FUNDAMENTALS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

SYSTEM OF UNITS:
The base quantities are length, mass, time; units are the meter (m), the kilogram (kg)
and the seconds(s) respectively.
Base Quantity Name Symbol
Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second Sec
Electric Current ampere A
Temperature kelvin K

Multiples and Submultiples of SI Units:

Symbol Name Factor Symbol Name Factor
Y yotta 1024 y yokto 10-24
Z zetta 1021 z zepto 10-21
E exa 1018 a atto 10-18
P peta 1015 f femto 10-15
T tera 1012 p pico 10-12
G giga 109 n nano 10-9
M mega 106 µ micro 10-6
k kilo 103 m milli 10-3
h hecto 102 c centi 10-2
da deka 101 d deci 10-1

Derived
Symbol Name SI units
Quantity
Area A square meter m2
Volume v cubic meter m3
Speed, N, V
meter per second m/s
Velocity
Acceleration a meter per second squared m/s2
Mass Density ρ kilogram per cubic meter kg/m3
Force F netwon (N) m·kg·s-2
Pressure p pascal m-1·kg·s-2
Energy, Work E joule (J) N-m m2·kg·s-2
Electric V
volt (V) m2·kg·s-3·A-1
Potential
 Physical Quantity Symbol Name Unit

Mass M kilogram kg
Linear position x
Length, Distance l, d meter m
Radius R
Time T second s
Linear angle, Θ
radian rad
Angular position Φ
Moment of inertia I - kg*m2

Linear velocity v, u, c - m/s

Linear momentum p - kg*m/s

Angular momentum L - kg*m2/s

Linear acceleration a - m/s2

Angular acceleration α - rad/s2

Force F newton N=kg*m/s2

Torque T - N*m

Impulse I - N*s
Power P watt W=J/s
Dynamic viscosity - Pa*s
Current I ampere A

Charge Q, q, e coulomb C=A*s

Current density j - A/m2

Volume charge density - C/m3

C/m2
Surface charge density -

Linear charge density - C/m

Stress
pascal Pa=N/m2
Elasticity modulus E
TECHNICAL TERMS:
Scalar: A quantity is said to be scalar if it
Dispalcement (S): Displacement is the shortest distance between the final position and the
initial position. Displacement is a Vector quantity.

Displacement S = Velocity x Time

Distance (X): It is the physical length from the initial position to the final position of the
point.
Velocity (V): Velocity is a vector quantity that refers to "the rate at which an object changes
its position in a specific path". It is the vector quantity.
𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐞𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭 ∆𝐬
𝐕𝐞𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲(𝐕) = =
𝐓𝐢𝐦𝐞 ∆𝐭
Speed: The rate at which the object moves or operates or is able to move or operate. It is the
scalar quantity.

Difference between speed and Velocity: Speed is the rate of motion, or the rate of change of
position. It is expressed as distance moved (d) per unit of time(t). Speed is a scalar quantity
with dimensions distance/time. Speed is measured in the same physical units of measurement
as velocity, but does not contain an element of direction. Speed is thus the magnitude
component of velocity. Velocity contains both the magnitude and direction components.

Difference between scalar and Vector quantity: A scalar quantity is a one dimensional
measurement of a quantity, like temperature, or weight. A vector has more than one number
associated with it. A simple example is velocity. It has a magnitude, called speed, as well as
a direction, like North or Southwest or 10 degrees west of North.

Acceleration (a): Acceleration, (symbol: a) is defined as the rate of change of velocity. It is

thus a vector quantity with dimension length/time². In SI units, acceleration is measured in
meters/second².
𝐂𝐡𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞 𝐢𝐧 𝐯𝐞𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐝𝐯
𝑨𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 (𝒂) = =
𝐂𝐡𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞 𝐢𝐧 𝐓𝐢𝐦𝐞 𝐝𝐭
Radius of gyration: The radius of gyration is the ``equivalent distance'' of the mass from the
axis of rotation.

Work: Work can be defined as transfer of energy. In physics we say that work is done on an
object when we transfer energy to that object. If one object transfers (gives) energy to a
second object, then the first object does work on the second object.
Work is the application of a force over a distance. Lifting a weight from the ground and
putting it on a shelf is a good example of work. The force is equal to the weight of the object,
and the distance is equal to the height of the shelf
Work= Force * distance.
Types of Energy:
There are two types of energy in many forms:
Kinetic Energy = Energy of Motion
Potential Energy = Stored Energy

Forms of Energy:
 Solar Radiation -- Infrared Heat, Radio Waves, Gamma Rays, Microwaves,
Ultraviolet Light
 Atomic/Nuclear Energy -energy released in nuclear reactions. When a neutron splits
an atom's nucleus into smaller pieces it is called fission. When two nuclei are joined
together under millions of degrees of heat it is called fusion
 Electrical Energy --The generation or use of electric power over a period of time
expressed in kilowatt-hours (kWh), megawatt-hours (MWh) or gigawatt-hours
(GWh).
 Chemical Energy -- Chemical energy is a form of potential energy related to the
breaking and forming of chemical bonds. It is stored in food, fuels and batteries, and
is released as other forms of energy during chemical reactions.
 Mechanical Energy -- Energy of the moving parts of a machine. Also refers to
movements in humans.
 Heat Energy -- a form of energy that is transferred by a difference in temperature.

Power: Power is the work done in a unit of time. In other words, power is a measure of how
quickly work can be done. The unit of power is the Watt = 1 Joule/ 1 second. One common
unit of energy is the kilowatt-hour (kWh). If we are using one kW of power, a kWh of energy
will last one hour. Calculating Work, Energy and Power
WORK = W=F*d

ENGINEERING MECHANICS

Newton’s Three Fundamental Laws of Motion

I Law: Newton's first law of motion is often stated as “An object is in rest or its
motion continues its equilibrium position unless an unbalanced force acted on it”. This law is
often called as ‘the law of inertia’.
 II Law: Newton's second law of motion can be stated as “the acceleration of an object
as produced by a net force is directly proportional to the magnitude of the net force, in the
same direction as the net force, and inversely proportional to the mass of the object.”
A=Fnet / m
It can also be expressed as,
Fnet = m * a
III Law: Newton's third law of motion can be stated as “for every action, there is an
equal and opposite reaction.”

Definitions for Force:

1. Force is a push or pull
2. Force is the capacity to do work or cause physical change
3. Force= Mass times acceleration (F = ma)
4. A force is that which changes or tends to change the state of rest or motion of a body.
In SI system, the unit of force is Newton. Newton (N)
1 Newton = 1 kg m/sec2 (A kilogram is the amount of weight at which 1 N of force will
accelerate at a rate of 1 m/s2.)
Newton’s Law of Gravitation: It states that “two particles of mass ‘M’ and ‘m’ are mutually
attracted with equal and opposite forces F and F’.”
F = G [(M*m)/r2]
and the weight of a particle of mass m may be expressed as
W = mg

Momentum: Momentum can be defined as "mass in motion." Momentum is a vector

quantity.
Momentum = mass * velocity

Torque or Turning Force: Torque is a measure of the turning force on an object such as a
bolt or a flywheel. For example, pushing or pulling the handle of a wrench connected to a nut
or bolt produces a torque (turning force) that loosens or tightens the nut or bolt.
Couple: Two forces those acts on equally, parallely & oppositely on two separate points of
same material.
Moment: It is the amount of moving effect which is gained for action of turning force.
Centre of Gravity: It is the body the whole weight of the body which acts. A body is having
only one centre of gravity for all the positions of the body.
Centroid: the point at which the total area of the plane figure (triangle, rectangle, square,
quadrilateral, circle, etc) is assumed to be concentrated is known as centroid.
Area Moment of Inertia: The product of the area (or mass) and the square of the distance of
the center of gravity of the area (or mass) about that axis.
Radius of gyration: Radius of gyration or gyradius is the name of several related measures
of the size of an object, a surface, or an ensemble of points. It is calculated as the root mean
square distance of the objects' parts from either its center of gravity or a given axis.
Friction: Friction is the force resisting the relative motion of solid surfaces, fluid layers, and
material elements sliding against each other.
 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
Stress: The internal resistance force offered by a body when an external force acting on
it.The basic units of stress in S.I units i.e. (International system) are N / m2 (or Pa).
MPa = 106 Pa
GPa = 109 Pa
KPa = 103 Pa
Some times N/mm2 units are also used, because this is an equivalent to MPa.
Types of Stresses: only two basic stresses exists : (1) normal stress and (2) shear stress.
Other stresses either are similar to these basic stresses or are a combination of this e.g.
bending stress is a combination tensile, compressive and shear stresses. Torsional stress, as
encountered in twisting of a shaft is a shearing stress. The Normal stress will be either
compressive or tensile in nature.

Strain: If a force acts on a substance, then in that case if the substance would deform. Then
the amount of deformation per unit length of that substance is called strain.

Hookes Law: It states that “when a material is loaded with in the elastic limit the stress is
directionally proportional to strain.”
Modulus of Elasticity: The ratio of the tensile or compressive stress to the corresponding
strain is constant. The ratio is known as Modulus of Elasticity or Young’s Modulus. It is
denoted by ‘E’.
Shear Modulus or Modulus of rigidity: The ratio of the shear stress to the corresponding
shear strain within the elastic limit is known as Modulus of shear Modulus. It is denoted by
‘C or G of N’.
Factor of Safety: It is defined as the ratio of ultimate stress to the working stress.
Poisson’s Ratio: The ratio of lateral strain to the longitudinal strain within the elastic limit is
known as poison’s ratio.
Stiffness: Load per unit deflection. The amount of load required to resist the deflection.
Strain energy: The energy stored during the straining effect is known as the strain energy.
The strain energy is equal to the workdone by the applied load in stretching the body.

ROPERTIES OF MATERIALS:
Hardness: Hardness refers to the ability of a metal to resist abrasion, penetration, cutting
action, or permanent distortion.
Brittleness: Brittleness is the property of a metal that allows little bending or deformation
without shattering. In other words, a brittle metal is apt to break or crack without change of
shape. Cast iron, cast aluminum, and very hard steel are brittle metals.
Ductility: Ductility is the property of a metal that permits it to be permanently drawn, bent,
or twisted into various shapes without breaking. This property is essential for metals used in
making wire and tubing.
Elasticity: Elasticity is that property that enables a metal to return to its original shape when
the force that causes the change of shape is removed. This property is extremely valuable,
because it would be highly undesirable to have a part permanently distorted after an applied
load was removed.
Toughness: A material that possesses toughness will withstand tearing or shearing and may
be stretched or otherwise deformed without breaking.
Density: Density is the weight of a unit volume of a material. In aircraft work, the actual
weight of a material per cubic inch is preferred, since this figure can be used in determining
the weight of a part before actual manufacture.
Ultimate tensile strength: The term (ultimate) tensile strength is used for the maximum
value of tensile stress that a material can withstand without breaking, and is calculated at the
maximum tensile force divided by the original cross-sectional area.
Compressive strength: The compressive strength is the maximum compressive stress that a
material can withstand without being crushed. Both strengths have the same unit as stress,
and are typically millions of Pa. For most engineering materials, Young’s Modulus is the
same in compression as in tension.
Yield point: The stress at which an elastic material under increasing stress ceases to behave
elastically; under conditions of tensile strength the elongation is no longer proportional to the
increase in stress. Also called yield stress yield strength.
Limit of proportionality: Limit of proportionality is the limit at which the the stress strain
curve starts behaving in a non-linear way.
Types of Beams:
 Cantilever Beam: A beam fixed at its one end and other end is free.
 Simply Supported Beam: A beam supported or resting on its both ends.
 Fixed-Fixed Beam: A beam whose ends are fixed or built in to its walls.
 Continuous Beam: A beam is provided more than one support.
 Overhanging Beam: If the any one end portion of the beam extended beyond its
support is known as overhanging beam.
Shear Force: The Shear Force at the cross section of the beam may be defined as the
unbalanced vertical force to the right or left of the section.
Bending Moment: The Bending Moment at the cross section of the beam may be defined as
the algebraic sum of the moments of the forces, to the right or left of the section.
Bending Moment Equation:
𝑀 𝜎𝑏 𝐸
= =
𝐼 𝑦 𝑅
Where,
M = Bending Moment
I = Moment of Inertia
σb = Bending Stress
E = Young’s Modulus
 R = Radius of gyration

Torsional Equation:
𝑇 𝐶𝛳 𝜏
= =
𝐽 𝑙 𝑅
Where,
T = Torque
J = Polar moment of Inertia
C = Modulus of Rigidity
τ = Shear Stress
σb = Bending Stress
E = Young’s Modulus
R = Radius of gyration

FLUID MECHANICS
Fluid mechanics is the branch of physics that studies fluids (liquids, gases, and
plasmas) and the forces on them
Distinction between a solid and a fluid: The molecules of a solid are usually closer together
than those of a fluid. The attractive forces between the molecules of a solid are so large that a
solid tends to retain its shape. This is not the case for a fluid, where the attractive forces
between the molecules are smaller.
Distinction between a gas and a liquid: A fluid may be either a gas or a liquid. The
molecules of a gas are much farther apart than those of a liquid. Hence a gas is very
compressible, and when all external pressure is removed, it tends to expand indefinitely. A
liquid is relatively incompressible, and if all pressure, except that of its own vapor pressure, is
removed, the cohesion between molecules holds them together, so that the liquid does not
expand indefinitely.
Properties of fluids:
1. Density: The mass density (ρ) of a fluid is defined as the ratio of the mass of the fluid
(m) to its volume (V). That is, ρ = m/V The SI unit for the mass density is kg/m3. The
mass density of water is 100kg/m3.

2. Specific weight: The specific weight represents weight per unit volume. Sometimes it
is also referred to as the weight density. Mathematically, γ = ρg. The SI unit for the
specific weight is N/m3.

3. Specific Volume: Specific weight or weight density of a fluid is volume per unit
mass.It’s unit is m3/kg. It is usually denoted by ‘v’.
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝑽 𝟏
𝒗= = =
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒎 𝝆
4. Specific gravity: Specific gravity is simply the ratio of the specific weight of a given
liquid to the specific weight of water at 4° C (γwater = 9.81 kN/m3). Mathematically,
SG= γ / γwater
 5. Visocsity: Viscosity is defined as the property of the fluid which offer the resistance
the resistance to the movement of one layer of fluid over another adajcent layer of the
fluid.
Formally, viscosity (represented by the symbol η "eta") is the ratio of the shearing
stress (ƒ/A) to the velocity gradient (Δvx/Δz or dvx/dz) in a fluid.

The SI unit of viscosity is the pascal second [Pa s]. The most common unit of
viscosity is the dyne second per square centimeter [dyne s/cm2] which is given the
name poise [P].
1 pascal second = 10 poise = 1,000 millipascal second
1 centipoise = 1 millipascal second
6. Kinematic Viscosity: Kinematic viscosity is a measure of the resistive flow of a fluid
under the influence of gravity. It is frequently measured using a device called a
capillary viscometer.
7. Surface Tension: Surface tension could be defined as the property of the surface of a
liquid that allows it to resist an external force, due to the cohesive nature of the water
molecules.
8. Vapour Pressure: The vapor pressure of a liquid is the equilibrium pressure of a
vapor above its liquid (or solid); that is, the pressure of the vapor resulting from
evaporation of a liquid (or solid) above a sample of the liquid (or solid) in a closed
container.
9. Cavitation: Cavitation is the formation of gas bubbles of a flowing liquid in a region
where the pressure of the liquid falls below its vapor pressure.
10. Compressibility: All the fluids are compressible to some extent. Compressibility of a
liquid causes the liquid to act much like a stiff spring. The oefficient of
compressibility is the frictional change in a unit volume of the liquid per unit change
of pressure.
Hydrostatic Pressure: The pressure at a given depth in a static liquid is a result the weight
of the liquid acting on a unit area at that depth plus any pressure acting on the surface of the
liquid.

Pascal's Principle: It states that “the pressure or intensity of pressure at a point in a static
liquid is equal in all directions.”

Absolute Pressure: Absolute pressure is the pressure of a system relative to the pressure of
an absolute vacuum. In more practical terms, it is often expressed as the sum of the pressure
of the atmosphere and the gauge pressure of a fluid.
Atmospheric pressure: It is defined as the pressure of the surrounding air at or near the
surface of the Earth. This pressure is not a fixed or constant value and it may vary with
temperature or elevation.
Gauge pressure: Gauge pressure represents the pressure of the system as measured by a
pressure measurement device.
Ideal Fluid: An ideal fluid is usually defined as a fluid in which there is no friction; it is
inviscid (its viscosity is zero).
The Ideal Gas Law: The Ideal Gas Law relates pressure, temperature, and volume of
an ideal or perfect gas. The Ideal Gas Law can be expressed with the Individual Gas
Constant:
PV=mRT
where
P = absolute pressure
V = volume
m = mass
R = individual gas constant
T = absolute temperature

Hydrostatic Law: Hydrostatic law states that “the rate of increase of pressure in a
vertically downward direction must be equal to the specific weight of the fluid at that point.”
P= ρgh
where
ρ = density of the liquid
h = free height of the liquid above the point
g = acceleration due to gravity

Boyle’s Law: Boyle’s law states that “the pressure exerted by a gas held at a constant
temperature varies inversely with the volume of the gas.”
P V = constant

Charle’s Law: Charles' Law, in physics, a principle that deals with the effect of heat on the
expansion of gases. The law states “if the pressure of a gas remains constant, the volume of
the gas will increase as the temperature increases.”

Archimede’s principle: Archimede’s principle that states that a body immersed in a fluid is
buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the displaced fluid. The principle applies to both
floating and submerged bodies and to all fluids, i.e., liquids and gases.

Buoyancy Force: When an object is placed in a fluid, the fluid exerts an upward force. This
force is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object and is called buoyancy force.

Center of Buoyancy: The center of buoyancy of the object is located at the center of gravity
of the volume of the displaced liquid. It is the point through which the upward buoyant force
seems to act.

Metacenter: It is defined as the point, about the body starts oscillating when the body is titled
by an small angle.
Bernoulli's Theorem - for Ideal Fluid Flow: Its states that in a steady, ideal flow of an
incompressible fluid, the total energy of the fluid is constant. The total energy consists of
pressure energy, kinetic energy and datum energy

Applications of the Bernoulli Equation: The Bernoulli equation can be applied to all
problems of incompressible fluid flow where energy considerations are invlolved. Eg.
Orificemeter, Pitot tube, venturimeter, etc.
Venturimeter: It is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of a fluid flowing through a
pipe. It consists of three parts namely, a short converging part, throat and diverging part.
Orifice meter: It is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of a fluid flowing through a
pipe. It consists of flat circular plate which has a circular hole, in concentric with the pipe. It
is a cheaper device as compared to venturimeter.
Pitot-tube: The pitot tube consists of a glass tube, bent at right angles. It is a device used for
measuring the velocity of flow at any point in a pipe or a channel.

Pump: A pump is a device that moves fluids (liquids or gases), or sometimes slurries, by
mechanical action. Pumps can be classified into three major groups according to the method
they use to move the fluid: direct lift, displacement, and gravity pumps

Centrifugal pump: A centrifugal pump is a rotodynamic pump that uses a

rotating impeller to increase the pressure and flow rate of a fluid. Centrifugal pumps are the
most common type of pump used to move liquids through a piping system.

Submersible pump: A submersible pump is a device which has a hermetically sealed motor
close-coupled to the pump body. The whole assembly is submerged in the fluid to be
pumped. The main advantage of this type of pump is that it prevents pump cavitation, a
problem associated with a high elevation difference between pump and the fluid surface.
Positive displacement machines: The machines whose functioning depends essentially on
the change of volume of a certain amount of fluid within the machine are known as positive
displacement machines.
Reciprocating pump: The machine developing energy of the fluid from the mechanical
energy is known as reciprocating pump or reciprocating compressor.
Rotodynamic machines: They are distinguished from positive displacement machines in
requiring relative motion between the fluid and the moving part of the machine. The rotating
element of the machine usually consisting of a number of vanes or blades is known as rotor
or impeller while the fixed part is known as stator. Impeller is the heart of rotodynamic
machines, within which a change of angular momentum of fluid occurs imparting torque to
the rotating member.
Hydrodynamic machine:
A hydrodynamic machine is a device used either for extracting energy from a fluid or
to add energy to a fluid.

Turbine: A turbine is a rotary mechanical device that extracts energy from a fluid flow and
converts it into useful work.

Impulse turbines: Impulse turbines change the direction of flow of a high velocity fluid or
gas jet. The resulting impulse spins the turbine and leaves the fluid flow with diminished
kinetic energy.

Reaction turbines: Reaction turbines develop torque by reacting to the gas or fluid's pressure
or mass. The pressure of the gas or fluid changes as it passes through the turbine rotor blades.

Specific speed: Specific speed (Ns) is a dimensional parameter used to characterize

turbomachinery speed.

THERMODYNAMICS

Pure substance: A pure substance is defined as one that is homogeneous and invariable in
chemical composition throughout its mass.

Thermodynamic system: A thermodynamic system is defined as a quantity of matter or a

region in space, on which the analysis of the problem is concentrated.
1. Closed system (only energy transfer and no mass transfer)
2. Open system (Both energy and mass transfer)
3. Isolated system (No mass and energy transfer)

Mechanical equilibrium: If the forces are balanced between the system and surroundings
are called Mechanical equilibrium
Thermal equilibrium: If the temperature difference between the system and surroundings is
zero then it is in Thermal equilibrium.

Properties: The two types of properties are intensive property and extensive property.
Homogeneous system: The system consist of single phase

Heterogeneous system: The system consist of more than one phase

Steady flow process: Steady flow means that the rates of flow of mass and energy across the
ontrol surface are constant.

System: It is defined as the quantity of the matter or a region in space upon which we focus
attention to study its property.

Cycle: It is defined as a series of state changes such that the final state is identical with the
initial state.

Zeroth law of thermodynamics: When two systems are separately in thermal equilibrium
with a third system then they themselves are in thermal equilibrium with each other.

First law of thermodynamics:

Carnot theorem: It states that no heat engine operating in a cycle between two constant
temperature heat reservoir can be more efficient than a reversible engine operating between
the same reservoir.

Clausius statement: It is impossible for a self-acting machine working in a cyclic process, to

transfer heat from a body at lower temperature to a body at a higher temperature without the
aid of an external agency.

Kelvin Planck Statement:It is impossible to construct a heat engine to produce network in a

complete cycle if it exchanges heat from a single reservoir at single fixed temperature.

Heat pump:A heat pump is a device, which is working in a cycle and transfers heat from
lower temperature to higher temperature.

Heat engine: Heat engine is a machine, which is used to convert the heat energy into
mechanical work in a cyclic process.

Reversible process: A reversible process is one, which is performed in such a way that at the
conclusion of process, both system and surroundings may be restored to their initial state,
without producing any changes in rest of the universe.
Irreversible process: The mixing of two substances and combustion also leads to
irreversibility. All spontaneous process is irreversible.

Entropy: It is an important thermodynamic property of the substance. It is the measure of

molecular disorder. It is denoted by S. The measurement of change in entropy for reversible
process is obtained by the quantity of heat received or rejected to absolute temperature.

Equation of state: The relation between the independent properties such as pressure, specific
volume and temperature for a pure substance is known as the equation of state.

Boyle’s law: It states that volume of a given mass of a perfect gas varies inversely as the
absolute pressure when temperature is constant.

Charle’s law: It states that if any gas is heated at constant pressure, its volume changes
directly as its absolute temperature.

Avogardo’s Law: The number of moles of any gas is proportional to the volume of gas at a
given pressure and temperature.

Joule-Thomson coefficient: The temperature behaviors of a fluid during a throttling

(h=constant) process is described by the Joule-Thomson coefficient defined as μ=[T/P]n

Throttling process: When a fluid expands through a minute orifice or slightly opened valve,
the process is called as throttling process. During this process, pressure and velocity are
reduced.

Molecular mass: Molecular mass is defined as the ratio between total mass of the mixture to
the total number of moles available in the mixture.

Isothermal compressibility: It is defined as the change in volume with change in pressure

per unit volume keeping the temperature constant.

Psychrometry: The science which deals with the study of behaviour of moist air (mixture of
dry air and water vapour) is known as psychrometry.

Humidification: The addition of water vapour into air

Dehumidification: The removal of water vapour from air

Absolute humidity: It is the mass of water vapour present in one kg of dry air
Relative humidity: It is the ratio of the actual mass of water vapour present in one kg of dry
air at the given temperature to the maximum mass of water vapour it can with hold at the
same temperature

Effective temperature:It is a measure of feeling warmth or cold to the human body in

response to the air temperature, moisture content and air motion. If the air at different DBT
and RH condition carries the same amount of heat as the heat carried by the air at temperature
T and 100% RH.

Specific humidity: It is defined as the ratio of the mass of water vapour (ms) in a given
volume to the mass of dry air in a given volume (ma).

Degree of saturation: It is the ratio of the actual specific humidity and the saturated specific
humidity at the same temperature of the mixture.

Dew point temperature: The temperature at which the vapour starts condensing

Dry bulb temperature (DBT): The temperature recorded by the thermometer with a dry
bulb. The dry bulb thermometer cannot affected by the moisture
present in the air. It is the measure of sensible heat of the air.

Wet bulb temperature (WBT): It is the temperature recorded by a thermometer whose bulb
is covered with cotton wick (wet) saturated with water. The wet bulb temperature may be the
measure of enthalpy of air. WBT is the lowest temperature recorded by moistened bulb.

Dew point depression: It is the difference between dry bulb temperature and dew point
temperature of air vapour mixture.

Psychrometer: It is an instrument which measures both dry bulb temperature and wetbulb
temperature.

Sensible heat: It is the heat that changes the temperature of the substance when added to it or
when abstracted from it and latent heat.

Latent heat: It is the heat that does not affect the temperature but change of state occurred
by adding the heat or by abstracting the heat.

Important psychrometric process: 1. Sensible heating and sensible cooling,

2. Cooling and dehumidification,
3. Heating and humidification,
4. Mixing of air streams,
5. Chemical dehumidification,
6. Adiabatic evaporative cooling.
Adiabatic mixing: The process of mixing two or more stream of air without any heat transfer
to the surrounding is known as adiabatic mixing. It is happened in air
conditioning system.

Internal Combustion Engines: Internal Combustion Engines (IC-engines) produce

mechanical power from the chemical energy contained in the fuel, as a result of the
combustion process occurring inside the engine.

MATERIAL SCIENCE

Metallurgy – Study of metals – The foots of metallurgy derive from Ancient Greek:
“Metal” + “Work”. The Engineering mataerials can be classified as three groups according to
the occurrence:
1. Metals and alloys
2. Ceramics
3. Organic polymers

The Gibbs Phase Rule: The phase rule allows one to determine the number of degrees of
freedom (F) or variance of a chemical system. This is useful for interpreting phase diagrams.
F=2+C–P
Where
F is the number of degrees of freedom,
C is the number of chemical components and
P is the number of phases in the system.

Lever rule: A mathematical expression whereby the relative phase amounts in a two-phase
alloy at equilibrium may be computed.

Isomorphus: Having the same structure. In the phase diagram sense, isomorphicity means
having the same crystal structure or complete solid solubility for all compositions.

Metals and alloys – A metal is an elemental substance. An alloy is ahomogenous mixture of

two or more metal or a non metal. Eg. Aluminum, Cast Iron, Ferrous alloys.

Ceramic: A ceramic is an inorganic non-metallic solid made up of either metal or non-metal

compounds that have been shaped and then hardened by heating to high temperatures. In
general, they are hard, corrosion-resistant and brittle. Eg. Silicon carbide, Zirconia, Silicon
nitride, Diamond, Cubic boron nitride, Tungsten Carbide

Metals are grouped into two classes

a) Ferrous metals – Those metals containing iron as principal constituent
b) Non-ferrous metals – Those metals do not contain iron as principal constituent.
Steel: Steel is an alloy of iron and maximum 2.1% carbon. Low-carbon steel (less than 0.3 %
carbon) is generally used for common industrial products such as nuts, sheets and tubes.
Medium carbon steel (0.3 to 0.6 % carbon) is stronger than low carbon steel and used for
automotive and machinery applications. High carbon steel (more than 0.6 % carbon), is
strong, hard, and wear resistant and is used for cutting tools, springs and cutlery.

Stainless Steel: Stainless steel is very corrosion resistant, strong, and ductile. Stainless steel
contains a minimum of 11 % chromium (wt.), as well as nickel and other alloying elements.

Phase diagram: The phase diagram indicates the temperature at which the solid alloy will
start melting and finish melting. It can be classified in to Unary, Binary and Ternary.

Iron Carbon Diagram

Austenite: Face-centered cubic iron or an iron alloy based on this structure.

Martensite: An unstable polymorphic phase of iron which forms at temperatures below the
eutectoid because the face-centered cubic structure of austenite becomes unstable. It changes
spontaneously to a body-centered structure by shearing action, not diffusion.

Cementite: The second phase formed when carbon is in excess of the solubility limit.
Ledeburite: Eutectic of cast iron. It exists when the carbon content is greater than 2 percent.
It contains 4.3 percent carbon in combination with iron.

Ferrite: Body-centered cubic iron or an iron alloy based on this structure.

Fine pearlite: Results from thin lamellae when cooling rates are accelerated and diffusion is
limited to shorter distances.

Eutectic Reactions: Two metals that are completely soluble in Liquid state and partly or
insoluble in the solid state. Liquid →Solid 1 + Solid 2

Eutectoid Reactions: This reaction is due to the transformation in solid state

Solid 1 → Solid 2 + Solid 3
Austenite → Ferrite + Cementite

Peritectoid Reactions: This reaction is due to the transformation of two Solids in to third
solid state.
Solid 1 + Solid 2 →Solid 3

Heat Treatment: Alloying and heat treatment are two methods which are extensively used
for controlling material properties. During the heat treatment process, the microstructures of
materials are modified and the resulting phase transformation influences mechanical
properties like strength, ductility, toughness, hardness and wear resistance.

 Hardening: Hardening is performed to impart strength and hardness to alloys by

heating up to a certain temperature, depending on the material, and cooling it rapidly.

 Annealing: Annealing is a heat treatment process whereby a metal is heated to a

specific temperature /colour and then allowed to cool slowly.

 Normalizing: Normalizing is a heat treatment process applied to ferrous alloys to

give the material a uniform fine grained structure and make it less brittle. It is used on
steels of less than 0.4% carbon to transform austenite into ferrite and pearlite.

 Tempering: Tempering is a process of heat treating, which is used to increase the

toughness of iron-based alloys. Tempering is usually performed after hardening, to
reduce some of the excess hardness.
  Surface Hardening: Case hardening or surface hardening is the process of hardening
the surface of a metal object while allowing the metal deeper underneath to remain
soft, thus forming a thin layer of harder metal (called the "case") at the surface.

 Nitriding: Nitriding is a heat treating process that diffuses nitrogen into the surface of
a metal to create a case hardened surface. It is predominantly used on steel, but also
titanium, aluminum and molybdenum.

 Carburizing: It is a heat treatment process in which iron or steel absorbs carbon

liberated when the metal is heated in the presence of a carbon bearing material, such
as charcoal or carbon monoxide, with the intent of making the metal harder.

 Cyaniding: It is a case hardening process that is fast and efficient; it is mainly used
on low carbon steels. The part is heated to 871-954 °C (1600-1750 °F) in a bath of
sodium cyanide and then is quenched and rinsed, in water or oil, to remove any
residual cyanide.

Plastic: A plastic material is any of a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic organic solids
used in the manufacture of industrial products. The word plastic is derived from the Greek
word (plastikos) meaning capable of being shaped or molded, from (plastos) meaning
molded.

Two types of plastics:

 Thermoplastics are the plastics that do not undergo chemical change in their
composition when heated and can be moulded again and again; examples are
polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride, etc.

 Thermosets can melt and take shape once; after they have solidified, they stay solid.
The raw materials needed to make most plastics come from petroleum and natural
gas.
Eg: Epoxies, Phenolics, Polyester, etc

MACHINE DESIGN
Machine Design: It is defined as the use of scientific principles, technical information in the
description of a machine or a mechanical system to perform specific functions with
maximum economy and efficiency
Steps in the Engineering Design Process
Fits and Tolerances: When two parts are to be assembled, the relation resulting from the
difference between their sizes before assembly is called a fit. A fit may be defined as the
degree of tightness and looseness between two mating parts. Depend upon the actual limits of
the hole and or shaft; the fits can be divided into three general classes:

Clearance Fit: In clearance fit, an air space or clearance exists between the shaft and hole.

Clearance Fit Interference Fit Transition Fit

Interference Fit: In the interference fits, the diameter of the shaft is always larger than the
hole diameter. It has a negative allowance, i.e. interference exists between the high limit of
hole and low limit of the shaft.

Transition fits: Transition fits are a compromise between clearance and interference fits.
They are used for applications where accurate location is important but either a small amount
of clearance or interference is permissible.

Tolerance: The permissible variation in size or dimension is tolerance. Tolerance can also be
defined as the amount by which the job is allowed to go away from accuracy and perfectness
without causing any functional trouble, when assembled with its mating part and put into
actual service. There are two ways of writing tolerances (a) Unilateral tolerance (b) Bilateral
tolerance.

Clearance: The positive difference between the sizes of the hole and shaft before assembly.

Key: A key is a piece of steel inserted between the shaft and hub or boss of the pulley to
connect these together in order to prevent relative motion between them. It is always inserted
parallel to the axis of the shaft. The important types of keys are Shunk keys, Saddle keys,
Tangent keys, Round keys, and Splines.

Design of Keys: Based up on the shear and crushing stress, the keys can be designed.

Couplings: The couplings are the mechanical elements used to connect coaxial shafts
without any misalignment. Several types of couplings are used in practice are Sleeve
Coupling, split muff coupling, Flange Coupling

Bearings: Bearings support the moving object which may have a rotary or translatory
motion. Generally bearing is referred to as that machine part which supports a rotating shaft
or axle. Two basic types of bearing are used: (a) Sliding contact bearings, and (b) Rolling
contact bearings.

Gears: Gears are machine elements that transmit motion by means of successively engaging
teeth. The gear teeth act like small levers. Gears are highly efficient (nearly 95%) due to
primarily rolling contact between the teeth, thus the motion transmitted is considered as
positive. The common types of gears are spur, helical, bevel, spiral and rack and pinion.

Terminology for Spur Gears

 Addendum: The radial distance between the Pitch Circle and the top of the teeth.
 Backlash: The clearance between mating teeth.

Terminology of Spur gears

 Base Circle: The circle from which is generated the involute curve upon which the
tooth profile is based.

 Center Distance: The distance between centers of two mated gears.

  Dedendum: The radial distance between the bottom of the tooth to pitch circle.

 Face: The working surface of a gear tooth, located between the pitch diameter and the
top of the tooth.

 Face Width: The width of the tooth measured parallel to the gear axis.

 Flank: The working surface of a gear tooth, located between the pitch diameter and
the bottom of the teeth

 Land: The top surface of the tooth.

 Module: Ratio Pitch circle Diameter to number of tooth.

 Pitch Circle: The circle, the radius of which is equal to the distance from the center
of the gear to the pitch point.

 Pressure Angle: Angle between the Line of Action and a line perpendicular to the
Line of Centers.

 Working Depth: The depth to which a tooth extends into the space between teeth on
the mating gear.

Gears Trains: A gear train is two or more gear working together by meshing their teeth and
turning each other in a system to generate power and speed. It reduces speed and increases
torque. To create large gear ratio, gears are connected together to form gear trains. The Gear
Trains can be classified in to (i) Simple gear train (ii) Compound gear train (iii) Reverted
Gear train and (iv) Epicyclic gear train

Springs: Spring is a component which is used in machines to absorb shock and reduce
vibration. It is also used to provide a restoring force for closing a value. The common types
of springs used in practice are: (i) helical springs and (ii) leaf springs.

Welded Joints: Metals can be generally joined using the welding technique – although there
are some exceptions, but almost any metal material (aluminum, carbon steel, stainless steel,
tungsten) has a variation that is suitable for welding. Welding is a type of permanent joint
where the metals are melted (using high temperature) and with the aid of a filler
material.Welded joints are designed based on the tension, compression and shear stress
induced in the joints.
Bolted Joints: Bolted joints are one of the most common elements in construction and
machine design. They consist of fasteners that capture and join other parts, and are secured
with the mating of screw threads.

Riveted Joints: A riveted joint is a permanent joint which uses rivets to fasten two materials.
A rivet is a structure that has a hemispherical head on one side and a cylindrical shaft on the
other. Made from Aluminium alloys, steel, or CRES and other special metals like titanium,
nickel, etc. the riveted joints have a wide range of applications ranging from aircraft bodies to
high pressure boilers.

Riveted Joints

Flywheel: A flywheel is a rotating mechanical device that is used to store rotational energy.
Flywheels have a significant moment of inertia and thus resist changes in rotational speed.
The amount of energy stored in a flywheel is proportional to the square of its rotational
speed.

Belt drives: Belt drives are called flexible machine elements which used to transmit the
power for industrial applications. The belt drives are commonly classified as (i) Flat Belt
Drive and (ii) ‘V’ belt drive.
Brakes: Baking system is necessary in an automobile for stopping the vehicle. Brakes are
applied on the wheels to stop or to slow down the vehicle.

A fastener: A fastener is a device that holds two or more objects together. A fastener can be a
bolt and nut, a screw, a rivet, or even a staple. However, the majority of fasteners used in
industry are threaded fasteners.

Screw Threads Terminology:

Screw Thread: A screw thread is a raised helical ridge of constant section around the interior or
exterior of a cylindrically shaped object.
Screw: A headed threaded fastener that is designed to be used in conjunction with a pre formed
internal thread or alternatively forming its own thread.
Bolt: A bolt is the term used for a threaded fastener, with a head, designed to be used in
conjunction with a nut. Obviously a standard ‘bolt’ can be used in a tapped hole or with a nut.
Stud: A fastener which is threaded at both ends with an unthreaded shank in between. One end is
secured into a tapped hole, the other is used with a nut.

PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY

Casting: It is the process of producing metal parts by pouring molten metal into the mould
cavity of the required shape and allowing the metal to solidify. The solidified metal piece is
called as “casting”.

Types of Castings:
1. Conventional Molding Processes
a. Green Sand Molding
b. Dry Sand Molding
c. Flask less Molding
2. Chemical Sand Molding Processes
a. Shell Molding
b. Sodium Silicate Molding
c. No-Bake Molding
3. Permanent Mold Processes
a. Gravity Die casting
b. Low and High Pressure Die Casting
4. Special Casting Processes
a. Lost Wax

1
 b. Ceramics Shell Molding
c. Evaporative Pattern Casting
d. Vacuum Sealed Molding
e. Centrifugal Casting
Pattern: It is the replica of the final object to be made. The mold cavity is made with the help of
pattern

Types of patterns:
(a) Solid pattern
(b) Split pattern
(c) Match-plate pattern
(d) Cope and drag pattern
Core: A separate part of the mold, made of sand and generally baked, which is used to create
openings and various shaped cavities in the castings.
Runner: The channel through which the molten metal is carried from the sprue to the gate.
Gate: A channel through which the molten metal enters the mold cavity.
Riser: A column of molten metal placed in the mold to feed the castings as it shrinks and
solidifies. Also known as “feed head”.
Vent: Small opening in the mold to facilitate escape of air and gases.
Shrinkage or Contraction Allowance: All most all cast metals shrink or contract
volumetrically on cooling. The metal shrinkage is of two types: (i) Liquid Shrinkage and (ii)
Solid Shrinkage.
Liquid Shrinkage: It refers to the reduction in volume when the metal changes from liquid state
to solid state at the solidus temperature.
Solid Shrinkage: it refers to the reduction in volume caused when metal loses temperature in
solid state.
Draft or Taper Allowance: By draft is meant the taper provided by the pattern maker on all
vertical surfaces of the pattern so that it can be removed from the sand without tearing away the
sides of the sand mold and without excessive rapping by the molder.
Welding: Welding which is the process of joining two metallic components for the desired
purpose, can be defined as the process of joining two similar or dissimilar metallic components
with the application of heat, with or without the application of pressure and with or without the
use of filler metal.
Weldability: The term weldability may be defined as the property of the metal which indicates
the ease with which two similar of dissimilar metals are joined by fusion with or without the
application of pressure and with or without the use of filler material.
Classification of Welding Processes
(i). Arc welding
1. Carbon arc 3. Metal inert gas
2. Metal arc 4. Tungsten inert gas

2
5. Plasma arc 6. Submerged arc
7. Electro-slag
(ii). Gas Welding
1. Oxy-acetylene
2. Air-acetylene
3. Oxy-hydrogen
(iii). Resistance Welding
1. Butt 3. Seam 5. Percussion
2. Spot 4. Projection
(iv) Thermit Welding
(v) Solid State Welding
1. Friction 3. Diffusion
2. Ultrasonic 4. Explosive
(vi) Newer Welding
1. Electron-beam
2. Laser
(vii) Related Process
1. Oxy-acetylene cutting 4. Brazing
2. Arc cutting 5. Soldering
3. Hard facing

Brazing: Brazing is a metal-joining process whereby a filler metal is heated above melting point
and distributed between two or more close-fitting parts bycapillary action. The filler metal is
brought slightly above its melting (liquidus) temperature while protected by a suitable
atmosphere, usually a flux.
Soldering: Soldering is a process in which two or more metal items are joined together by
melting and flowing a filler metal (solder) into the joint, the filler metal having a lower melting
point than the adjoining metal. Soldering differs from welding in that soldering does not involve
melting the work pieces.
Welding Defects
 Cracking - This can occur due just to thermal shrinkage or due to a combination of strain
accompanying phase change and thermal shrinkage. To prevent these problems a process
of pre-heating in stages may be needed
 Porosity - This occurs when gases are trapped in the solidifying weld metal. These may
arise from damp consumables or metal or, from dirt, particularly oil or grease, on the
metal in the vicinity of the weld.
 Inclusions - These can occur when several runs are made along a V join when joining
thick plate using flux cored or flux coated rods and the slag covering a run is not totally
removed after every run before the following run.

3
  Undercutting - In this case the thickness of one (or both) of the sheets is reduced at the
toe of the weld. This is due to incorrect settings / procedure. There is already a stress
concentration at the toe of the weld and any undercut will reduce the strength of the join.
 Lamellar tearing - This is mainly a problem with low quality steels. It occurs in plate
that has a low ductility in the through thickness direction

Machining: Machining can be defined as the process of removing material from a workpiece in
the form of chips.
Categories of Machining: Drilling, Turning, Milling, Grinding, Boring, Chip Formation
Lathe: The lathe is a machine tool which holds the workpiece between two rigid and strong
supports called centers or in a chuck or face plate which revolves. The cutting tool is rigidly held
and supported in a tool post which is fed against the revolving work. The operations are
performed with the cutting tool fed either parallel or at right angles to the axis of the work.
Lathe Operations
1. Plain Turning 2. Drilling 9. Grooving
2. Step Turning 6. Reaming 10. Threading
3. Facing 7. Boring 11. Forming
4. Parting 8. Knurling
Computer Controlled Lathe: Highly
automated lathes, where cutting, loading,
tool changing, and part unloading are
automatically controlled by computer
coding.
Work holding Devices for Lathes
Many different devices, such as chucks,
collets, faceplates, drive plates, mandrels,
and lathe centers are used to hold and drive
the work while it is being machined on a
lathe.
Single point cutting tool geometry
Automatic Lathe: The lathe in which the
work piece is automatically fed and removed
without use of an operator. Cutting
operations are automatically controlled by a
sequencer of some form.
Turret Lathe: The lathes which have
multiple tools mounted on turret either
attached to the tailstock or the cross-slide,
which allows for quick changes in tooling
and cutting operations.

4

The single point cutting tool mainly
consist of tool shank & cutting part called
point. The point of cutting tool is bounded
by cutting face, end flank, side/ main flank,
& base. The chip slide along the face.
Terminology of single point cutting tool
1. Shank – It is main body of tool. The
shank used to grippesd in tool
holder.
2. Flank – The surface or surface
below the adjacent of the cutting
edge is called flank of the tool.
3. Face – It is top surface of the tool
along which the chips slides.
Shaper Operations:
1. Machining horizontal surface
2. Machining vertical surface
3. Machining angular surface
4. Slot cutting
4. Base – It is actually a bearing
surface of the tool when it is held in
tool holder or clamped directly in a
tool post.
5. Heel – It is the intersection of the
flank & base of the tool. It is curved
portion at the bottom of the tool.
6. Nose – It is the point where side
cutting edge & base cutting edge
intersect.
7. Cutting edge – It is the edge on face
of the tool which removes the
material from workpiece. The cutting
edges are side cutting edge (major
cutting edge) & end cutting edge (
minor cutting edge)
8. Tool angles-Tool angles have great
importance. The tool with proper
angle, reduce breaking of tool, cut
metal more efficiently, generate less
heat.
9. Noise radius –It provide long life &
good surface finish sharp point on
nose is highly stressed, & leaves
grooves in the path of cut.Longer
nose radius produce chatter.
Shaper: Shaper is a reciprocating type of
machine tool in which the ram moves the
cutting tool backwards and forwards in a
straight line.
5. Key ways cutting
6. Machining irregular surface
7. Machining splines and cutting gear
5
Planer:In a planer, the work which is supported on the table reciprocates past the stationary
cutting tool and the feed is imparted by the lateral movement of the tool. The tool is clamped in
the tool holder and work on the table.

Milling Machine: A milling machine is a machine tool that removes metal as the work is fed
against a rotating multipoint cutter. The milling cutter rotates at high speed and it removes metal
at a very fast rate with the help of multiple cutting edges.
Down Milling: In down milling, the cutting force is directed into the work table, which allows
thinner workparts to be machined. Better surface finish is obtained but the stress load on the
teeth is abrupt, which may damage the cutter.
Up Milling: In up milling, the cutting force tends to lift the workpiece. The work conditions for
the cutter are more favourable. Because the cutter does not start to cut when it makes contact
(cutting at zero cut is impossible), the surface has a natural waviness.

Milling Operations:
a. Face milling f. End milling k. Gear cutting
b. Side milling g. Profile milling l. Helical milling
c. Angular milling h. Saw milling m. Flute milling
d. Gang-milling i. T-slot milling
e. Form milling j. Keyway milling

Drilling Machine: In drilling machine the drill is rotated and fed along its axis of rotation in the
stationary workpiece. Drilling is an operation of making a circular hole by removing a volume of
metal from the job by cutting tool called drill. A drill is a rotary end-cutting tool with one or
more cutting lips and usually one or more flutes for the passage of chips and the admission of
cutting fluid.

Drilling Operations:

6
  Counterboring: Counterboring is the process of using a counterbore to enlarge the upper
end of a hole to a predetermined depth and machine a square shoulder at that depth.
 Countersinking: Countersinking is the tapering or beveling of the end of a hole.
 Spot facing: In case of spot facing process, we do finishing process on the boss faces for
washers, nuts, rings, thrust and so on.
 Reaming: Reaming is another type of process which is used to obtain high dimensional
accuracy of the already drilled hole.
 Tapping: Tapping is the variation in drilling operation in which we produce internal
threads.

Grinding Machine: Grinding Machines are also regarded as machine tools. A distinguishing
feature of grinding machines is the rotating abrasive tool. Grinding machine is employed to
obtain high accuracy along with very high class of surface finish on the workpiece.

Classification of Grinding Machine:

(a) Surface grinding machine
(b) Cylindrical grinding machine
(c) Internal grinding machine
(d) Tool and cutter grinding machine

NC Machines: Numerical Control automatically controlling a machine tool based on a set of pre-
programmed machining and movement instructions is known as numerical control, or NC.

CNC Machines: Computer Numerical Control is the control of a machine tool using numbers
and letters.

Taylor’s Tool Life Formula:

According to the original Taylor tool life formula, the cutting speed is the only parameter
that affects tool life.
VcTn fa db = C
where
d = the depth of cut (mm)
f = the feed (mm/rev)
n = 0.17
a = 0.77
b = 0.37

Cutting Speed: Cutting speed refers that the rate at which point on work circumference travels
past cutting tool. It’s unit is meters per minute (m/min). When the cutting speed is:

7
 Too high - cutting-tool breaks down rapidly
Too low - time lost, low production rates

Feed: It refers the distance cutting tool advances along length of work for every revolution of the
spindle.

Depth of Cut: Depth of cut refers the depth of chip taken by cutting tool and one-half total
amount removed from workpiece in one cut. Roughing cut should be deep as possible to within
0.75 to 1 mm and finishing cut should not be less than 0.125 mm

Nontraditional machining: Nontraditional machining employs processes that remove material

by various methods involving thermal, electrical, chemical and mechanical energy or even
combinations of these.

8
Forging: Forging is a process in which material is shaped by the application of localized
compressive forces exerted manually or with power hammers, presses or special forging
machines.
Rolling: Rolling is a forming operation where cylindrical rolls are used to reduce the cross
sectional area of a bar or plate with a corresponding increase in the length.
Extrusion: Extrusion is the process in which the workpiece material is forced to flow through a
die opening by applying compressive force to produce a desired cross‑sectional shape.
Wire Drawing: Wire drawing is a metalworking process used to reduce the cross-section of a wire
by pulling the wire through a single, or series of, drawing die(s). Although similar in process,
drawing is different from extrusion, because in drawing the wire is pulled, rather than pushed,
through the die.
Spinning:Metal Spinning is the process of forming three dimensional symmetrical parts from
flat circles of metal.
Powder Metallurgy: Powder metallurgy (PM) is a metal working process for forming precision
metal components from metal powders. The metal powder is first pressed into product shape at
room temperature. This is followed by heating (sintering) that causes the powder particles to fuse
together without melting.

METROLOGY

Metrology is the science of measurement. Metrology includes all theoretical and practical
aspects of measurement.

Measurement: Measurement is a process of experimentally obtaining information about the

magnitude of a quantity.

Measurand: Measurand is referred as a quantity intended to be measured.

Measurement scale: Measurement scale is an ordered set of values of quantities of a given kind,
continuous or discrete, used in arranging quantities of the same kind by magnitude.

Uncertainty: Uncertainty is a parameter that characterizes the dispersion of the quantity values
that are being attributed to a measurand, based on the information used.

Accuracy: Accuracy is the degree of exactness which the final product corresponds to the
measurement standard.

Accuracy: Precision refers to the ability of a measurement to be consistently reproduced.

Reliability: Reliability refers to the consistency of accurate results over consecutive
measurements over time.

Readability: This term indicates the closeness with which the scale of the instrument may be
read.

Calibration: Calibration is a comparison between measurements – one of known magnitude or

correctness made or set with one device and another measurement made in as similar a way as
possible with a second device.

Least count: Least count is the highest degree of accuracy of measurement that can be achieved.
Least count of vernier caliper is 0.02mm and of micrometer is 0.01mm.

Range: It represents the highest possible value that can be measured by an instrument or it is the
difference between the largest & the smallest results of measurement.

Repeatability: It is defined as the ability of a measuring system to reproduce output readings

when the same input is applied to it consecutively, under the same conditions, and in the same
direction.

Reproducibility: It is defined as the degree of closeness with which the same value of a variable
may be measured at different times.

Traceability: Traceability is a property of a measurement result relating the result to a stated

metrological reference through an unbroken chain of calibrations of a measuring system or
comparisons, each contributing to the stated measurement uncertainty.

Linearity: A measuring system is said to be linear if the output is linearly proportional to the
input. A linear system can be easily calibrated while calibration of a non linear system is tedious,
cumbersome & time consuming. Most of the systems require a linear behavior.

Threshold: If the instrument input is increased very gradually from zero, there will be some
minimum value of input below which no output change can be detected. This minimum value
defines the threshold of the instrument.

Hysterisis: An instrument is said to exhibit hysterisis when there is a difference in readings

depending on whether the value of the measured quantity is approached from higher value or
from a lower value.
Error: Error may be defined as the difference between the measured value and the true value.
No measurement can be made without errors at all times i.e. 100% accurate measurements
cannot be made at all times.

Measuring instrument: Measuring instrument is a device or combination of devices designed

for measurement of quantities.

Measuring Procedures: To take a measurement with a common rule, hold the rule with its edge
on the surface of the object being measured. This will eliminate parallax and other errors which
might result due to the thickness of the rule. Read the measurement at the graduation which
coincides with the distance to be measured, and state it as being so many inches and fractions of
an inch.

Transducer: Transducer is a device that provides at its output a quantity having a determined
relation to the quantity at its input. Eg.: Thermocouple, Current transformer, Strain gauge, pH
electrode, Bourdon tube, Bimetal strip.

Ruler and scales: They are used to measure lengths and other geometrical parameters. They can
be single steel plate or flexible tape type tool.

Callipers: They are normally of two types- inside and outside calliper. They are used to measure
internal and external size (for e.g. diameter) of an object. It requires external scale to compare
the measured value. Some callipers are provided with measuring scale. Other types are odd leg
and divider calliper.

Vernire calliper: It is a precision tool used to measure a small distance with high accuracy. It
has got two different jaws to measure outside and inside dimension of an object.It can be a scale,
dial or digital type vernire calliper.

Micrometer: It is a fine precision tool which is used to measure small distances and is more
accurate than the venire calliper. Another type is a large micrometer calliper which is used to
measure large outside diameter or distance.

Feeler gauge: Feelers gauges are a bunch of fine thickened steel strips with marked thickness
which are used to measure gap width or clearance between surface and bearings.

Telescopic feeler gauge: It is also known as tongue gauge and it consists of long feeler gauge
inside a cover with tongue or curved edge. The long feeler strips protrude out of the cover so that
it can be inserted in to remote places where feeler gauge access is not possible.
Poker gauge: This gauge is used to measure propeller stern shaft clearance, also known as
propeller wear down.

Thread gages: Thread gages (screw-pitch gages) are used to determine the pitch and number of
threads per inch of threaded fasteners.

Try square: The try square consists of two parts at right angles to each other; a thick wood or
iron stock and a thin, steel blade. This square is used for setting or checking lines or surfaces
which have to be at right angles to each other.

Bridge gauge: Bridge gauges are used to measure the amount of wear of Main engine bearing.
Normally the upper bearing keep is removed and clearance is measured with respect to journal.
Feeler gauge can be used to complete the process.

American Wire Gauge: American wire gauge or AWG is a standard tool which is circular in
shape and has various slots of different diameter in its circumference. It is used to measure cross
section of an electric cable or wire.

Bore Gauge: A tool to accurately measure size of any hole is known as bore gauge, It can be a
scale, dial or digital type instrument.

Depth gauge: A depth gauge is used to measure the depth of a slot, hole or any other surface of
an object. It can be of scale, dial or digital type.

Height gauge: A height gauge is a measuring device used either for determining the height of
something, or for repetitious marking of items to be worked on.

Angle plate or tool: It is a right angle plate or tool used to measure the true right angle of two
objects joined together.

Flat plate: Flat plate is a précised flat surface used to measure flatness of an object when it is
kept over the flat plate.

Dial Gauge: Dial gauge is utilised in different tools as stated above and can be separately used to
measure the trueness of the circular object, jumping of an object etc.

A surface gage: A surface gage is a measuring tool generally used to transfer measurements to
work by scribing a line, and to indicate the accuracy or parallelism of surfaces.
Lead Wire: It is a conventional method to used soft lead wire or lead balls to measure the wear
down or clearance between two mating surfaces. The lead wire or balls of fixed dimension is
kept between two surfaces and both are tightened against each just as in normal condition. The
increase in the width of the lead wire or ball will shoe the clearance or wear down.

Slip Gauges: Slip gauges (also known as Gage blocks, Johansson gauges) are precision ground
and lapped measuring standards. They are used as references for the setting of measuring
equipment such as micrometers, gap gauges, sine bars, dial indicators (when used in an
inspection role).

Interferometers: They are optical instruments used for measuring flatness and determining the
length of the slip gauges by direct reference to the wavelength of light.

Autocollimators: This is an optical instrument used for the measurement of small angular
differences. For small angular measurements, autocollimator provides a very sensitive and
accurate approach.

Tool Makers Microscope: The toolmaker's microscope is an optical measuring machine

equipped for external and internal length measurements as well as measurements on screw
threads, profiles, curvatures and angles.

Two Wire Method: The effective diameter of a screw thread may be ascertained by placing two
wires or rods of identical diameter between the flanks of the thread,

Three Wire Method: This method of measuring the effective diameter is an accurate method. In
this three wires or rods of known diameter are used; one on one side and two on the other side.

Gear Tooth Caliper: In gear tooth vernier method the thickness is measured at the pitch line.
Gear tooth thickness varies from the tip of the base circle of the tooth, and the instrument is
capable of measuring the thickness at a specified position on the tooth.

Best size wire Method: This wire is of such diameter that it makes contact with the flanks of the
thread on the effective diameter or pitch line. The effective diameter can be measured with any
diameter wire which makes contact on the true flank of the thread, but the values so obtained will
differ from those obtained with ‘best size’ wires if there is any error in angle or form of thread.

Profilometers: A Profilometer is a measuring device used to measure relative surface roughness,

peak to valley, in order to quantify its roughness. They may operate in either contact or non-
contact modes and may use optical or stylus techniques to make the actual measurements.
Surface plate: A surface plate provides a true, smooth, plane surface. It is a flat-topped steel or
cast iron plate that is heavily ribbed and reinforced on the underside. It is often used in
conjunction with a surface gage as a level base on which the gage and part to be measured are
placed to obtain accurate measurements.

List of Measuring Devices:

Device Quantity measured

Accelerometer Accelerations
Altimeter Altitude
Ammeter Electric Current
Anemometer Windspeed
Barometer Air Pressure
Bolometer Electromagnetic Radiation
Bowlometer Speed of Cricket Ball
Breathalyzer Breath Alcohol Content
Caliper Distance
Calorimeter Heat of Chemical Reactions
Cathetometer Vertical Distances
Densimeter Specific Gravity of Liquids
Elaeometer Specific Gravity of Oils
Electrometer Electric Charge
Evaporimeter Rate of Evaporation
Fathometer Ocean Depth
Galvanometer Electricity
Graphometer Angles
Hydrometer Specific Gravity of Liquids (Density of Liquids)
Hygrometer Humidity
Interferometer Wave Interference
Lactometer Specific Gravity of Milk
Light Meter Light (In Photography)
Load Cell Measurement of Force
Magnetometer Strength of Magnetic Fields
Manometer Pressure
Micrometer Small Distances
Ohmmeter Electrical Resistance
Ph Meter Ph (Chemical Acidity/Basicity of a Solution)
Potentiometer Voltage
Psychrometer Humidity
Pycnometer Fluid Density
Pyranometer Solar Radiation
Pyrometer High Temperatures
Rheometer Response to Applied Forces
Seismometer Seismic Waves (for Example, Earthquakes)
Speedometer Speed, Velocity
Tachometer Revolutions Per Minute,
Tensiometer Surface Tension of a Liquid
Thermometer Temperature
Viscometer Viscosity of a Fluid
Voltmeter Electric Potential, Voltage
Wattmeter Electrical Power