where the sieved ash is stored. The potter keeps rotating the pot every 20-30 minutes to

dry slowly. This is done to prevent the pots from cracking during drying. The pot acquires a

thin layer of ash over the surface, which is afterwards compressed by potter (Fig.25).

i) Female making tandoor ii) female making chulha (stove)

iii) Female attaching diya to the moulded lady figurine

Figure 26: Images of product fabrication: Cluster-I and II, Region-A

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Methods used in
Clay Products Tools /Equipment Gender
fabricating product
Large granary coiling, pressing, hands, fingers, anvil, paddle,
A storage jars and scraping, beating pointed tool made of iron/ F
tandoor steel
hands, wheel, cotton cloth,
wheel throwing,
B Lampshade sharp iron tool, piece of steel M+F
turning, cutting
pipe
wheel throwing, hands, wheel, sharp iron tool
C Piggy banks cutting, coiling, M+F
pressing
¾ Diya : wheel throwing : hands, wheel, thread
M+F
D ¾ Diya with : wheel throwing, : hands, wheel, rod, sharp tool
animal figure pressing, pinching,
or lady figure scraping
wheel throwing, hands, wheel, thread, fingers,
scarping, pinching, wooden sticks, iron tool or
E karwa M+F
pressing, dipping, disc for scraping, brush
appliqué
Large globular wheel throwing, hands, wheel, anvil, paddle,
F M
pots (mataka) beating, scraping basket, jute
Baking Pans hands, globular pot, paddle,
beating, pressing,
G (tawa) anvil, rim of broken globular F
scraping
pot,
pressing, pinching, hands, water, cotton cloth,
H Votive plaque M
scraping waste paper
Table 7: Gender wise job distribution, methods and tools used while fabrication
of some clay products of Region-A

Large granary storage jars and tandoor

For making large granary storage jars and tandoor, the following method is used:-

First, a thick round slab is prepared with hands and placed on the ground. Sometimes,

this slab is placed on a round wooden sheet or ash spread on the ground so that while making

or after making the jar it can be lifted easily. The slab is then scratched on the edges lightly

with finger tips and water or slurry is applied using cotton cloth. Then a thick coil is

prepared by passing it through the fists and placed properly on the edges of the slab. By

adding coils one above the other, thick and big storage jars 2 to 3 ft. in height are made.

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Usually in one day 2-3 storage jars are prepared alternately. While adding the coils,

they are merged from inside and outside using fingers to render the thickness and both the

inner and outer surfaces even. Once the jar is made by adding enough coils, anvil and paddle

are used for beating both surfaces to make them uniform. While making a tandoor, they do

not place a slab at the base, but directly place a coil on the ground and follow the same

method for making tandoor walls. At the end they cut a hole at the base by iron or other

pointed tool for insertion of fuel.

Baking Pans (tawa)

Baking pans (bread griddle) are made at Cluster-III and Cluster-I only by women (Fig. 27).

The methods used for making griddles are beating and pressing. The large globular pot is

kept so in an upside down position that the outer surface of base of pot can be used as a base

for making a pan. First, finely sieved ash is spread on the surface of pot and then, a flat thick

handmade compact disc (round slab) of clay is placed on the surface of base of pot. To make

it thin and even, the disc is beaten lightly with a paddle held in one hand, while the pot is

rotated continuously using the other hand. Due to continuous beating with the paddle the

clay gets compressed and becomes thin. While beating, to avoid sticking of the clay to the

paddle, ash and water are used on the pan. Finally when appropriate thickness of the pan is

achieved, the side edges are cut by wooden bamboo tool and/or smoothened with wet cloth.

Once the tawa is finished, a half broken rim of globular pot is placed on it. Then the

tawa is inverted so that it rests on the rim. The inner surface of the pan is then finished with

a wet cloth and the pan is kept for drying. Sometimes at Cluster-III a small handle is

attached by adding some extra clay to the sides of the pan.

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i)Female attaching handle to pan ii) Female beating pan using paddle

iii) Broken rim of globular pot is placed on pan iv) Female finishing edges of pan

Figure 27: Images of product fabrication: Cluster-III, Region-A

Spouts

Selected products like karwa (Fig. 23) are first made on the wheel; during the

leather-hard stage a spout made by hand is attached to it. First, using a sharp tool, a hole is

carved on one side of the body of karwa. The edges of the carved hole are scratched with

tools, then water or slurry is applied to it; before the slurry dries, the handmade spout is

attached to the hole of the karwa and it is then pressed and finished with hands and wet

cloth. Then the karwa is kept for drying.

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Making of a clay votive plaque

Donkeys’ dung is sprinkled on the floor and then prepared clay is added. The clay is then

flattened into a slab with a stone and evened out by smoothing with water and a flat piece of

wood. After removing impurities from the clay, a slab is cut, with the help of an iron tool,

into a plaque which forms a surface to support the relief figure. This flat slab base is called

thala. The figurines are formed from another piece of flattened clay and attached to the

plaque surface. To maintain the shape of the figurine, wastepaper is sometimes added to its

inside before attaching the figurine to the plaque surface. Figurines or required shapes can be

made on wheel, hand or by coil; according to the shape required the method can vary. Press

moulds are used for shapes, as well as to enhance designs. Figurines and other forms are

joined to the surface of the plaque by pressing and scraping with hands and fingers (Fig.28i).

Finishing and pre-fire designing

Finishing of all products is usually done during leather hard stage by scraping with a sharp

edged tool to remove excess clay (Fig. 28-ii). Potters of Cluster-I, Cluster-III, and Cluster-IV

engrave and carve with sharp pointed tools and pipes of steel on selected products such as

lampshades, hanging bells and animals like tortoise, fish etc. Cluster-IV potters use pinching

and pressing methods for designing animal figurines e.g. camel, ducks etc. Cluster-I potters

apply wash of red slurry (made of geru) and line designs of white colour (chuna) on most of

their clay products such as medium to small globular pots, karwa etc. After scraping and

finishing the karwa, while it is in the drying stage, it is dipped into red slurry up to the

shoulder; then white colour is applied to the edge of shoulder with a brush or rag (Fig. 23).

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i) Molela potter attaching art form at the plaque ii) Molela potter scraping excess
clay of the water jar
Figure 28: Images of product fabrication: Cluster- IV, Region- A

Drying

All products when finished are usually kept to dry in an open place in the backyard or

courtyard. Pots are kept in an upside down position, resting on their rim. Most of the potters

keep changing the positions of the pots and other products in order to allow them to dry

properly. Once they are dried up to 80%, they are brought and kept under the sun. The

drying time depends on the climatic conditions and the size of the pots. One pot may take 1-

2 days in sunny season, while in moist climate it may take 2-3 days to dry. The drying time

may also vary depending upon the shapes, thickness and sizes of the products.

5.4. Firing Technology

Cluster-I and Cluster-III potters generally fire their products in an open place in their

backyard or courtyard, whereas Cluster-II and Cluster-IV potters fire their products in an up-

draught kiln. During the field visits, a few firing cycles were observed at Cluster-I and

Cluster-II (Table 8). Digital and portable thermocouple was used to take readings of

temperatures from beginning till the end, i.e. the adding of fuel which has been discussed in

Chapter 7, Stage-I.
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  ŚĂƉƚĞƌϱ

Potters from both clusters have their separate firing place. Potter-I and Potter-II set

their bonfire in their courtyard which is nearly on the chauraha whereas Cluster-II potters

set their kilns at their workplace (Appendix-I and Fig. 29, 30).

As mentioned earlier, Cluster-I and Cluster-II potters produce only red colour pottery.

The firing system used by them varies, which is discussed below. Whereas Cluster-III

potters produce both red and black colour clay products; their red colour pottery production

is the same as that of Data Bheru Kumharwada and Kumharon ka Bhatta potters. For black

colour pottery a slightly different procedure is followed. Firing process is practiced by both

men and women according to the need of the whole family. Firings are usually done in the

post-lunch session so that the process is finished by evening. After the firing is over, the pile

or bhatta is generally left overnight for cooling down.

Bonfire (Open Firing)

‘Firing without kilns is called the open firing, bonfire, or clamp method. Firings done by this

technique are always short and generally achieve relatively low temperatures. Although

procedures for open firing of pottery vary, they share certain general characteristics’ (Rice

1987: 153).

Potter-II had set his bonfire in a rectangular shape (92” length X 68” width X 20”

height) adjacent to a mud wall of his workshop which was used as the fourth side of bhatta.

The ground, where the bonfire was to be set on fire was first cleaned and then wood wastage

was placed evenly up to 6” in height. The diyas were arranged over the wood. Large sized

broken pots, facing inside, were arranged on the edges over the ground, on three sides of the

bhatta. Wooden wastage was also placed in between the diyas while arranging. Then fire

was kindled from the top centre, and the whole pile of diyas was covered with the pre-fired

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broken rims and parts of pots from all sides. Once the fire started to spread inside, additional

saw dust was thrown from all sides of pile. Nearly after one hour the addition of external

fuel was stopped.

i) Potter systematically igniting the bonfire using cotton rags

ii) Potter loading fuel to the bonfire iii) Female unloading fired products

Figure 29: Firing process observed at Potter-I, Cluster- I, Region-A

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i) Another bonfire observed at cluster-I, Region A

ii) Potter throwing sawdust on the pile

iii) Women sorting fired products next morning

Figure 30: Firing process observed at Potter-II, Cluster-I, Region-A

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Potter I (Lalitkumar) II (Mangilal)

Figure 29 and Appendix-II Figure 30 and Appendix-II

Fuel cow dung, cotton rags, saw dust, wastage of wood and saw dust
packing boards, plastic sheet
Associated broken pots, rim and other parts of broken pots, rim and other parts
materials pre-fired pots of pre-fired pots
Clay products karwa, diya diya
Proportions circular in shape rectangular in shape
96’’ in diameter X 3 ft. height 92” length X 68” width X 20”
height
Loading start 03:30 to 04:45
time Dung cakes are placed in between 2-3 11:30 onwards
karwas

Time taken for 1 hour 15 min 2 hours 30 min

loading
Fire start time 04:45 pm 02:00 pm

Points where
measurement A B C A B
taken (Fig. 72)
Digital reading 05:00 - 150˚ - 03:55 490˚ 410˚

05:15 490˚ 435˚ 429˚ 04:10 368˚ 298˚

Thermo- reading 05:30 425˚ 438˚ 443˚ 04:25 780˚ 910˚

05:45 648˚ 715˚ 856˚ 04:50 868˚ 660˚

06:10 910˚ 825˚ 710˚ - - -

Stop time 06:18 - 735˚ - 05:00

Fuel feeding time Approximately 1hour15 min Approximately 1 hour

Total time taken
2 hours 45 min 5 hours 30 min
for bonfire
Unloading Next morning Next morning

Table 8: Firing cycles observed during present study of Cluster-I Potters: Region-A

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The quantity of diyas of Potter-II being high, he required a large bonfire setting

whereas Potter-I had them in less quantity and therefore required less space in his courtyard

to set the bonfire. Potter-I set up the circular bonfire of about 96’’ diameter X 36’’ height.

The first layer was made by placing thick cow dung cakes. On top of them, the products i.e.

karwas were placed along with more dung cakes. Large-sized broken pots were arranged at

the edges. Then cow dung cakes were placed between each pair of karwas. Above this, small

products such as diyas were placed and as done by Potter-II, the whole pile was then covered

with pre-fired broken rims and parts of pots from all sides. Potter-I used pieces of cotton rags

at the base from all sides to kindle the fire (Fig. 29-i). Then for about one hour he kept

adding saw dust from all sides of the pile to sustain the fire within. Usually, when the fire

turns a bright orange-red colour, the potter stops adding the fuel and the bonfire is then left

as it is for the whole night to cool down. The pots inside get fired properly due to the inner

fire and gradually cool down till the next morning.

Firing under reduction atmosphere

Cluster-III potters practice closed firing method to produce black pottery. Primarily the pots

and fuel that is the pile setup is the same as that in bonfire type; no separate arrangement is

made for this method. After the fire is burnt for a certain time, the pile is covered by thick

clay paste or wet ash and outlets are sealed so that smoke is retained within, and due to

reduction the pots turn black.

Up-draught kiln

“Functionally in an up-draught kiln the hot gases pass upwards through the ware. It is the

modest arrangement of kiln which does not need a chimney” (Rice 1987). Cluster-II potters

use temporary brick-built up-draught kilns, whereas Cluster-IV potters use long-lasting up-

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draught kilns made of bricks for firing their products. “Up-draught kilns are simple enclosed

firing chambers in which the heat moves upward from underneath the pots and then is vented

out. In freestanding up-draught kilns a slotted platform may act as the floor of the chamber

to allow the flames to penetrate from the firebox up to the pot. Heat and gases escape

through the top of the kiln, either by a chimney or through an open top with a temporary

covering.” (Rice 1987: 159)

In the first season, the firing system at Cluster-II was observed (Table 9). Most of the

Cluster-II potters have their separate places to fire their products within the workplace.

Potter-I sets up (Fig. 31) the kiln regularly near his workplace compound. The three walls

are built with loose bricks. While loading the kiln, at the bottom, dung cakes were placed

evenly in single layer on the three inner sides of the kiln wall. Nearly three rows of clay

products to be fired i.e. kulhads were arranged uniformly above the dung. A thick layer of

chaffing was then spread over the kulhads. The products were arranged in such a manner

way in the centre so that the fire could be started at that spot. Subsequently, the fourth wall

of kiln was built by placing bricks along with dung cakes from inside. After loading

sufficient products into the kiln the remaining area was filled by spreading chaffing all-over

and then the fire was kindled. The top of the kiln was covered with pre-fired clay products

and leftover chaffing. The kiln was then left until the next afternoon till it cooled down.

In the next season, the firing methodology of Potter-II was documented. As shown in

Fig. 30, a temporary square wall-structure was built for kiln. Gradually from the lower to top

level, first dung cakes were placed, followed by articles to be fired, chaffing, dung cakes,

articles, chaffing, saw dust and articles, chaffing, saw dust and dung cakes respectively.

Before placing the top layer the fire was lit and then, at the top, previously ill fired articles

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and a few raw dried articles were kept along with saw dust. Then the entire top of the kiln

was covered by pieces of thick jute cloth and the kiln was left for combustion.

Potter I (Munnalal) II (Bhagavatilal)

cow dung cakes, chaffing, saw

Fuel cow dung cakes, saw dust
dust
Associated Bricks, pre-under-fired clay Bricks, pre-under-fired clay
materials products (bowls, Kulhad) products (diya)

Clay products kulhad diya

Proportions 6’’ L X 3’’W X 2.5’’H 3’’L X 3’’W X 2.5’’H

(Shape) (Rectangular) (Square)

Loading time 02:30 pm – 04:30 pm 10:30 am -11:30 am

Ignition time 04:00 pm 11:30 am

Fuel feeding
04:30 pm– 04:40 pm Between 11:45 am – 12:15 pm
time

Unloading Next morning Next morning

Table 9: Firing cycles of Region-A Potters (Cluster II)

Cluster-IV potters use long-lasting circular shaped brick-built up-draught kilns. Their

firing starts usually in the afternoon and seldom in the evening. Approximate duration of

firing is 4-5 hours. Cooling time is whole night. Dung cakes are used as major fuel resources

besides dried shrubs, wooden pieces.

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i) Potter loading products in the kiln ii) Potter placing fuel over the products

iii) Placement of products to set fire iv) Female arranging fourth wall of kiln

v) Setting up fire with cotton vi) Potter loading last layer of the products

Figure 31: Firing process observed at Potter-I, Cluster-II, Region-A

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i) Loading of clay products to the kiln ii) Adding fuel to the kiln

Figure 32: Firing process observed at Potter-II, Cluster-II: Region-A

i) Potter-II, Cluster-I ii) Potter-I, Cluster-II

Figure 33: Up-draught kiln type observed at Cluster-IV: Region-A

5.5. Post-Firing Designing

Potters from Region-A apply plain wash of Indian red or micacious red colour on clay

products to hide patchy effects which occurred during firing and to give an attractive look to

dhupdanis, piggy banks etc. Multi-mouthed pots were also seen to be coloured by shiny

acrylic colours. Cluster-IV potters apply different plain or shiny acrylic colours on a few

products such as hanging bells, animal figurines, hanging lamps, figurines of gods and
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goddesses. Cluster-III potters apply black oil paint or distemper on animal figures like

tortoise. They also make line designs on red globular pots with white distemper colours.

Potters of Cluster-II also use distemper colours on a few products such as diya with animal

figure, lady with multi-diyas.

5.6. Manufacturing Processes and Systems Associated With Pottery Production

Working area and storage

Majority potters of Cluster-I work at the walkway and chowk near their house entrance

(Appendix-I). Potter-I (Fig. 22-i) works at the entrance of his house, usually he places his

electric wheel at his doorstep and works continuously. He also keeps his wheel-thrown pots

on the entrance path. He keeps changing his position in the courtyard according to the job.

As opposed to Potter-I at Cluster-I, Potter-II has a separate place to store his clays and

products (Fig. 33-i).

At Cluster-II, potters have permanent workshops at a little distance from their houses,

where they have enough space to store clays and products (Fig. 34-ii). Cluster-I and Cluster-

III potters usually store their unfired and fired products in their houses, verandas. At Cluster-

I a few have their own shops to store the products. Cluster-II and Cluster-IV potters have

their fixed workshops where they store their products in large quantity.

Gender-wise job distribution

Gender-wise work allocation at all clusters in Region-A has been outlined in Tables 7, 10

and 11. Mining and importing clay is usually done by men in Region-A. Remaining

activities such as clay pounding, sieving of clay and temper, mixing of clays, kneading and

wedging of clay is performed sometimes by men and sometimes by women or at times they

work together.
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Mining Wedging
Pounding Sieving Sieving Mixing
Cluster & Import and
of clay of clay of temper clay
clay kneading
Cluster- I
(Data Bheru M F F F M/F M /F
Kumharwada)
Cluster- II
(Kumharon ka M M/F M F M/F M /F
Bhatta)
Cluster- III
M M/F --- M/F M/F M/F
(Tus Dangiyan)
Cluster- IV
M M M M M M
(Molela)
Table 10: Gender wise job distribution for clay preparation at Region -A pottery clusters

Firing process at all clusters is also a mutual activity, as men and women both work

together for stacking the products, at times they also help each other to control fire. But

unloading of fired products is mainly performed by women (Fig. 29-iii and 30-iii). It is

observed that only at Cluster-IV clay preparation and firing process are male oriented

activities. A few products such as granary jar, tandoor and baking pans or bread griddles are

made only by women in Region-A. Wheel thrown products are only made by men, but the

designing and finishing of a few products is executed by women.

Barter System (jajmani system)

Despite the fact that Region-A potters are observed to have become aware of

professionalism in the pottery manufacturing systems, barter or exchange of products is still

customarily practiced by them. The potters have their own area in which they provide pots to

the villagers and in return collect food grains. Potters meet the requirement of pots of a

family throughout the year in two phases during the time of winter and summer harvesting

(Mishra 2008).

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Cluster- I Cluster- II
Cluster- III Cluster- IV
Cluster ((Data Bheru (Kumharon ka
(Tus Dangiyan) (Molela)
Kumharwada) Bhatta)
Type of
Open Up- draught kiln Open + Closed Up- draught kiln
firing
Firing Dedicated Veranda / Dedicated
Veranda / courtyard
location Workshop courtyard Workshop
Loading
M+F M+F M+ F M
product
Fuel Cow dung, wastage Cow dung, Cow dung, Cow dung,
of wood, cotton rags, Chaffing, / Chaffing Chaffing, grass
saw dust, packing sawdust
boards, plastic sheet
Fire
M M+F M+F M
control
Form of
Circle,
firing Square, rectangle Circle Circle
rectangle
set-up
50 to 1000 or 50 to 1000 or 50 to 1000 or
Quantity 50 to 1000 or more.
more. more. more.
and Depends upon
Depends upon Depends upon Depends upon
size of Pile product size
product size product size product size
Un-load F F F M
Table 11: Firing cycle and labor involved at Region-A pottery clusters

i) Potter-II, Cluster-I ii) Potter-I, Cluster-II

Figure 34: Working and storage place: Region-A

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i)Shop of Potter-II, Cluster-I Region-A ii)Selling from workshop Potter-III, Cluster-I

Figure 35: Dedicated shop and selling from workshop, Region-A
Domestic use of Pottery

Region-A potters use their own products such as chulhas, water storage, festive products as

diya, designed pots, karwa etc for domestic use.

Selling

Most of the work of Region-A potters is based on demands. Several potters of Cluster-I sell

their own products, either directly from their homes or from other locations such as weekly

markets, permanent or temporary shops within city (sometimes attached to their workshops;

Fig. 35), or directly in response to orders from buyers. Some potters sell their products

through vendors (Kramer 1997).

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REGION-B
(Maheshwar-Navdatoli area -Malwa region)

5.7. Catchment of Potters

Contemporary potters from Maheshwar, Kasrawad, Dhamnod, Navdatoli, Bedhi and

Mandleshwar were visited and documented for three seasons during 2010-2012 (Fig. 36 and

Table 12). Potters are distributed all over the towns of Maheshwar, Kasrawad, Dhamnod and

Bedhi. In Navdatoli, however, the potters have relocated to the neighbouring villages of

Bedhi and Dharmapuri because of floods (Geedh and Nadgauda 2013a).

Presently there are only 3-4 families each in Maheshwar, Mandleshwar and Bedhi

engaged in pottery making, whereas in Dhamnod they are found in a particular cluster. Most

traditional potters in Maheshwar, Mandleshwar and Bedhi have adopted brick manufacturing

business as their main occupation. Pottery making has become a secondary occupation.

Though these potters have shifted to other professions, they have not left practicing pottery

completely as they carry out pottery making on part-time basis during festivals and as a

leisure activity except potters from Kasrawad who work throughout the year. Their main

working period starts post-rakshabandhan and lasts from September to March (Geedh and

Nadgauda 2013a). The pottery fabrication systems of these potters are discussed later on.

These potters are also locally known as kumbhar, kumhar. Potters from Maheshwar,

Mandleshwar, Kasrawad and Beঌhi call themselves Prajapati or Prajapat. They use it as their

surname (Geedh and Nadgauda 2013a).

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Figure 36: Map showing selected clusters of Potters’ of Region-B, Khargone district,
Madhya Pradesh

Region Region B
No. Cluster Potters visited
1. Santosh
Maheshwar
2. Bhai
I (Maheshwar taluk town)
3. Dinesh
Navdatoli- Beঌhi 1. Radheshyam
II
(Khargone District) 2. Mohan
Kasrawad 1. Kamal
III
(Khargone District) 2. Ramlal
Mandleshwar 1. Pappu
IV
(Khargone District) 2. Lokesh
Dhamnod
V Multiple
(Dhar District)

Table 12: Studied clusters of potters of Region-B

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A. Cluster-I [Maheshwar] (Khargone district, Madhya Pradesh)

Maheshwar is a small archaeo-historical town on the banks of the river Narmada.

Maheshwar (22° 11’, 75° 36’) is located 91 km from Indore. Buses ply at regular intervals

from Indore, Khandwa, Barwah, Dhar and Dhamnod.

In Maheshwar town, only 3 Prajapati families viz., those of Potter-I: Santosh

Prajapati, Potter-II: Bhai Prajapati and Potter-III: Dinesh Prajapati, practicing pottery

making in a traditional manner were located and visited. Only two families still make pottery

during the monsoon season, mainly after Raksha-Bandhan before the brick manufacturing

season resumes. One family still makes pottery throughout the year besides brick making.

Their pot making and firing process, including resources of clays, composition of clay,

manufacturing process, drying process and firing technology was properly documented.

B. Cluster-II [Navdatoli- Beঌhi] (Khargone district, Madhya Pradesh)

Navdatoli is a small boatsmen’s village on the Narmada, opposite Maheshwar. First

excavations at these sites were carried out in 1952-54 (Sankalia et al.1958). Navdatoli is a

small hamlet of a few boatsmen. A few years ago, majority families have shifted to the

nearest village Beঌhi due to floods. However, present day Navdatoli doesn’t have any potter

residing there.

At Beঌhi, two potters Potter-I: Radheshyam Kumhar and Potter-II: Mohan Kumhar

were visited; both mainly work in brick manufacturing. In pottery they work mostly in rainy

season i.e. post Raksha-Bandhan for festive demands like Dasehra and Diwali. Radheshyam

Kumhar now resides partly in Dharmapuri and Beঌhi for the last 3 years. Unexpectedly,

during visit to Beঌhi, the author came across a firing cycle at Radheshyam Kumhar’s house.

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C. Cluster-III [Kasrawad] (Khargone district, Madhya Pradesh)

Kasrawad is located (22° 12’, 75° 60’) about 5 km away southwest of Maheshwar on the

opposite side of Narmada on Khargone-Mandleshwar road. Kasrawad is an early historic

Buddhist establishment also known as Itbardi (a mound of bricks). A few potters’ families

viz. those of Potter-I: Kamal Prajapat, Potter-II: Ramlal Prajapat and his son Kailash

Prajapat in the Kasrawad town were studied. The families work full time in pottery

manufacturing process. Their pot-making and firing process was observed and documented.

D. Cluster-IV [Mandleshwar] (Khargone district, Madhya Pradesh)

Mandleshwar is located (22° 16’, 75° 60’) on the banks of Narmada River, 8 km east of

Maheshwar in Khargone district. The town has a stone-built fort constructed by

Muhammadan rulers. Tukoji Rao Holkar also built a palace at Mandleshwar. At

Mandleshwar, only two potters Potter-I: Pappu Prajapat and Potter-II: Lokesh Prajapat were

found, who practice pottery seasonally and on demand.

E. Cluster-V [Dhamnod] (Dhar district, Madhya Pradesh)

Dhamnod is located (22° 22’, 75° 47’) towards Indore from Maheshwar about 14 km away.

Dhamnod has a potters’ colony of about 12 potters of Pardesi caste who migrated from

Rajasthan during the medieval period. Only nine families practice pottery during September

to June in a traditional way, during July – August they import ganesha and durga figurines

to sell. Remaining families work in brick manufacturing factories.

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5.8. Clay

Clay source

Potters of Region-B obtain normally three types of clay. Cluster-IV and Cluster-V potters

sometimes use only Black and Yellow clays. All potters from this region obtain yellow clay

from the various mounds (beঌhi) on river banks of Narmada (locally known as Mahishmati

or Rewa), red clay from any nearby mound and black clay from the fields. The resource area

for red and black clay keeps changing every time. Resource areas of these clays are

generally within a distance of 3 - 20 km from their place. Donkeys’ dung and ash is used as

tempering material to the clays. Ash is recovered from the previous firing kiln or sometimes

from their hearth. Donkeys’ dung is collected from the village or sometimes from the

neighbours’. Kasrawad potters have their own donkeys which they use for transportation of

clays and pottery ready to be sold in the market. Some potters store their clays in their

backyards, while some at their brick manufacturing fields in large amounts so that they can

use them for longer periods (up to six months). Some of the potters use the same clays for

brick-making also. Transportation of the clays is done by scooter, donkey or tractor.

Whenever they need, they bring these clays in small amounts or according to need to their

house courtyards or work place.

Clay composition

The clay composition of each potter varies in composition, though their clay resources areas

are nearly the same. They also use metal or plastic tagari (pan of scales) for measuring clay;

as Cluster-IV potter normally mixes 2 tagaris black clay + 1 tagari yellow clay + 2 tagaris

donkeys’ dung for composition. Cluster-II potters did not use yellow clay for producing

black pottery but they keep changing their clay composition according to availability of

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clays and what they need to fabricate. Clays and their percentage used for compositions by

Region-B potters are specified in Table 13.

Clay preparation

Region-B potters normally prepare clay one day before use. Generally, in Region B clays are

prepared by women. At Cluster-II clays are prepared by both men and women. Clays are

usually brought in powder form. If there are any lumps, they are powdered first. At Cluster-

III, large granules are removed first; dry clays are mixed and sieved in required quantities in

a cemented tank or pit and are mixed with water, stirred well by wooden stick and left over

until the clay settles down (Fig. 37-i). Afterwards, the soaked mixed wet clay is sieved so

that the granules and impurities are separated. This is done by using modern metal sieves

into another pit. Then the clay is left out for levigation and to dry naturally (Fig. 37-ii). The

excess water from pit is removed once the clay sets down. If they need to use the clay

without more ado, the clays are poured on the ground. Before pouring the clay, crushed

powdered donkeys’ dung is spread on the ground. It is mixed properly by feet and afterwards

kneaded by hands. Tempering materials, dung or ash, are also used only after sieving.

Cluster-I and Cluster-II potters, first sieve the clays by domestic sieve on the plain

floor. Water is poured on the sieved clay and the mixture is mixed properly with feet; this

mixture is again sieved by mesh to separate the granules. Then crushed and sieved powdered

donkeys’ dung and sieved ash is added to the clay mixture, and then it is again kneaded by

feet properly till it becomes devoid of impurities and possesses good plasticity. After

kneading, the clay is kept in a wet jute bag to maintain its consistent plasticity. Cluster-IV

and V potters follow similar process for mixing clays but the kneading of clay is usually

done by hands only.

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Required amount of clay is taken out from the plastic sheet while making pots; first

they knead it on thick blanket or jute bag with both hands to remove remaining impurities. If

the clay is too wet, sieved ash is rubbed on hands, so that the clay should not stick to hands.

Sieved ash also enables preparation of appropriate clay for use.

Clay Source of
Cluster Potters Variety of clays
Composition Clays
Cluster –I Yellow clay + Red clay +
Santosh 02 : 01: 01: 01
(Maheshwar) Black clay + Donkey dung
Cluster –II Banks of
Red clay + Black clay +
(Bedhi- Radheshyam 03: 03: 01: 01 Narmada
Donkey dung + Ash
Navdatoli) river,
Cluster –III Yellow clay + Red clay + nearby
Kamal 01: 2.5 : 2.5: 04
(Kasrawad) Black clay + Donkey dung agriculture
Cluster –IV Pappu and Yellow clay +Black clay + fields
01: 02: 02
(Mandleshwar) Lokesh Donkey dung
Cluster –V Yellow clay + Black clay
Majority 10: 03: 01
(Dhamnod) + Donkey dung
Table 13: Clay Compositions of Region-B Potters

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i) Mixing of clays + water in into a pit ii) Clay left out to levigate and dry naturally

iii) Sieving of dry clay iv) Mixing of clay

v) Prepared clay lumps vi) Potter kneading clay before use

Figure 37: Images of clay preparation process – Region-B
(i and ii – Cluster-III; iii, iv, v – Cluster-V; vi– Cluster-I)

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5.9. Clay Products and Fabrication Methodology

Clay Product Types

Potters from the selected clusters produce only earthenware type of pottery. They fire their

products only once and do not apply any kind of glaze on pottery. Cluster-I and Cluster-IV

potters produce only pottery of red colour. According to them pottery of black colour is

made only by lower caste kumhars, therefore they do not engage themselves in producing

black colour pottery; instead they import black pottery from Dhamnod i.e. Cluster-V

especially big matakas during summer season for sale. Cluster-II and Cluster-III potters

produce both red and black types of pottery. Similar to Region-A, the Region-B pottery

types of all clusters have been grouped into five categories according to their usage (Table

14 and Fig. 38); 1.Cooking, 2.Liquid storage, 3.Granary storage, 4.Ceremonial and

5.Miscellaneous (Geedh and Nadgauda 2013a and 2013b).

Potters of Cluster-I produce a variety of clay products such as chulha, baking pan,

globular pots of various sizes, diyas, dhupdanis, karwa and piggy banks only in red ware.

Cluster-IV potters produce less variety of clay products than Cluster-I. A variety of moulded

diyas were observed which were imported by Cluster-IV potters to sell in the market before

the festival of diwali (Fig.38-iii). In black ware, Cluster-II, Cluster-III and Cluster-V

produce baking pans, variety of globular pots and granaries.

Fabrication Methodology

Pot Making

Potters from Region-B sites use a variety of methods for making pots: coiling, beating,

scraping, pressing and wheel throwing. Wheel throwing is mainly done only by men and

other methods are practiced by both men and women. Table 15 shows the fabrication

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methods and tools involved for the particular product. It also shows the gender of the person

is involved in the fabrication of the product.

Wheel Throwing

Potters of Region-B use solid stone-made or concrete rotating wheels of about 3” thickness.

The wheels have spokes fixed to a bearing pivot or tripod made of metal. According to these

potters, many generations have been using solid stone-made wheels as it provides continuous

momentum for a longer time and requires less strength for making their products. Cluster-V

potters usually use modern electric wheels. Only during power-cuts, they use traditional

wheel. They prepare most of the required pot shapes on wheel and remove them using the

thread. Once a pot is removed from the wheel, it is dried until it achieves a semi-wet

condition. Small globular pots or handis are made only using wheel with medium thickness.

The potters purposely make a few wheel-thrown pots thick enough to be handled safely

while beating. In leather hard condition potters can give the required round shape at base to a

pot. They follow this procedure to make globular pots of medium to big sizes.

Beating

For beating procedure two tools are used; one is gunta, (stone dabber or anvil) to support the

pot from inside, and the second is tapla, (paddle) a wooden bat to beat the pot from outside.

Normally a convex surface dabber is used to give a round shape to the pots; while a flat

topped dabber is used for achieving a flat base. While beating, finely sieved ash is spread on

a portion of the pot which the potter intends to beat. Cluster-V potters use a lot of ash while

beating the pot, which acquires a dark black colour after firing. If the pot is drying while

beating, both the tools gunta and tapla are dipped in water to maintain the pot’s leather hard

condition. While beating, a metal round basket is used to support the pot, and is placed

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between their feet. Cluster-V potters have their fixed places to sit while beating; a shallow

depression on the ground was observed in which they keep the metal basket covered by

cotton cloth or plastic sheet. While beating, the gunta is held in one hand to give support

from the inner side of the pot and beating is done with tapla at the surface supported by the

gunta. While beating, excess clay is scraped off with a flat bamboo tool. Beating is done

very finely so that no marks are left on the surface.

i) karwa, dhupdani and various sizes of diyas

ii) Painted karwas iii) moulded variety of diyas

Figure 38: Images of clay products – Region-B

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Functional Clay Cluste Cluster –II Cluster –IIICluster Cluster - V Use of

Category Products r -I –IV Product
 ‡† ‡† Žƒ… ‡† Žƒ… ‡† ‡† Žƒ… 
 : …Š—ŽŠƒ ξ   ξ   ξ  ¾ –‘˜‡
: –ƒ†—” ¾ Žƒ”‰‡
      ξ  ‰”ƒƒ”›•‹œ‡
‘‘‹‰

•–‘˜‡
: ƒ‹‰’ƒ• ξ    ξ   ξ ¾ ‘”„ƒ‹‰
ȋ–ƒ™ƒȌ ”‘–‹Ǥ
: ‡‡’   ξ ξ 
‰Ž‘„—Žƒ”’ƒ     ¾ ‘”…‘‘‹‰

‡†‹—•‹œ‡ ξ ξ ξ ξ ξ ξ   ¾ ‘•–‘”‡
‰Ž‘„—Žƒ”’‘–• Šƒ•
–‘”ƒ‰‡
‹“—‹†

         ȋ„—––‡”‹ŽȌ
ƒ”‰‡‰Ž‘„—Žƒ” ¾ ƒ–‡”
’‘–•
  ξ  ξ   ξ •–‘”ƒ‰‡

ƒ”‰‡•–‘”ƒ‰‡
’‘–•
¾ ‘•–‘”‡

”ƒƒ”›

‡‹‰Š–ǣ
Žƒ”‰‡
ƒ’’”šǤ͵ˆ–Ǥ
‹†–Šǣ
  ξ  ξ   ξ ƒ‘—–‘ˆ
‰”ƒ‹•
—’–‘ʹˆ–Ǥ 
Š‹…‡••ǣ
—’–‘ʹ‹Ǥ
¾ ƒ‹Ž›
‘ˆˆ‡”‹‰•Ƭ
†‹›ƒȂ•ƒŽŽ–‘ †—”‹‰
‡†‹—
ξ ξ  ξ  ξ ξ  ˆ‡•–‹˜ƒŽ•‡Ǥ‰Ǥ
‹™ƒŽ‹


Ž‘„—Žƒ” ¾ —”‹‰
†‡•‹‰‡”’‘–•‘ˆ ƒ””‹ƒ‰‡•Ƭ
†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–•‹œ‡• ξ   ξ ξ ξ   ˆ‡•–‹˜ƒŽ•‡Ǥ‰Ǥ
ȋ™‹–Š‘”™‹–Š‘—– ƒ˜”ƒ–”‹Ȁ
Ž‹†Ȍ ƒ•‡Š”ƒ
‡”‡‘‹ƒŽ

 ¾ —”‹‰
ƒŽƒ•Š ƒ””‹ƒ‰‡•Ƭ

ξ     ξ   ”‹–—ƒŽ
‘ˆˆ‡”‹‰•
 ¾ ƒ‹Ž›
Š—’†ƒ‹(with ‘ˆˆ‡”‹‰•ǡ‹
stand & handle)
ξ   ξ  ξ   –‡’Ž‡•Ƭ
‘•“—‡•
¾ ‡ƒ–Š‹–—ƒŽ
Small globular ‘ˆˆ‡”‹‰•
spouted pots
ξ   ξ     

Karwa (small ¾ ˆˆ‡”‹‰

spouted pot) †—”‹‰
ξ   ξ  ξ ξ  ƒ”™ƒ
…Šƒ™–Š
‹‰‰›„ƒ•
¾ ‘•–‘”‡
‹•…‡ŽŽƒ‡‘

ξ   ξ  ξ ξ 
‘–Š‡”…Žƒ›
’”‘†—…–•

…‘‹•
—•Ȃǣ

Žƒ–‡”•
ȋ‰ƒƒŽ‡Ȍ  ξ     ξ  ¾ ‘”’Žƒ–‹‰

Table 14: Comparative Study of Contemporary Clay Products of selected pottery

cluster of Region-B

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i) Traditional potter’s wheel made of stone ii) Paddle and Anvil

Figure 39: Types of Potter’s Wheels used for throwing pots (i –Region-B)
Tools used for Beating Method (ii – both Regions)

Clay Products Methods used in Tools /Equipment Gender

fabricating product
A Large granary hands, fingers, anvil,
coiling, pressing,
storage jars paddle, pointed iron F
scraping, beating
and tandoor tool.
B wheel throwing, cutting, hands, wheel, sharp iron
Piggy banks M+F
coiling, pressing tool
C Variety of
wheel throwing hands, wheel M
diyas
D Large globular wheel throwing, beating, hands, wheel, anvil,
M
pots (matakas) scraping paddle, basket, jute
E Medium
wheel throwing, beating, hands, wheel, anvil,
globular pots M+F
scraping paddle, basket, jute
(matakis)
F hands, globular pot,
Pans (tawa & beating, pressing,
paddle, anvil, rim of F
tel-tawa) scraping
broken globular pot
G Planters coiling, pressing, hands, paddle, anvil,
F
(gamale) scraping cotton cloth
Table 15: Gender-wise job distribution, methods and tools used while fabrication
of some clay products of Region-B

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i) Female making storage jar ii) Potter beating small pot

i) Globular based pot to remove shallow pan ii) detached rims of pot
Figure 40: Images of fabrication and products – Cluster-III, Region-B

Figure 41: Potter keeping pots to dry in the sun, Cluster-III, Region-B

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Baking Pans (tawa)

Baking pans are typically made by women at Cluster-I, Cluster-II and Cluster-V using a

method exactly similar to that described in Chapter 5.3.

Cluster-III potters usually make a globular pot on wheel. In the leather hard stage, the

pot is converted into handi shape by beating. While beating, the potter uses a tagar, covered

with thick cotton cloth or jute as a base to keep the pot. After finishing the handi, the potter

marks a deep horizontal groove on the body of the pot approximately 1 inch above the edge

of the base. Then it is kept for drying. After firing, the potter taps on the groove with a sharp

tool to separate the base from the body of the pot. The edges of the base are smoothened and

it is used or sold as a shallow pan. The rest of the body of the pot is used as vent and

covering while firing further batch of products (Fig. 40).

Storage Jars (Ranjan)

Big jars for storing grains are made by women (Fig. 40-i) in Cluster-II, Cluster-III and

Cluster-V. Fabrication method is similar to that of described earlier in Chapter 5.3.

Drying and Surface Finishing

Once the beating is over, the pots are kept in an upside down position resting on their rims to

dry in an open dry place. Sometimes the potters keep changing the positions of the pots to

dry them properly. For red pottery, red colour wash is applied to the pots after drying. The

red colour is made of geru, which is available in powdered form anywhere in the market.

The geru is mixed with water and medium thick slurry made which is easy to apply on

surface of pots. A cotton cloth is usually used for the application of red slurry. After the

wash, the pots are kept for drying.

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Completed pots are usually placed aside to dry in their backyard. Once they are dried

up to 80%, they are brought and kept in the courtyard under the sun. The drying timings

depend on the climatic conditions and the size of the pots. One pot may take 1-2 days to dry

in sunny season and during the moist climate it may take 2-3 days.

5.10. Firing Technology

In Cluster-I, Cluster-II, Cluster-III and Cluster-IV, Pottery generally is generally fired in an

open place in the backyard or in the courtyard in a circular kiln. Cluster-I and Cluster-IV

potters practice only open firing for clay products of red colour. In Cluster-V, potters have

central kiln / firing area which multiple potters from the colony alternately use for the firing.

Firing process is practiced by women in Cluster-I and Cluster-IV, therefore they usually

setup the kiln in the afternoon. On the other hand, in Cluster-II and Cluster-III, the whole

family is involved. Cluster-V potters conduct the firing post afternoon and their family,

besides neighbouring potters, are also involved in the process. At Cluster-III just before

firing, one of the senior family members offers prayers in front of the pile, and later she

sprinkles water around the pile.

Bonfire (Open Firing)

Bonfire process at Cluster-I - At Cluster-I, the firing cycle at Potter-I was observed and

documented. First, a layer of semi dried stalks of jowar were spread on the ground in a

circle. A second layer of dried cotton sticks was added and a third layer of kande, cow dung

(also bull or buffalo dung) cakes were placed above that. These three layers were arranged

up to a height of 1 foot. The size of this firing circle was about 2-3 feet in radius. 30 – 100

pots are fired at a time in a kiln; however, the amount varies according to the sizes of the

pots. From lower to upper levels gradually, bigger pots are placed first, followed by medium

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pots and then small pots. Then around the kiln two layers of bricks were arranged in a

circular form. After building the brick wall around the kiln, other small products like diyas

were placed in the gaps, while delicate pans (tawa) were placed at the top of the kiln.

Once the loading of all clay products in the kiln was finished, dung cakes were inserted

in the gaps of pots and bricks. Then the fire was lit using kerosene, tyre, rubber and cloth

rags. When the fuel was set on fire the kiln was covered completely with dried wheat stalk

powder (gehu ka sukla) which works as a rapid burning fuel. On top, they covered the kiln

with jute rags and kept adding sukla to maintain the fire in the bhatta. The firing continued

up to 2-3 hours. From setting up the kiln to loading sukla, the whole process took 3 to 4

hours approximately.

Bonfire process at Cluster-III-

In Cluster-III, the firing cycle at the workshop of Potter-II was observed and documented.

The fuel differs from that used by Potter-I of Cluster-I. From the lowermost level to upper

level Potter-II arranged dry sticks of cotton, discarded corn cobs, bigger to smaller sized red

pots and other small clay products. Once the loading of pots was done, he arranged

previously under-fired black pots around the pile. He lit the fire and started to place the

bagasse (leftover sugarcane stalks after juicing) from all sides of the pile to maintain the fire.

Both potters, when they judged the fuel in the kiln to be sufficient and saw that the fire

burned bright orange-red inside the kiln, stopped adding fuel to the kiln and left the kiln to

cool for the whole night. The pots inside get fired properly due to the inner fire and

gradually cool down till the next morning. If the potters would unload the kiln immediately,

the pots could get cracks due to direct contact with the outer climate as the temperature in

the kiln is much higher than outside temperature. Therefore they unload the kiln and remove

the pots on the next morning.

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i) Female loading the pots to bonfire ii) Bonfire place next to kitchen in the backyard

iii) Female setting up fire and loading fuel iv) Leftover bonfire once the enough fuel
was added

i) Loading the pots to bonfire ii) Potter adding fuel to bonfire

Figure 42: Firing process observed at Potter-I, Cluster-I and Potter-II, Cluster-III: Region-B

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Firing under reducing atmosphere

Potters from Cluster-II, Cluster-III, and Cluster-V practice closed firing (Table 16). The pile

is set for closed firing in a similar way as open firing. The first layer of fuel is placed in the

same way. Cluster-II and Cluster-III potters also use dried banana roots (gatte) in large

amounts as fuel in firing. Cluster-II potters start the fire first near the pile with dried banana

roots, and before loading the pots into the pile they put fired gatte one by one in each pot so

that the pot would become completely moisture free or dehydrated. Cluster-II potter arrange

all the pots in inverted-tilting-position (Fig. 43). The Cluster-III potter also arrange pots in

inverted-tilting-position with the exception of the large storage pots (Fig. 44-i), which are

placed in upright position (also see Appendix-II). After arranging all the pottery in a

circular-dome shape, they place previously broken pot rims in between the gaps which they

also use as chimneys. Above it, they add dried wheat stalk, dried husk, acacia branches and

wild shrubs. Then they start a fire in the pile using kerosene. They keep adding fuel to the

pile from outside, continuously for approximately two hours. While one person adds the

fuel, another person nearby prepares a mixture of dried husk, wheat stalk and crushed

donkeys’ dung with water. Once the fire is roaring inside the pile, they start adding this

mixture to the outer side of pile. Using this mixture, they cover the whole pile from all sides,

keeping a few smoke channels or chimneys. Then the pile is left overnight to cool down. In

this kind of firing system, in a reducing atmosphere the ferric iron loses some of its oxygen

and is reduced to ferrous iron, which gives grey black colour to the pots.

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i) Putting fired banana roots in the ii) Setting up pots, fuel & broken rims for the pile
pots before loading

iii) Potter adding the fuel to the bonfire

iv) Potter covering pile by a mixture of husk, dung & water v) potters unloading black pots

Figure 43: Firing process observed at Cluster II, Region-B

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i) Potters loading large size pots to bonfire ii) Female placing half broken rims
around the pile

iii) Female loading fuel to the bonfire

iv) Bonfire covered with dung, ash and water

Figure 44: Firing process observed at Cluster III, Region- B

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Cluster –II Cluster –III Cluster –V

Figure 43 Figure 44
Outer layer / to Wheat husk + powdered Powdered donkey dung +
Ash + water
close the pile donkey dung + water ash + water
To maintain Grass and wheat husk /
Wheat stalk + cotton stalk Grass, rubber, shrubs
fire chaffing
Rims of pre-fired pots +
Lower Dried branches and pre- Dried banana roots +
Bricks
Surrounding fired pots discarded corn cods +
cotton stalks
Fourth layer Pots to fire Pots Pots
Dried branches of acacia
Third layer Discarded Corn cods
/ forest shrubs
Wooden scrap of teak
Second layer Dried banana roots Dried Banana roots or neem
First layer fuel Dried jowar grass/stalk Dried stalks of cotton

Table 16: Reduction firing cycles at Region-B

5.11. Post-Firing Designing

Post-firing designing on medium to large red pots is done only by Cluster-I and Cluster-IV

potters. Cluster-II, Cluster-III and Cluster-V potters do not apply any kind of designs on the

pots. On black pots, however, they apply gray micacious powder (locally known as jalkosh)

as wash to give a shiny appearance. This wash helps to hide the blemishes occurring during

the firing. In Cluster-V, these black large globular pots are burnished by small stone or glass

beads to achieve a shine. During open firing, in case the pots have turned out with black

smoky/patchy blemishes, a slurry of geru is applied by a cotton cloth after firing. Sometimes

the pots are burnished with cotton cloth. Sometimes, only on demand, designs are painted in

white colour on a few ceremonial or festive pots by Cluster-I and Cluster-IV potters.

Previously they used to use white chalk to paint the designs, but as it does not last

permanently they have started using distemper instead. Pot motifs are usually very simple -

straight lines, wavy lines, dots and scrolls, applied using a brush.

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5.12. Manufacturing Processes and Systems associated with Pottery Production

Working area

Working and storage places of Cluster-III potters have annexed to their houses. They use

different parts of their courtyard for firing and storing the wet clays. Cluster-II potters often

stay in Dharmapuri, a nearby town; they use their house for pottery storage and backyard for

firing and storing the clays and fuel. Cluster-I potters do not have separate working and

storage space, they prepare clay and store it in one corner of the backyard and work on the

wheel in another. The pots are dried in the same place and the kiln is also laid in the same

working area. Verandas are used as a drying place during sunny season and for designing

activity, storage of fired pots and sale. Like Cluster-I potters, Cluster-IV potters also use

their courtyard as their common activity area (Geedh and Nadgauda 2013a). Sale of clay

products of Cluster-I potters is done from their verandas as their houses are located in the

markets (Appendix-I).

Gender-wise job distribution

Women do not participate in tasks such as transportation of clays or working on the wheel.

In the process of manufacturing pottery, men work on the wheel, as females are not allowed

to work on wheel because their menstrual cycle is considered inauspicious for wheel turning

activities.

Pottery production in Cluster-I is prominently a feminine activity for the reason that

men have shifted from their traditional business and thus are not involved entirely in pottery-

making, apart from wheel-throwing. Clay preparation, beating, designing, gathering fuel,

setting kiln / entire firing process (Table 16, 17 and 18) and selling goods are done only by

females in Cluster-I. Only a few youth are involved in the process (Geedh and Nadgauda

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2013a). In Cluster-II, Cluster-III and Cluster-IV, handmade products such as big storage jars,

chulhas and baking pans are made by women.

‹‹‰…Žƒ› ‘—†‹‰ ‹‡˜‹‰ ‹‡˜‹‰‘ˆ ‹š‹‰ ‡†‰‹‰Ƭ

Ž—•–‡”
Ȁ…Žƒ›‹’‘”– …Žƒ› ‘ˆ…Žƒ› –‡’‡” …Žƒ› ‡ƒ†‹‰

     Ȁ 
ƒŠ‡•Š™ƒ”

‡†Š‹Ǧ  Ȁ  Ȁ  Ȁ  Ȁ  Ȁ 
ƒ˜†ƒ–‘Ž‹

  Ȁ   Ȁ  Ȁ 
ƒ•”ƒ™ƒ†

     Ȁ 
ƒ†Ž‡•Š™ƒ”

    Ȁ  Ȁ 
Šƒ‘†
Table 17: Labor division for clay preparation at Region-B

Among potters of Clusters other than Cluster-I, men and women both work together

and help each other for clay preparation and firing process. Selling at these places is done

only by men in the weekly markets except in Cluster-IV, where women are engaged in

selling activity in the nearby markets.

Barter system

Despite town development, Cluster-I and Cluster-III potters continue the traditional system

of barter. Exchange system is still customary in the village of Cluster-II. Region-B potters

exchange their goods such as matakas, galla, dhupdanis, diyas for fuel resources such as

dried cotton branches, semi dried stalk of jowar, dried wheat stalk’s powder (gehu ka sukla),

dung cakes (kande), dried banana roots (gatte), and rarely for food grains (Geedh and

Nadgauda 2013a).

Domestic use of pottery

Potters from Region-B use certain products for themselves in their routine life. A few of the

potter’s families from Cluster-I (Potter-III) and Cluster-II (Potter-II) make some pottery

forms such as hearth, matakas, diyas and pans only for themselves and not for sale.
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Cluster- II
Cluster- I Cluster- III Cluster- IV Cluster- V
luster (Bedhi-
(Maheshwar) (Kasrawad) (Mandleshwar) (Dhamnod)
Navdatoli)
Type of
Open Open + Closed Open + Closed Open Open + Closed
firing
Firing Veranda / Veranda / Veranda / Veranda / Common place
location courtyard courtyard courtyard courtyard at chowk
Loading
F M+F M+ F M+F M+F
product
cow dung, cow dung, cow dung, ash cow dung, dried cow dung,
Fuel dried grass, donkey dung, bagasse, grass, branches grass, ash,
dry sticks of husk, ash, banana roots, of acacia, branches of
cotton, chaffing, dry sticks of pieces of tyre neem tree, teak
dried stalks of dried jowar grass, cotton and wood scrap
wheat (sukla), dry banana roots, other shrubs,
pieces of tyre discarded corn discarded corn
cobs, cobs, chaffing
dry small wooden of wheat
pieces of acacia
& other
Fire
F M+F M+F M+F M+F
control
Form of
firing Circle Circle Circle Circle Circle
set-up
50 to 200 or 50 to 200 or 50 to 200 or 50 to 200 or 50 to 200 or
Quantity
more. more. more. more. more.
and
Depends upon Depends upon Depends upon Depends upon Depends upon
size of Pile
product size product size product size product size product size
Un-load F M+F M+F F M+ F
Table 18: Firing cycle and labor involved at Region-B.

Selling

Cluster-I potters stay in the main market, therefore they do not prefer to go to any nearby

weekly markets; they sell their products from their verandas by arranging their fired

products. Selling and marketing is also done by women of the house in Cluster-I and

Cluster-IV, whereas in Cluster-II, Cluster-III and Cluster-V potters sell their products in the

weekly markets of town and nearby villages (Geedh and Nadgauda 2013a). Cluster-V potters

also arrange stalls on the roadside to sell their products.

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