LOADING & ANALYSIS

Influence Lines

A bending moment influence line for any given point X on a structure is a line whose ordinate at

any point B qives the bending moment at X when a load is placed at B (keep reading it and look at

the example below - it will make sense eventually!). Influence lines can be obtained for bending

moments, shear forces and reactions.

A bending moment influence line is drawn for one point only which may not necessarily be the

point of maximum bending. A bending moment diagram, by comparison with a influence line, will

give the bending moment at all points for one position of load.

Example - Simply Supported Single Span

 Influence Line Tutorial for HA UDL and HB Loading
Bending Effects

Example: Three span deck with continuity over pier supports.

Step1: Determine the position of the point of maximum bending moment in each element for a

single point load.

Point A − maximum sagging moment in span 1

Point B − maximum hogging moment over pier 1

Point C − maximum sagging moment in span 2

Note: as end spans are equal then critical points over pier 2 and in span 3 can be obtained from

point A and B by symmetry.

Step 2: Determine influence line diagram for point A:

Step 3: Determine influence line diagram for point B:

Step 4: Determine influence line diagram for point C:

Step 5: Determine loading for critical cases:

Point A

The maximum sagging moment is achieved by loading spans 1 and 3, however we also need to

check HA UDL for loading in span 1 only.

HA Span 1 only: loaded length = 10m hence udl = 71.8 kN/m (BD37-table 13)

HA Span 1 and 3: loaded length = 20m hence udl = 45.1 kN/m (BD37-table 13)

KEL: = 120 kN (BD37- Clause 6.2.2)

HB loading will produce worst sagging moment with an axle at the maximum ordinate (2.15). Any

one of the 4 axles can be located at this position; the vehicle is however positioned with the other

3 axles to achieve the maximum total ordinates:

Note: The HB vehicle has a range of spacings between the centre axles, in this case the 26m

spacing gives the worst effect.

Point B

The maximum hogging moment is achieved by loading spans 1 and 2, however we also need to

check HA UDL for loading in span 2 only.

HA Span 2 only: loaded length = 20m hence udl = 45.1 kN/m (BD37-table 13)

HA Span 1 and 2: loaded length = 30m hence udl = 34.4 kN/m (BD37-table 13)
KEL: = 120 kN (BD37- Clause 6.2.2)

Usually HB loading will produce the worst hogging moment with an axle at the maximum ordinate

(2.051). Any one of the 4 axles can be located at this position; the vehicle is however positioned

with the other 3 axles to achieve the maximum total ordinates.

In the case below the sum of the ordinates is 0.677 + 0.71 + 2.051 + 1.966 = 5.404

Other cofigurations of HB loading need be checked, and in this case the 6m vehicle will produce a

greater value with the vehicle in the position shown below. The sum of the ordinates for this

configuration = 1.604 + 1.943 + 1.651 + 1.305 = 6.503

Point C

The maximum sagging moment is achieved by loading span 2 only.

HA Span 2 only: loaded length = 20m hence udl = 45.1 kN/m (BD37-table 13)

KEL: = 120 kN (BD37- Clause 6.2.2)

HB loading will produce worst sagging moment with an axle at the maximum ordinate (3.125).

Any one of the 4 axles can be located at this position; the vehicle is however positioned with the

other 3 axles to achieve the maximum total ordinates:

Note: The HB vehicle has a range of spacings between the centre axles, in this case the 6m

spacing gives the worst effect.

Step 6: Determine load effects on deck.

The following assumptions will be made to demonstrate principles of influence lines:

• Assume loads applied to 1 notional lane width of deck (3.65m wide).

• Assume ultimate limit state hence use load factor γfL of 1.5 for HA loading and 1.3 for HB

loading.

• Assume 30 units of HB.

Span 1

Maximum sagging moment due to HB loading:

M = 1.3 x 30 x 10 x (2.172 + 1.345 + 0.088 + 0.108) = 1448 kNm

Maximum sagging moment due to HA loading at point A:

Case 1 − Span1 loaded

M = 1.5 x (71.8 x 10.285 + 120 x 2.172) = 1499 kNm (HA critical)

Case 2 − Span1 and 3 loaded

M = 1.5 x [45.1 x (10.285 + 0.695) + 120 x 2.172] = 1134 kNm

Pier 1

Maximum hogging moment due to HA loading at point B:

Case 1 − Span 2 loaded

M = 1.5 x (45.1 x 24.776 +120 x 2.051) = 2045 kNm

Case 2 − Span1 and 2 loaded

M = 1.5 x [34.4 x (24.776 + 4.641) + 120 x 2.051] = 1887 kNm

Maximum hogging moment due to HB loading:

M = 1.3 x 30 x 10 x (1.604 + 1.943 + 1.651 + 1.305) = 2536 kNm (HB critical)

Span 2

Maximum sagging moment due to HA loading at point C:

Case 1 − Span 2 loaded

M = 1.5 x (45.1 x 25.25 + 120 x 3.125) = 2271 kNm

Maximum sagging moment due to HB loading:

M = 1.3 x 30 x 10 x (3.125 + 2.286 + 0.8 + 0.366) = 2565 kNm (HB critical)

Note: HB loading is shown to be critical for two of the cases, however if the loads are distributed

using a computer analysis, such as a grillage analysis, then the HB moments will be reduced

considerably.
 HA and HB Type Loading

History

The first standard vehicle load for highway bridges in the UK was introduced in 1922. British

Standards introduced a traffic live load requirement in BS 153 Part 3 in 1923, which was later

revised in 1925 and 1937. The Type HA uniformly distibuted loading was introduced in 1945 and

the concept of a Type HA and HB load was included in the 1954 edition of BS 153: Part 3A. In

1961 the HB load was specified in terms of units and varied depending on the class of road, with

45 units required for Motorways and Trunk Roads and 37.5 units for class i and class ii roads. A

requirement for all public roads to be designed for at least 30 units of HB was introduced in 1973.

HA Loading

BD 37/01 Appendix A of the Design Manual for Roads and Bridges says that Type HA loading is the

normal design loading for Great Britain and adequately covers the effects of all permitted normal

vehicles other than those used for abnormal indivisible loads. Normal vehicles are governed by the

Road Vehicles (Authorised Weight) Regulations 1998, referred to as the AW Vehicles and cover

vehicles up to 44 tonne gross vehicle weight. Loads from these AW vehicles are represented by a

uniformly distributed load and a knife edge load. The loading has been enhanced to cover:

i) impact load (caused when wheels 'bounce' i.e. when striking potholes or uneven expansion

joints).

ii) Overloading

iii) Lateral bunching (more than one vehicle occupying the width of a lane).

The magnitude of the uniformly distributed load is dependent on the loaded length as determined

from the influence line for the member under consideration. For simply supported decks this

usually relates to the span of the deck.

HB Loading

BD 37/01 Appendix A of the Design Manual for Roads and Bridges says that Type HB loading

requirements derive from the nature of exceptional industrial loads (e.g. electrical transformers,

generators, pressure vessels, machine presses, etc.) likely to use the roads in the area.

The vehicle load is represented by a four axled vehicle with four wheels equally spaced on each

axle. The load on each axle is defined by a number of units which is dependant on the class of

road and is specified in BD 37/01 Chapter 4 as follows:

Motorways and trunk roads require 45 units, Principal roads require 37.5 units and other public
roads require 30 units. One unit of HB is equal to 10kN per axle. There are five HB vehicles to

check although most vehicles can be discounted by inspection.

Design

The design procedure is to analyse the bridge for HA and HB load effects applying the appropriate

load factors. The member is then deisgned for the worst effects of HA or HB loading.
 BS5400:Pt2 Loading Idealisation for Grillage Analysis
of Bridge Decks

Index

1.HA UDL+KEL

2.HB Vehicles

3.Pedestrian Load

4.Accidental Wheel Load

5.Parapet Collision Load

Using a prestressed Y4 beam with reinforced concrete deck slab as the deck example as shown in

Fig.1; the deck having a 10° skew, a span of 20m and carrying a 7.3m carriageway with two 2m

footpaths.

BS 5400 Pt.2:2006 Cl.3.2.9.3.1

7.3m carriageway has 2 notional lanes hence lane width = 3.65m.

Cl.6.3 The deck shall carry 45 units of HB

Cl.6.7 Assume bridge requires high containment parapets hence collision loading needs to be

considered.

1.HA UDL + KEL

HA UDL can be applied to each longitudinal member as a uniformly distributed load, the intensity

of the load is proportional to the width of the lane directly above the longitudinal member, for

example:
HA UDL for a 20m span = 45.1kN/m of notional lane.

Notional lane width = 3.65m

HA UDL/m width = 45.1 / 3.65 = 12.36kN/m

HA UDL on member 2 = 0.15 x 12.36 = 1.85kN/m

HA UDL on members 3,4 & 5 = 1.0 x 12.36 = 12.36kN/m

HA UDL on member 6 = 0.5 x 12.36 = 6.18kN/m

UDL applied to each longitudinal grillage member to represent HA UDL in lane 1.

Alternatively, if the program has the facility of applying patch loads then a patch width equal to

the lane width and length equal to the loaded length may be applied. The patch load is usually

positioned by the centroid of the patch area in relation to the grid co-ordinates.

HA KEL can also be applied as a uniformly distributed load to the transverse members. As loads

are initially proportioned to the adjacent members and joints then the worst effects will always be

achieved by positioning the KEL directly above a transverse member. If the deck is skewed then

the postion of the KEL to give the worst effect will be different to a square deck and two or three

positions may need to be checked to find the critical case.

It is therefore useful to separate the HA UDL and HA KEL into different load cases to avoid

repeating the calculation for the effects of the UDL. The UDL and the various positions of the KEL

can be added together in different combination cases.

Similar load cases are produced for the HA UDL and KEL in the second lane. Full HA live load will

have the HA UDL and KEL in both lanes whilst HB live load has the HB vehicle in one lane and the

HA UDL and KEL in the second lane. All these variations in load cases can be developed in the

combination cases.

2. HB VEHICLES

The HB vehicle consists of four axles with four wheels on each axle and is applied to the grillage as

a series of point loads. Clause 6.3.2 and 6.3.3 allow the wheel loads to be applied as patch loads

however there is little to be gained in a global analysis by applying this refinement and point loads

will be a suitable representation for the wheel loads.

There are five variations of the inner axle spacing for the HB vehicle that can be applied to the

deck. A line beam analysis incorporating moving point loads will indicate the positions of the

critical HB vehicle to achieve the design moments and shears. An Excel spread sheet using

moment distribution to carry out a line beam analysis of standard moving vehicles can be

downloaded by clicking here.

The result of the line beam analysis shows that the maximum sagging moment occurs at 8.5m

from the end of the deck with the leading axle at 16.3m from the end.
All critical load cases are produced from the vehicle with the 6m inner axle spacing.

As the loading is symmetrical and both ends of the single span deck are simply supported then the

position of maximum moment can be measured from either end of the deck.

The transverse position of the HB vehicle will depend on which member is being considered,

however it is usual to design all internal beams for the critical loading condition for vehicles on the

carriageway. The edge beams will require special consideration to support the additional loading

from the cantilever.

The diagram shows one of the inner wheels on the critical axle positioned over the nearest

transverse member at 8.5m from the support.

This would produce the critical loading condition for the bending moment on the internal beam for

an orthogonal deck, however other positions need to be considered to take account of the skew

effects.

As a check on the data, the total of the reactions should equal the total load of the vehicle = 4 x

450 = 1800kN. Also the line beam analysis gives a total moment of 5692.5kNm; so as there are

four longitudinal members supporting the vehicle, then the moment from the grillage should be in

the order of (but less than) 5692.5 / 4 ≈ 1400kNm in the longitudinal member.

3. Pedestrian Load

Clause 6.5.1 states that the pedestrian live load shall be taken as 5.0 kN/m2, but reduced to 0.8 x

5.0 = 4.0kN/m2 for members supporting both footway and carriageway loading. Consequently the

edge beam should be designed for 5.0kN/m2 and the next-to-edge beam designed for 4.0kN/m2.

The UDL's can be applied to these two members in a similar manner to the HA UDL described in

Section 1. above, however, as there is no barrier between the carriageway and footway, Clause

6.6 requires that the footway members are designed for Accidental Wheel Load which is generally

more onerous than the pedestrian live load.

4. Accidental Wheel Load

Accidental Wheel Loading consists of a 200kN axle and a 150kN axle with two wheels on each axle

and is applied to the grillage as four point loads. Clause 6.6.2 and 6.6.3 allow the wheel loads to

be applied as patch loads however there is little to be gained in a global analysis by applying this

refinement and point loads will be a suitable representation for the wheel loads.

Similarly as with the HB vehicle a line beam analysis incorporating moving point loads will indicate

the critical positions of the vehicle to achieve the design moments and shears. An Excel spread

sheet using moment distribution to carry out a line beam analysis of standard moving vehicles can

be downloaded by clicking here. The Abnormal Load facility is used in the line beam proforma to

input the accidental wheel vehicle.

The result of the line beam analysis shows that the maximum sagging moment occurs at 10.26m

from the end of the deck under the leading axle.

The vehicle will be positioned over the parapet beam as shown to obtain the critical loading

condition for bending in this member. This may also be the critical position for the design moment

in the main edge beam, however the 100kN wheel should be positioned at joint B to confirm the

critical case.

Other positions on adjacent transverse members need to be considered to take account of the

skew effects.

As a check on the data, the total of the reactions should equal the total load of the vehicle = 200

+ 150 = 350kN. Also the line beam analysis gives a total moment of 1657.5kNm; so as there are
two longitudinal members supporting the vehicle, then the moment from the grillage should be in

the order of (but less than) 1657.5 / 2 ≈ 800kNm in the longitudinal member.

5.Parapet Collision Load

Loads due to collision with parapets need only be considered in a grillage analysis if high level

containment parapets (H4a) are required. Collision loads on other types of parapet need only be

considered for local effects (how the load is transferred to the main members).

Clause 6.7.2.1 describes the three loads that are to be applied to the top of the parapet over a

3.0m length.

The point loads need to be transferred down to the datum level of the grillage, which is at the

centroid of the deck slab, and distributed over a 3.0m length.

The high containment parapet is 1.5m high above the back of footpath level. The centroid of the

deck slab is about 0.3m below the back of footpath level, consequently the two horizontal loads

will induce moments on the grillage with a lever arm of 1.8m.

The 500kN horizontal load will produce a moment of 900kNm at the centre-line of the deck. This

moment is distributed along a 3.0m length giving 300kNm/m moment to be applied to the grillage.

The horizontal load of 167kN/m will be taken into the deck which, as it is very stiff axially

compared to bending, will distribute evenly between all longitudinal members and therefore have

negligible effect in the grillage. The load is however considered in determining local effects in

accordance with Clause 6.7.1.

The 175kN vertical load can be idealised as a uniformly distributed load 58kN/m along a 3.0m

length of the parapet beam.

The 100kN horizontal load acts in the plane of the parapet and there is an argument that the load

will be resisted by the framing effect of the parapet rails with the posts and will therefore be

transferred to the deck as a series of horizontal and vertical loads at the base of the posts.

As the loads are to be applied over a 3.0m length then the moment of 100kN x (1.5 + 0.3) =

180kNm can be represented by a vertical couple of 60kN x 3.0m.

The horizontal load of 100kN will be taken into the deck which, as it is very stiff axially compared

to bending, will distribute evenly between all longitudinal members and therefore have negligible

effect in the grillage. The load is however considered in determining local effects in accordance

with Clause 6.7.1.

The three loads can be combined in one load case.

The 3.0m length can be positioned anywhere along the parapet beam and positions are generally

chosen to coincide with the critical positions for the accidental wheel load.
 HA & HB Loading Example

BS 5400 Part 2 : 2006

Clause 6.2 Type HA Loading

Problem:
How do you work out the HA loading and bending moment for a bridge deck?

Example:

Carriageway = 6m wide
Deck span = 34m (centre to centre of bearings for a simply supported single span)

Design for a metre width of deck :

Cl 3.2.9.3.1.
Number of notional lanes = 2
Notional lane width = 6.0/2 = 3.0m
Cl 6.2.1.
Loaded length = 34m
W = 336(1/L)0.67 kN/m (per notional lane)
W = 31.6 kN/m (per notional lane)
Cl 6.2.2.
Knife Edge Load = 120 kN (per notional lane)
Cl 6.4.1.1. Table 14.
α2 = 0.0137[bL(40-L)+3.65(L-20)]
α2 = 0.0137[3.0(40-34.0)+3.65(34.0-20)] = 0.947
Note: For loaded lengths less than 20m the load is proportioned to a standard lane
width of 3.65m, i.e. 0.274bL = bL/3.65.
For a metre width of deck:
W = (31.6 x 0.947)/3.0 = 10.0 kN/m
KEL = (120 x 0.947)/3.0 = 37.88 kN

Maximum mid span Bending Moment with KEL at mid span:

M = (10.0 x 342)/8 + (37.88 x 34)/4 = 1767 kNm
Cl 6.2.7.
γfL = 1.20 (Serviceability limit state - combination 1)
γfL = 1.50 (Ultimate limit state - combination 1)

Design HA moment for a metre width of deck :

Msls = 1767 x 1.2 = 2120 kNm
Mult = 1767 x 1.5 = 2650 kNm

Note: Use of γf3

BS 5400 Pt.3 & Pt.5 - γf3 is used with the design strength so Mult = 2650 kNm.
BS 5400 Pt.4 - γf3 is used with the load effect so Mult = 1.1 x 2650 = 2915 kNm.

Clause 6.3 Type HB Loading

Assume the road over the bridge is not a Principal Road then we need to check for 30
units type HB loading (see BD 37/01 Chapter 4).

Cl 6.3.1
Nominal load per axle = 30units x 10kN = 300kN

The maximum bending moment will be achieved by using the shortest HB vehicle i.e.
with 6m spacing (see BS 5400-2:2006 Fig 12).
The maximum moment for a simply supported span occurs under the inner axle when the
vehicle is positioned such that the mid span bisects the distance between the centroid
of the load and the nearest axle.
With a 34m span and the 6m HB vehicle with equal axle loads, the inner axle is placed
at 1.5m from the mid span.

RL = 300(10.7+12.5+18.5+20.3)/34 = 547 kN
RR = 4x300-547 = 653kN
Moment at X = 547x15.5 - 300x1.8 = 7939kNm
Cl 6.4.2
The HB vehicle occupies one lane with HA load in the adjacent lane. Assume for the
example that the HB load is carried by a standard lane width of 3.65m.

Hence the moment per metre width of deck = 7939/3.65 = 2175kNm

Cl 6.3.4.
γfL = 1.10 (Serviceability limit state - combination 1)
γfL = 1.30 (Ultimate limit state - combination 1)
Design HB moment for a metre width of deck :
Msls = 1.1 x 2175 = 2393 kN/m (compared to 2120 for HA load)
Mult = 1.3 x 2175 = 2828 kN/m (compared to 2650 for HA load)
Hence in this case HB load effects would govern although a grillage or finite element
type distribution would reduce the HB moment considerably.
 Reinforced Concrete to BS 5400 Part 4

Index

1.Introduction

2.Serviceability Limit State

3.Ultimate Limit State

4.Shear

1. Introduction

Both the Serviceability and Ultimate Limit States need to be considered.

Serviceability Limit State ensures that crack widths do not exceed values specified for different

environmental conditions, and also ensures that concrete and reinforcement stresses are

maintained below a safe limit.

Ultimate Limit State ensures that the structure will not collapse.

2. Serviceability Limit State

i) Crack Control

Cracks in concrete can be caused by:

• corrosion of the reinforcement which causes the concrete to spall

• thermal movements, particularly cooling from heat of hydration (called early thermal

cracking)

• structural actions such as bending, shear or torsion

Corrosion of reinforcement is controlled by use of suitable concrete grades and providing adequate

cover to the reinforcement.

Cracks due to thermal movements are controlled by providing minimum nominal steel area and

restricting the maximum bar spacing. BD28/87 is used to calculate the minimum steel area and

bar spacing to control early thermal cracking.

The width of shear cracks is controlled by ultimate strength calculations.

Only the crack widths caused by bending and tension need to be calculated and clause 5.8.8.2 is

used.
For calculating the crack width only combination 1 loading is used and a maximum of 30 units of

HB is applied. Cracks caused by higher loadings will not exist for long enough to affect corrosion.

The maximum design stress limits will ensure that the cracks close up when the loads are

removed.

A cracked elastic section analysis is used to determine the strain εm at the level where cracking is

being considered.

Using a rectangular section as an example:

We first need to determine the position of the neutral axis. Let:

αe = Es / Ec

Es = 200kN/mm2 (clause 4.3.2.2)

The short term value of Ec is obtained from Table 3 which is appropriate to the live load portion of

the moment (Mq). The permanent load portion of the moment (Mg) has an Ec value equal to half

the short term value. The modified value of Ec used for the crack width calculation is an

intermediate value between the short and long term values (clause 4.3.2.1(b)).

Modified Ec = Ec(short-term){1-0.5[Mg/(Mg+Mq)]}

ρ = As / btd and ρ' = A's / btd

Then dc/d = √{[αeρ + (αe - 1)ρ']2 + 2[αeρ + (αe - 1)ρ'd'/d]} - [αeρ + (αe - 1)ρ']

Second Moment of Area of Cracked Section Ic = btdc3/3 + (αe-1)As'(dc-d')2 + αeAs(d-dc)2

Strain at level of tension reinforcement εs = αe(Mg+Mq)(d-dc) / (IcEs)

Depth to notional surface where nominal cover cnom is provided = a'

Strain at notional surface ε1 = εs(a'-dc) / (d-dc)

There is a correction formula (equation 25 in clause 5.8.8.2) which allows for the stiffening effect

of concrete in the tension zone. Due to fatigue the stiffening effect does not work under fluctuating

load. This is allowed for in equation 25 by providing no advantage if more than half the moment is

due to live load.

The corrected strain at notional surface εm is thus obtained using the value of ε1 in equation 25.

acr = √{(cnom+Φ/2)2 + (s/2)2} - Φ/2

The Design Crack Width can now be calculated using equation 24 in clause 5.8.8.2.

ii) Stress Limits

The methods given in the code for checking crack widths assumes a linear elastic behaviour. It is

therefore necessary to check the stress limits to ensure this assumption is correct. in particular

that the strains caused by transient loads will not become permanent.

The stresses are calculated using a cracked elastic section analysis similar to that used to

determine the crack width described above. All load combinations need to be checked to ensure

that the stress limits are not exceeded.

The stress limits are given in Table 2 of the code which are:

0.75fy for reinforcement in tension or compression. This is critical for most members in bending.

0.5fcu for concrete in compression with triangular stress distribution. This is critical for members in

bending with significant axial load or with heavy reinforcement.

0.38fcu for concrete in compression with uniform stress. This is critical for members in axial

compression.

3. Ultimate Limit State

To determine the moment of resistance of a member at failure by limit state analysis the following

assumptions are made:

a. The distribution of strain across any section is linear. This means that plane sections

before bending remain plane after bending, and the strain at any point is proportional to

its distance from the neutral axis.

b. The resistance of concrete in tension is ignored.

c. The relationship between the stress and strain in the reinforcement is as shown in Figure 2

of the code with γm = 1.15.

d. The relationship between the stress and strain in the concrete is as shown in Figure 1 of

the code with γm = 1.5. The strain in the concrete at the outermost fibre is taken as

0.0035. Alternatively the distribution of stress in the concrete at failure may be

represented by a uniform stress of 0.4fcu acting over the whole of the compression zone.
The deisgn formulae given in clause 5.3.2.3 of the code are based on a uniform compressive stress

of 0.4fcu for concrete and stresses of 0.87fy in tension and 0.72fy in compression for steel. The

steel stresses are the maximum values provided by the stress-strain curves, where 0.72fy is a

simplification of the expression for steel in compresssion.

The design formulae are also based on a maximum depth of concrete in compression of 0.5d; this

ensures a strain ≥ 0.0035 in the tension reinforcement. For values of x > 0.5d the use of the

design stress of 0.87fy in tension is invalid, the design becomes inefficient and the failure less

ductile.

For the singly reinforced rectangular section:

Taking moments about the centre of compression for the tensile force

Mu = (0.87fy)Asz

Taking moments about the centre of tension for the compressive force

M = (0.4fcu)bxz = (0.4fcu)bx(d - 0.5x)

The maximum moment of resistance is obtained when x = 0.5d so substituting for x we get:

Mu = 0.15fcubd2

The depth to the neutral axis depends upon the reinforcement provided and is obtained by

equating the forces:

(0.87fy)As = (0.4fcu)bx

Rearranging and dividing both sides by d we get:

(x/d) = (2.2fyAs) / (fcubd)

Lever arm z = (d - 0.5x) so substuting for x we get:

z = (1 - [1.1fyAs] / [fcubd])d

The value of z is not to be taken greater than 0.95d.

For the doubly reinforced rectangular section:

Taking moments about the centre of tension for the compressive forces

Mu = 0.15fcubd2 + (0.72fy)A's(d - d')

Equating the tensile and compressive forces

(0.87fy)As = 0.2fcubd + (0.72fy)A's

These two equations are based on a value of d'/d ≤ 0.2, which ensures a strain ≥ 0.0035 x 0.6 =

0.0021 in the compression reinforcement. For values of d'/d > 0.2 the use of a design stress of

0.72fy in compression becomes invalid.

4. Shear

The design rules for shear in beams are based on the results of tests carried out on beams with

and without shear reinforcement.

The results from the beams tested without shear reinforcement showed that for a constant

concrete strength and longitudinal steel percentage, the relationship between the ratio of the

bending moment at collapse (Mc) to the calculated ultimate flexural moment (Mu) and the ratio of

shear span (av) to effective depth (d) is as shown below:

The diagram has four distinct regions, each of which has a different mode of failure.
Region (i) fails by crushing of a compression strut running from the load to the support.

Region (ii) fails by diagonal tension causing splitting along the line from the load to the support.

Region (iii) fails when a flexural crack develops into a shear crack.

Region (iv) fails in flexure.

The flexural failure in region (iv) is prevented by designing the beam for Mu in accordance with

Clause 5.3.2.3. The test results show that this is unsafe for regions (ii) and (iii) and Mc needs to be

controlled by considering the shear force.

Let the shear force at failure = Vc and the nominal shear stress vc = Vc / bd then:

Mc = Vcav = vcbdav

The test results relationship with av/d can be reproduced by dividing both sides of the above

equation by bd2 which gives:

Mc/bd2 = vc av/d

The dashed line is Mu/bd2 which assumes flexural failure. The chain dotted line is constructed to

cut off the unsafe side of the graph; the slope of this line is vcand is the allowable shear stress.

Values of vc are given in Table 8 of the code; these values will ensure that the moment to cause

collapse will fall below the test values. It can be seen from Table 8 that the steel area As has a

more significant effect on the value of vc than does the concrete strength.

When the shear stress v is greater than ξsvc, as given in Table 7 of the code, then links need to be

designed. These are designed on the basis that the beam and links act as a pin-jointed truss.
The links are designed to carry the shear in excess of that which can be carried by the concrete.

The horizontal tie force in the truss analogy has to be provided by the tension reinforcement, this

is in addition to that required to resist any bending effects and is determined from Asa ≥

V/{2(0.87fy)} in clause 5.3.3.2.

The beam may fail by crushing of the compression struts regardless of the amount of shear

reinforcement. The maximum allowable shear stress is therefore limited to a value of

0.92√(fcu/1.5) as given in clause 5.3.3.1

 Reinforced Concrete Deck Example to British
Standards

Reinforced Concrete Deck Design to BS 5400 Part 4

Problem:
Design a simply supported reinforced concrete deck slab using a unit strip method.
The deck carries a 100mm depth of surfacing, together with a nominal HA live load udl
of 17.5 kN/m2 and knife edge load of 33kN/m .
The deck should also be designed to carry 30 units of HB load. The span of the deck is
12.0m centre to centre of bearings.

γconc. = 25kN/m3
30 units of HB also to be considered.
Use C32/40 concrete to BS 8500.
Use Grade B500B reinforcement to BS 4449.
BS 8500-1 cl. A.2.1 Table A.1
Exposure Class XD1 used for bridge deck soffits.

cl. A.3

Fixing tolerence for reinforcement Δc = 15mm for insitu concrete.

Table A.5
Nominal cover for C32/40 concrete = 45 + Δc = 60mm with
maximum water-cement ratio = 0.55 and minimum cement content of 320 kg/m3

Loading per metre width of deck (unit strip)

(Note: The loading has been simplified to demonstrate the method of designing the
slab (See BS 5400 Pt2, or BD 37/01 for full design loading).

Nominal Dead Loads :

deck slab = 25 × 0.65 × 1.0 = 16.3 kN/m
surfacing = 24 × 0.1 × 1.0 = 2.4 kN/m
Nominal Live Load :
HA = 17.5 × 1.0 + 33.0 = 17.5 kN/m(udl) + 33kN(kel)
30 units HB = 30 × 10 / 4 per wheel = 75 kN per wheel
Key: # It is usually assumed that there is local plasticity at the critical sections at
Ultimate Limit State and the self-equilibrating stresses due to nonlinear temperature
distribution can be ignored in combination loadings. (Ref:"Concrete bridge engineering:
performance and advances" by R.J.Cope).

Temperature Difference Effects

Apply temperature differences given in BS 5400 Pt2 Fig.9 (Group 4) to a 1m wide deck
section.
Cl. 5.4.6 - Coefficient of thermal expansion = 12 × 10-6 per °C.
From BS 5400 Pt4 Table 3 : Ec = 31 kN/mm2 for fcu = 40N/mm2
Hence restrained temperature stresses per °C = 31 × 103 × 12 × 10-6 = 0.372 N/mm2

Section Properties
Area = 1000 × 650 = 0.65 × 106 mm2
Second Moment of Area = 1000 × 6503 / 12 = 22.9 × 109 mm4

a) Positive temperature difference

Force F to restrain temperature strain:
0.372 × 103 × [ 150 × ( 3.0 + 5.05 ) + (195 × 1.5) + (195 × 1.05)] × 10-3 = 634.2 kN
Taking moments about centroid of section to determine required moment M to restrain
curvature due to temperature strain :
0.372 × 103 × [150 × (3.0 × 250 + 5.05 × 275) + 175 × (0.3 × 87.5 + 1.35 × 116.7) - (20 ×
0.15 × 6.7) - (195 × 1.05 × 260)] × 10-6 = 111.5kNm
b) Reverse temperature difference
Force F to restrain temperature strain :
- 0.372 × 103 × [ 130 × ( 1.8 + 2.5 + 1.5 + 1.9 ) + 163 × ( 0.9 + 0.75 )] × 10-3 = - 472.4kN
Taking moments about centroid of section to determine required moment M to restrain
curvature due to temperature strain :
- 0.372 × 103 × [130 × ( 1.8 × 260 + 2.5 × 282 - 1.5 × 260 - 1.9 × 282 ) + 163 × ( 0.9 × 141 -
0.75 × 141 )] × 10-6 = -13.34kNm

Note: Sign convention is compressive stresses are positive.

Dead + Superimposed Dead Loading (per metre width of deck)

SLS = Serviceability Limit State
ULS = Ultimate Limit State

Design SLS moment = ∑(γfL × M) = [(1.0 × 16.3)+(1.2 × 2.4)] × 122 / 8 = 345 kNm

Design ULS moment = γf3 × ∑(γfL × M) = 1.1 × [{(1.15 × 16.3)+(1.75 × 2.4)} × 122 / 8] = 454
kNm

Live Loading (per metre width of deck)

Nominal HA mid span moment = 17.5 × 12.02 / 8 + 33.0 × 12.0 / 4 = 414kNm

The maximum moment for the HB vehicle occurs at point X in the diagram below with
the vehicle positioned as shown.

(CG = position of the centre of gravity of the three 75kN wheel loads)
Nominal HB moment at X = 99.4 × 5.3 - 75 × 1.8 = 392kNm
Combination 1 Loading
Design HA SLS moment = γfL × M = 1.2 × 414 = 497 kNm
Design HB SLS moment = γfL × M = 1.1 × 392 = 431 kNm < 497 kNm ∴ HA critical
Total Design SLS Moment (Dead + Live) = 345 + 497 = 842 kNm

Design HA ULS moment = γf3 × γfL × M = 1.1 × 1.5 × 414 = 683 kNm
Design HB ULS moment = γf3 × γfL × M = 1.1 × 1.3 × 392 = 561 kNm < 683 kNm
∴ HA loading critical
Total Design ULS Moment (Dead + Live) = 454 + 683 = 1137 kNm

Combination 3 Loading
Design HA SLS moment = γfL × M = 1.0 × 414 = 414 kNm
Design HB SLS moment = γfL × M = 1.0 × 392 = 392 kNm <414 kNm ∴ HA loading critical
Design SLS Moment (Dead + Live) = 345 + 414 = 759 kNm

Design HA ULS moment = γf3 × γfL × M = 1.1 × 1.25 × 414 = 569 kNm
Design HB ULS moment = γf3 × γfL × M = 1.1 × 1.1 × 392 = 474 kNm < 569 kNm
∴ HA loading critical
Design ULS Moment (Dead + Live) = 454 + 569 = 1023 kNm

Ultimate Capacity of Deck Slab

Ultimate Design Moment = 1137 kNm

BS 5400 Pt 4 cl. 5.1.2.1

It is usual to design reinforced concrete for the ultimate limit state and check for
serviceability conditions.
cl. 5.4.2
Use clause 5.3.2 for the resistance moments in slabs.
cl. 5.3.2.3
Try 32mm dia. reinforcement at 125mm centres:
Nominal cover to reinforcement in deck soffit = 60mm
d = 650 - 60 -32/2 = 574
As = Π162 × 1000 / 125 = 6434mm2/m
fy = 500N/mm2
fcu = 40N/mm2
z = [1 - ({1.1fyAs}/{fcubd})]d
z = [1 - ({1.1 × 500 × 6434}/{40 × 1000 × 574})]d = 0.85d < 0.95 d
∴ z = 0.85 × 574 = 488mm
MuSteel = 0.87fyAsz = 0.87 × 500 × 6434 × 488 × 10-6 = 1366 kNm/m
MuConcrete = 0.15fcubd2 = 0.15 × 40 × 1000 × 5742 × 10-6 = 1977 kNm/m > 1366
∴ Mu = 1366 kNm/m > 1137kNm/m ∴ OK.
Check Serviceability Limit State

Combination 1 SLS Design Moment = 842 kNm (345DL + 497LL)

Determine depth 'X' to neutral axis of cracked section:

cl. 4.3.2.1 Table 3
Youngs Modulus for concrete for short term loading = Ec = 31 kN/mm2
cl. 4.3.2.2
Youngs Modulus for steel reinforcement = Es = 200 kN/mm2

Case 1) When the bridge has just opened (when only a small amount of creep has
occurred):
Modular Ratio = Es / Ec = 200 / 31 = 6.45
Taking first moments of area about the neutral axis:
1000 × X2 / 2 = 6.45 × 6434 × (574 - X)
500X2 + 41510X - 23.83×106 = 0
X = 177 mm
Second Moment of Area of cracked section:
Ixx = 1000×1773 / 3 + 6.45×6434×(574-177)2 = 8.39×109 mm4
Cl 4.1.1.3
6 9 2
Max compressive stress in concrete = 842×10 × 177 / 8.39×10 = 17.8 N/mm
Table 2
2
Allowable compressive stress = 0.5fcu = 20 N/mm > 17.8 ∴ OK

Case 2) When creep and shrinkage in the bridge are substantially complete:
cl. 4.3.2.1(b)
Youngs Modulus for concrete for long term loading = Ec/2 = 15.5 kN/mm2
Hence Modified Ec for (345DL + 497LL) = (345 × 15.5 + 497 × 31) / 842 = 24.65
kN/mm2
cl. 4.3.2.2
2
Youngs Modulus for steel reinforcement = Es = 200 kN/mm
Modular Ratio = Es / Ec = 200 / 24.65 = 8.1
Taking first moments of area about the neutral axis:
1000 × X2 / 2 = 8.1 × 6434 × (574 - X)
500X2 + 52115X - 30×106 = 0
X = 198 mm
Second Moment of Area of cracked section:
Ixx = 1000×1983 / 3 + 8.1×6434×(574-198)2 = 9.96×109 mm4
Cl 4.1.1.3
6 9 2
Max compressive stress in concrete = 842×10 × 198 / 9.96×10 = 16.7 N/mm
Table 2
2
Allowable compressive stress = 0.5fcu = 20 N/mm > 16.7 ∴ OK
Tensile stress in reinforcement = 842×106 × (574 - 198) × 8.1 / 9.96×109 = 257.5 N/mm2
Table 2
2
Allowable tensile stress = 0.75fy = 375 N/mm > 257.5 ∴ OK
Crack Control:
Strain in reinforcement = ∈1 = 257.5 / 200000 = 0.00129
Table 13
Notional surface for crack calculation = 35mm cover to reinforcement

5.8.8.2
2 2
acr = √[(125/2) + (16+35) ] - 16 = 65
Allow for stiffening effect of concrete:
eqn 25
-9
∈m = ∈1 - [{3.8bth(a'-dc)} / {∈sAs(h-dc)}] × [(1-Mq/Mg)×10 ]
∈m = ∈1 - [{3.8×1000×650×(625 - 198)} / {0.00129×6434×(650 - 198)}] × [(1 -
497/345)×10-9]
∈m = ∈1 - [-0.00012] but not greater than ∈1 Hence no stiffening effect
∈m = ∈1 = 0.00129 × (625 - 198) / (574 - 198) = 0.00146
Design crack width = 3 × 65 × 0.00146 / [1 + 2 × (65 - 35) / (650 - 198)] = 0.25 mm
eqn 24
Design crack width = 3acr∈m / [1+2(acr-cnom)/(h-dc)]
Table 1
Maximum allowable crack width = 0.25 mm ∴ OK

Combination 3 SLS Design Moment = 759 kNm (345DL + 414LL)

Determine depth 'X' to neutral axis of cracked section:

cl. 4.3.2.1 Table 3
Youngs Modulus for concrete for short term loading = Ec = 31 kN/mm2
cl. 4.3.2.1(b)
Youngs Modulus for concrete for long term loading = Ec/2 = 15.5 kN/mm2
Hence Modified Ec for (345DL + 414LL) = (345 × 15.5 + 414 × 31) / 759 = 23.95 kN/mm2
cl. 4.3.2.2
2
Youngs Modulus for steel reinforcement = Es = 200 kN/mm
Modular Ratio = Es / Ec = 200 / 23.95 = 8.35
Taking first moments of area about the neutral axis:
1000 × X2 / 2 = 8.35 × 6434 × (574 - X)
500X2 + 53724X - 30.84×106
X = 200 mm

Second Moment of Area of cracked section:

Ixx = 1000×2003 / 3 + 8.35×6434×(574-200)2 = 10.18×109 mm4>
Cl 4.1.1.3
Max compressive bending stress in concrete = 759×106 × 200 / 10.18×109 = 14.9 N/mm2
Max compressive stress due to positive temperature difference = γfL × 2.31 = 0.8 × 2.31
= 1.8 N/mm2
Total compressive stress in concrete = 14.9 + 1.8 = 16.7 N/mm2
Table 2
2
Allowable compressive stress = 0.5fcu = 20 N/mm > 16.7 ∴ OK
Tensile stress in reinforcement = 759×106 × (574 - 200) × 8.35 / 10.18×109 = 232.8
N/mm2
Tensile stress due to reverse temperature difference =
γfL × 8.35×[{(1.43+0.06)×(130-60-16)/130}-0.06] = 0.8 × 4.7 = 3.8 N/mm2
Total tensile stress in reinforcement = 232.8 + 3.8 = 237 N/mm2
Table 2
2
Allowable tensile stress = 0.75fy = 375 N/mm > 237 ∴ OK

Hence B32 bars at 125 centres are adequate for the mid span.

Shear Design

Shear is designed for ultimate limit state.

cl. 5.4.4
V = shear force due to ultimate loads.
Maximum Dead Load V = γf3 × 12 × (1.15 × 16.3 + 1.75 × 2.4) / 2
Maximum Dead Load V = 1.1 × 137.7 kN = 151 kN

Determine shear effects at distance d away from the support.

Try 32mm dia. bars at 125 c/c : d = 574mm

Maximum HA V = γf3 × 1.5 × (12 × 17.5 / 2 + 33 × 11.426 / 12 - 17.5 × 0.574)

Maximum HA V = 1.1 × 190 kN = 209 kN

Maximum HB V = γf3 × 1.3 × 75 × (11.426 + 9.626 + 3.626 + 1.826) / 12

Maximum HB V = 1.1 × 215 kN = 237 kN > 209 ∴ HB loading critical
Maximum V = 151 + 237 = 388 kN
Shear stress = V / bd = 388×103 / (1000 × 574) = 0.68 N/mm2

Design for no shear reinforcement condition then ξsvc > 0.68 N/mm2
Table 9
ξs = (500/d)1/4 = (500/574)1/4 = 0.97
Table 8
vc = 0.27/γm(100As/bwd)1/3(fcu)1/3
vc = (0.27 / 1.25) × [100 × 6434 / (1000 × 574)]1/3 × (40)1/3 = 0.77 N/mm2
ξsv√ = 0.97 × 0.77 = 0.75 N/mm2 > 0.68 ∴ OK
cl 5.3.3.1
Check that the maximum allowable shear stress is not exceeded:
Maximum allowable shear stress = 0.75√fcu or 4.75 N/mm2
0.75√fcu = 0.75√40 = 4.74 > 0.68 ∴ OK

Hence B32 bars at 125 centres are adequate for shear at the ends of the deck.

Note: Intermediate sections between mid span and the ends of the deck will have a
smaller moment than at mid span and a small shear than at the ends of the deck. These
sections need to be checked to determine where the reinforcement may be reduced to
B25 at 125c/c.
cl. 5.8.4.1
Minimum area of reinforcement = 0.15% of bad = 0.15 × 1000 × 574 / 100 = 861 mm2/m ∴
use B12 bars at 125 centres (As = 905 mm2/m) for distribution reinforcement.
 Prestressed Concrete

Since concrete is weak in tension in normal reinforced concrete construction cracks develop in the

tension zone

at working loads and therefore all concrete in tension is ignored in design.

Prestressing involves inducing compressive stresses in the zone which will tend to become tensile

under

external loads. This compressive stress neutralizes the tensile stress so that no resultant tension

exists, (or

only very small values, within the tensile strength of the concrete). Cracking is therefore

eliminated under

working load and all of the concrete may be assumed effective in carrying load. Therefore lighter

sections may

be used to carry a given bending moment, and prestressed concrete may be used over much

longer spans than

reinforced concrete.

The prestressing force also reduces the magnitude of the principal tensile stress in the web so

that

thin-webbed I - sections may be used without the risk of diagonal tension failures and with further

savings in self-weight.

The prestressing force has to be produced by a high tensile steel, and it is necessary to use high

quality concrete to resist the higher compressive stresses that are developed.

There are two methods of prestressing concrete:

1) Pre-cast Pre-tensioned

2) Pre-cast Post-tensioned

Both methods involve tensioning cables inside a concrete beam and then anchoring the stressed

cables to the concrete.

1) Pre-tensioned Beam Construction

Stage 1

Tendons and reinforcement are positioned in the beam mould.

Stage 2

Tendons are stressed to about 70% of their ultimate strength.

Stage 3

Concrete is cast into the beam mould and allowed to cure to the required initial strength.
Stage 4

When the concrete has cured the stressing force is released and the tendons anchor themselves in

the concrete.

Stage 5

Loss of prestress due to elastic deformation of the concrete and relaxation of the steel need to be

considered. Further loss of prestress will also occur due to shrinkage and creep of the concrete; as

these are time related then the effects will need to be considered both at short term and long

term.
2) Post-tensioned Beam Construction

Stage 1

Cable ducts and reinforcement are positioned in the beam mould. The ducts are usually raised

towards the neutral axis at the ends to reduce the eccentricity of the stressing force

Stage 2

Concrete is cast into the beam mould and allowed to cure to the required initial strength.

Stage 3

Tendons are threaded through the cable ducts and tensioned to about 70% of their ultimate

strength. The diagram above indicates jacking from both ends of the beam.

Stage 4

a) Wedges are inserted into the end anchorages,

b) the tensioning force on the tendons is released. Grout is then pumped into the ducts to protect

the tendons.

Stage 5

Loss of prestress due to elastic deformation of the concrete and relaxation of the steel need to be

considered. Further loss of prestress will also occur due to shrinkage and creep of the concrete; as

these are time related then the effects will need to be considered both at short term and long

term.

Loss of Prestress

Total losses in prestress can amount to about 30% of the initial tensioning stress.
 Prestressed Concrete Beam Example to British
Standards

Prestressed Concrete Beam Design to BS 5400 Part 4

Problem:
Design a simply supported prestressed concrete Y beam which carries a 150mm thick
concrete slab and 100mm of surfacing, together with a nominal live load udl of 10.0
kN/m2 and kel of 33kN/m . The span of the beam is 24.0m centre to centre of bearings
and the beams are spaced at 1.0m intervals.

γconc. = 24kN/m3
25 units of HB to be considered at SLS for load combination 1 only (BS 5400 Pt4 Cl.
4.2.2)
Loading per beam (at 1.0m c/c)
Note: The loading has been simplified to demonstrate the method of designing the
beam (See BS 5400 Pt2, or DB 37/01 for full design loading)

Nominal Dead Loads :

slab = 24 × 0.15 × 1.0 = 3.6 kN/m
beam = say Y5 beam = 10.78 kN/m
surfacing = 24 × 0.1 × 1.0 = 2.4 kN/m

Nominal Live Load :

HA = 10 × 1.0 + 33.0 = 10 kN/m + 33kN
25 units HB = 25 × 10 / 4 per wheel = 62.5 kN per wheel
BS 5400 Pt. 4

Section Properties
cl.7.4.1
Modular ratio effect for different concrete strengths between beam and slab may be
ignored.

Temperature Difference Effects

Apply temperature differences given in BS 5400 Pt2 Fig.9 (Group 4)to a simplified
beam section.
Cl. 5.4.6 - Coefficient of thermal expansion = 12 × 10-6 per °C.
From BS 5400 Pt4 Table 3 : Ec = 34 kN/mm2 for fcu = 50N/mm2
Hence restrained temperature stresses per °C = 34 × 103 × 12 × 10-6 = 0.408 N/mm2
a) Positive temperature difference
Force F to restrain temperature strain :
0.408 × 1000 × [ 150 × ( 3.0 + 5.25 ) ] × 10-3 + 0.408 × ( 300 × 250 × 1.5 + 750 × 200 ×
1.25 ) × 10-3 = 504.9 + 122.4 = 627.3 kN
Moment M about centroid of section to restrain curvature due to temperature strain :
0.408 × 1000 × [ 150 × ( 3.0 × 502 + 5.25 × 527 ) ] × 10-6 + 0.408 × ( 300 × 250 × 1.5 ×
344 - 750 × 200 × 1.25 × 556 ) × 10-6 = 261.5 - 26.7 = 234.8 kNm

b) Reverse temperature difference

Force F to restrain temperature strain :
- 0.408 × [ 1000 × 150 × ( 3.6 + 2.3 ) + 300 × 90 × ( 0.9 + 1.35 ) ] × 10-3
- 0.408 × 300 × ( 200 × 0.45 + 150 × 0.45 ) × 10-3
- 0.408 × 750 × [ 50 × ( 0.9 + 0.15 ) + 240 × ( 1.2 + 2.6 ) ] × 10-3 = - 385.9 - 19.3 - 295.1 =
- 700.3 kN
Moment M about centroid of section to restrain curvature due to temperature strain :
- 0.408 × [ 150000 × ( 3.6 × 502 + 2.3 × 527 ) + 27000 × ( 0.9 × 382 + 1.35 × 397 ) ] × 10-
6

- 0.408 × 300 × ( 200 × 0.45 × 270 - 150 × 0.45 × 283 ) × 10-6

+ 0.408 × 750 × [ 50 × ( 0.9 × 358 + 0.15 × 366 ) + 240 × ( 1.2 × 503 + 2.6 × 543 ) ] × 10-6
= - 194.5 - 0.6 + 153.8 = - 41.3 kNm
Differential Shrinkage Effects
BS 5400 Pt.4 cl.7.4.3.4
Use cl.6.7.2.4 Table 29 :
Total shrinkage of insitu concrete = 300 × 10-6
Assume that 2/3 of the total shrinkage of the precast concrete takes place before the
deck slab is cast and that the residual shrinkage is 100 × 10-6 ,
hence the differential shrinkage is 200 × 10-6
BS 5400 Pt.4 cl.7.4.3.5
Force to restrain differential shrinkage : F = - εdiff × Ecf × Acf × φ
F = -200 × 10-6 × 34 × 1000 × 150 × 0.43 = -439 kN
Eccentricity acent = 502mm
Restraint moment Mcs = -439 × 0.502 = -220.4 kNm

Self-weight of beam and weight of deck slab is supported by the beam. When the deck
slab concrete has cured then any further loading (superimposed and live loads) is
supported by the composite section of the beam and slab.

Dead Loading (beam and slab)

Total load for serviceability limit state = (1.0 × 3.6)+(1.0 × 10.78) = 14.4kN/m
Design serviceability moment = 14.4 × 242 / 8 = 1037 kNm

Combination 1 Loading
Super. & HA live load for SLS:
= [(1.2 × 2.4)+(1.2 × 10)]udl & [(1.2 × 33)]kel
= (2.88 + 12.0)udl & 39.6kel
= 14.9 kN/m & 39.6kN

Super. & HB live load for SLS:

= 2.88 & 4 wheels @ 1.1 × 62.5
= 2.9 kN/m & 4 wheels @ 68.75 kN

Total load for ultimate limit state:

= [(1.15 × 3.6)+(1.15 × 10.78)+(1.75 × 2.4)+(1.5 × 10)]udl & [(1.5 × 33)]kel
= (4.14 + 12.40 + 4.20 + 15.0)udl & 49.5kel
= 35.7 kN/m & 49.5kN
HA Design serviceability moment:
= 14.9 × 24.02 / 8 + 39.6 × 24 / 4
= 1310 kNm

25 units HB Design SLS moment:

= 2.9 × 24.02 / 8 + 982.3(from grillage analysis)
= 1191.1 kNm

Design ultimate moment:

= 35.7 × 24.02 / 8 + 49.5 × 24 / 4
= 2867 kNm

Combination 3 Loading
Super. & HA live load for SLS:
= [(1.2 × 2.4)+(1.0 × 10)]udl & [(1.0 × 33)]kel
= (2.88 + 10.0)udl & 33kel
= 12.9 kN/m & 33kN

Total load for ultimate limit state:

= [(1.15 × 3.6)+(1.15 × 10.78)+(1.75 × 2.4)+(1.25 × 10)]udl & [(1.25 × 33)]kel
= (4.14 + 12.40 + 4.20 + 12.5)udl & 41.3kel
= 33.2 kN/m & 41.3kN

Design serviceability moment:

= 12.9 × 24.02 / 8 + 33 × 24 / 4
= 1127 kNm

Allowable stresses in precast concrete

At transfer :
cl.6.3.2.2 b)
Compression ( Table 23 )
0.5fci (≤ 0.4fcu) = 20 N/mm2 max.
cl.6.3.2.4 b)
2
Tension = 1.0 N/mm

At serviceability limit state :

cl.7.4.3.2
Compression (1.25 × Table 22)
1.25 × 0.4fcu = 25 N/mm2
Tension = 0 N/mm2 (class 1) & 3.2 N/mm2 (class 2 - Table 24)
Prestressing Force and Eccentricity
Using straight, fully bonded tendons (constant force and eccentricity).
Allow for 20% loss of prestress after transfer.
Initial prestress at Level 1 to satisfy class 2 requirement for SLS (Comb. 3).
Stress at transfer = ( 17.67 - 3.2 ) / 0.8 = 18.1 N/mm2 (use allowable stress of 20
N/mm2)

The critical section at transfer occurs at the end of the transmission zone. The
moment due to the self weight at this section is near zero and initial stress conditions
are:
P/A + Pe/Zlevel 1 = 20 ..................... (eqn. 1)
P/A - Pe/Zlevel 2 >= - 1.0 ..................... (eqn. 2)

(eqn. 1) × Zlevel 1 + (eqn. 2) × Zlevel 2 gives :

P >= A × (20 × Zlevel 1 - 1.0 × Zlevel 2) / (Zlevel 1 + Zlevel 2)
P = 449.22 × 103 × ( 20 × 116.02 - 89.066) / ( 116.02 + 89.066) × 10-3 = 4888 kN

Allow 10% for loss of force before and during transfer,

then the initial force Po = 4888 / 0.9 = 5431kN

Using 15.2mm class 2 relaxation standard strand at maximum initial force of 174kN
(0.75 × Pu)
Area of tendon = 139mm2
Nominal tensile strength = fpu =1670 N/mm2
Hence 32 tendons required.
Initial force Po = 32 × 174 = 5568 kN
P = 0.9 × 5568 = 5011 kN

Substituting P = 5011 kN in (eqn. 2)

e <= Zlevel 2 / A + Zlevel 2 / P = (89.066 × 106 / 449.22 × 103) + (89.066 × 106 / 5011 × 103)
e = 198 + 18 = 216 mm

Arrange 32 tendons symmetrically about the Y-Y axis to achieve an eccentricity of

about 216mm.

cl. 6.7.2.3
2
P = 0.99 Po / [ 1 + Es × (Aps / A) × (1 + A × e / I) / Eci ]
P = 0.99 × Po / [ 1 + 196 × ( 32 × 139 / 449220) × (1 + 449220 × 2192 / 52.905 × 109) / 31
]
P = 0.91 Po = 0.91 × 5568 = 5067 kN
Initial stresses due to prestress at end of transmission zone :
Level 1 : P / A × ( 1 + A × e / Zlevel 1 ) = 11.3 × ( 1 + 219 / 258 ) = 20.89 N/mm2
(20.89 N/mm2 is slightly greater than the allowable of 20 N/mm2 so a number of
tendons will need to be debonded near the ends of the beam).
Level 2 : P / A × ( 1 - A × e / Zlevel 2 ) = 11.3 × ( 1 - 219 / 198 ) = - 1.20 N/mm2
Moment due to self weight of beam at mid span = 10.78 × 242 / 8 = 776.2 kNm
Stress due to self weight of beam at mid span :
@ Level 1 = - 776.2 / 116.02 = - 6.69 N/mm2
@ Level 2 = 776.2 / 89.066 = 8.71 N/mm2

Initial stresses at mid span :

cl. 6.7.2.5
Allowing for 2% relaxation loss in steel after transfer,
concrete shrinkage εcs = 300 × 10-6
and concrete specific creep ct = 1.03 × 48 × 10-6 per N/mm2
Loss of force after transfer due to :
cl. 6.7.2.2
Steel relaxation = 0.02 × 5568 = 111
cl. 6.7.2.4
-6
Concrete shrinkage = (εcs × Es × Aps ) = 300 × 10 × 196 × 32 × 139 = 262
cl. 6.7.2.5
-6
Concrete creep = ( ct × fco × Es × Aps ) = 1.03 × 48 × 10 × 12.76 × 196 × 32 × 139 = 550
Total Loss = 111 + 262 + 550 = 923 kN
Final force after all loss of prestress = Pe = 5067 - 923 = 4144 kN (Pe/P = 0.82)
Final stresses due to prestress after all loss of prestress at :
Level 1 f1,0.82P = 0.82 × 20.89 = 17.08 N/mm2
Level 2 f2,0.82P = 0.82 × - 1.20 = - 0.98 N/mm2

Combined stresses in final condition for worst effects of design loads, differential
shrinkage and temperature difference :
Level 1, combination 1 HB : f = 17.08 - 16.71 = 0.37 N/mm2 (> 0 hence O.K.)
Level 1, combination 3 : f = 17.08 - 17.67 = - 0.59 N/mm2 (> - 3.2 hence O.K.)
Level 2, combination 1 : f = - 0.98 + 1037 / 89.066 + 1310 / 242.424 + 1.64 = 17.71 (< 25
O.K.)
Level 3. combination 3 : f = (1127 / 179.402) + (0.8 × 3.15) = 8.8 N/mm2 (< 25 O.K.)
Ultimate Capacity of Beam and Deck Slab
(Composite Section)

Ultimate Design Moment = γf3 × M = 1.1 × 2867 = 3154 kNm

cl. 6.3.3
Only steel in the tension zone is to be considered :
Centroid of tendons in tension zone = (6×60 + 10×110 + 8×160 + 4×260) / 28 = 135mm
Effective depth from Level 3 = 1200 - 135 = 1065mm
Assume that the maximum design stress is developed in the tendons, then :
Tensile force in tendons Fp = 0.87 × 28 × 139 × 1670 × 10-3 = 5655 kN

Compressive force in concrete flange :

Ff = 0.4 × 40 × 1000 × 150 × 10-3 = 2400 kN
Let X = depth to neutral axis.

Compressive force in concrete web :

Fw = 0.4 × 50 × [393 - (393 - 200) × (X - 150) / (671 × 2)] × (X - 150) × 10-3
Fw = ( -2.876X2 + 8722.84X - 1243717) × 10-3
Equating forces to obtain X :
5655 = 2400 + ( -2.876×2 + 8722.84X - 1243717) × 10-3
X = 659 mm

Stress in tendon after losses = fpe = 4144 × 103 / (32 × 139) = 932 N/mm2
Prestrain εpe = fpe / Es = 932 / 200 × 103 = 0.0047

Determine depth to neutral axis by an iterative strain compatibility analysis

Try X = 659 mm as an initial estimate
Width of web at this depth = 247mm

εpb6 = ε6 + εpe = -459 × 0.0035 / 659 + 0.0047 = 0.0022

εpb5 = ε5 + εpe = -359 * 0.0035 / 659 + 0.0047 = 0.0028
εpb4 = ε4 + εpe = 281 * 0.0035 / 659 + 0.0047 = 0.0062
εpb3 = ε3 + εpe = 381 * 0.0035 / 659 + 0.0047 = 0.0067
εpb2 = ε2 + εpe = 431 * 0.0035 / 659 + 0.0047 = 0.0069
εpb1 = ε1 + εpe = 481 * 0.0035 / 659 + 0.0047 = 0.0072

fpb6 = 0.0022 × 200 × 103 = 444 N/mm2

fpb5 = 0.0028 × 200 × 103 = 551 N/mm2
fpb4 = 1162 + 290 × (0.0062 - 0.0058) / 0.0065 = 1178 N/mm2
fpb3 = 1162 + 290 × (0.0067 - 0.0058) / 0.0065 = 1201 N/mm2
fpb2 = 1162 + 290 × (0.0069 - 0.0058) / 0.0065 = 1213 N/mm2
fpb1 = 1162 + 290 × (0.0072 - 0.0058) / 0.0065 = 1225 N/mm2
Tensile force in tendons :
Fp6 = 2 × 139 × 444 × 10-3
= 124
-3
Fp5 = 2 × 139 × 551 × 10
= 153
-3
Fp4 = 4 × 139 × 1178 × 10
= 655
-3
Fp3 = 8 × 139 × 1201 × 10
= 1336
-3
Fp2 = 10 × 139 × 1213 × 10
= 1686
-3
Fp1 = 6 × 139 × 1225 × 10
= 1022
Ft = ∑ Fp1 to 6 = 4976 kN

Compressive force in concrete :

Ff = 0.4 × 40 × 1000 × 150 × 10-3 = 2400
Fw = 0.4 × 50 × 0.5 × (393 + 247) × (659 - 150) × 10-3 = 3258
Fc = Ff + Fw = 5658 kN
Fc > Ft therefore reduce depth to neutral axis and repeat the calculations.
Using a depth of 565mm will achieve equilibrium.
The following forces are obtained :
Fp6 = 134

Ff = 2400
Fp5 = 168

Fw = 2765
Fp4 = 675

Fc = 5165
Fp3 = 1382
Fp2 = 1746
Fp1 = 1060
Ft = 5165
Taking Moments about the neutral axis :
MFp6 = 134 × -0.365 =
-49
MFp5 = 168 × -0.265 =
-45
MFp4 = 675 × 0.375 =
253
MFp3 = 1382 × 0.475 =
656
MFp2 = 1746 × 0.525 =
917
MFp1 = 1060 × 0.575 =
610
MFf = 2400 × 0.49 =
1176
MFw = 3258 × 0.207 =
674
Mu = ∑ MFp1 to 6 + MFf + MFw = 4192 kNm > 3154 kNm hence O.K.
cl. 6.3.3.1
Mu / M = 4192 / 3154 = 1.33 ( > 1.15 ) hence strain in outermost tendon O.K.

cl. 6.3.4
The Shear Resistance of the beam needs to be determined in accordance with clause
6.3.4. and compared with the ultimate shear load at critical sections.