Converging Lenses - Ray Diagrams

One theme of the Reflection and Refraction units of The Physics Classroom Tutorial has been
that we see an object because light from the object travels to our eyes as we sight along a
line at the object. Similarly, we see an image of an object because light from the object
reflects off a mirror or refracts through a transparent material and travel to our eyes as we
sight at the image location of the object. From these two basic premises, we have defined
the image location as the location in space where light appears to diverge from. Because
light emanating from the object converges or appears to diverge from this location, a replica
or likeness of the object is created at this location. For both reflection and refraction
scenarios, ray diagrams have been a valuable tool for determining the path of light from the
object to our eyes.

In this section of Lesson 5, we will investigate the method for drawing ray diagrams for
objects placed at various locations in front of a double convex lens. To draw these ray
diagrams, we will have to recall the three rules of refraction for a double convex lens:

• Any incident ray traveling parallel to the principal axis of a converging lens will
refract through the lens and travel through the focal point on the opposite side of the
lens.
• Any incident ray traveling through the focal point on the way to the lens will
refract through the lens and travel parallel to the principal axis.
• An incident ray which passes through the center of the lens will in effect continue
in the same direction that it had when it entered the lens.
Earlier in this lesson, the following diagram illustrating the path of light from an object
through a lens to an eye placed at various locations was shown.

In this diagram, five incident rays are drawn along with their corresponding refracted rays.
Each ray intersects at the image location and then travels to the eye of an observer. Every
observer would observe the same image location and every light ray would follow the Snell's
Law of refraction. Yet only two of these rays would be needed to determine the image
location since it only requires two rays to find the intersection point. Of the five incident
rays drawn, three of them correspond to the incident rays described by our three rules of
refraction for converging lenses. We will use these three rays through the remainder of this
lesson, merely because they are the easiest rays to draw. Certainly two rays would be all
that is necessary; yet the third ray will provide a check of the accuracy of our process.
Step-by-Step Method for Drawing Ray Diagrams

The method of drawing ray diagrams for double convex lens is described below. The
description is applied to the task of drawing a ray diagram for an object located beyond the
2F point of a double convex lens.

1. Pick a point on the top of the object and draw three

incident rays traveling towards the lens.

Using a straight edge, accurately draw one ray so that it

passes exactly through the focal point on the way to the
lens. Draw the second ray such that it travels exactly
parallel to the principal axis. Draw the third incident ray
such that it travels directly to the exact center of the
lens. Place arrowheads upon the rays to indicate their
direction of travel.

2. Once these incident rays strike the lens, refract them

according to the three rules of refraction for converging
lenses.

The ray that passes through the focal point on the way to
the lens will refract and travel parallel to the principal
axis. Use a straight edge to accurately draw its path. The
ray which traveled parallel to the principal axis on the
way to the lens will refract and travel through the focal
point. And the ray which traveled to the exact center of the lens will continue in the same
direction. Place arrowheads upon the rays to indicate their direction of travel. Extend the
rays past their point of intersection.

3. Mark the image of the top of the object.

The image point of the top of the object is the point

where the three refracted rays intersect. All three rays
should intersect at exactly the same point. This point is
merely the point where all light from the top of the object
would intersect upon refracting through the lens. Of
course, the rest of the object has an image as well and it can be found by applying the
same three steps to another chosen point. (See note below.)

4. Repeat the process for the bottom of the object.

One goal of a ray diagram is to determine the location,

size, orientation, and type of image which is formed by
the double convex lens. Typically, this requires
determining where the image of the upper and lower
extreme of the object is located and then tracing the
entire image. After completing the first three steps, only
the image location of the top extreme of the object has
been found. Thus, the process must be repeated for the point on the bottom of the object.
If the bottom of the object lies upon the principal axis (as it does in this example), then the
image of this point will also lie upon the principal axis and be the same distance from the
mirror as the image of the top of the object. At this point the entire image can be filled in.

Some students have difficulty understanding how the entire image of an object can be
deduced once a single point on the image has been determined. If the object is merely a
vertical object (such as the arrow object used in the example below), then the process is
easy. The image is merely a vertical line. In theory, it would be necessary to pick each point
on the object and draw a separate ray diagram to determine the location of the image of
that point. That would require a lot of ray diagrams as illustrated in the diagram below.
Fortunately, a shortcut exists. If the object is a vertical line, then the image is also a vertical
line. For our purposes, we will only deal with the simpler situations in which the object is a
vertical line which has its bottom located upon the principal axis. For such simplified
situations, the image is a vertical line with the lower extremity located upon the principal
axis.

The ray diagram above illustrates that when the object is located at a position beyond the
2F point, the image will be located at a position between the 2F point and the focal point on
the opposite side of the lens. Furthermore, the image will be inverted, reduced in size
(smaller than the object), and real. This is the type of information which we wish to obtain
from a ray diagram. These characteristics of the image will be discussed in more detail in
the next section of Lesson 5.

Once the method of drawing ray diagrams is practiced a couple of times, it becomes as
natural as breathing. Each diagram yields specific information about the image. The two
diagrams below show how to determine image location, size, orientation and type for
situations in which the object is located at the 2F point and when the object is located
between the 2F point and the focal point.

It should be noted that the process of constructing a ray diagram is the same regardless of
where the object is located. While the result of the ray diagram (image location, size,
orientation, and type) is different, the same three rays are always drawn. The three rules of
refraction are applied in order to determine the location where all refracted rays appear to
diverge from (which for real images, is also the location where the refracted rays intersect).

Ray Diagram for Object Located in Front of the Focal Point

In the three cases described above - the case of the object being located beyond 2F, the
case of the object being located at 2F,and the case of the object being located between 2F
and F - light rays are converging to a point after refracting through the lens. In such cases,
a real image is formed. As discussed previously, a real image is formed whenever refracted
light passes through the image location. While diverging lenses always produce virtual
images, converging lenses are capable of producing both real and virtual images. As shown
above, real images are produced when the object is located a distance greater than one
focal length from the lens. A virtual image is formed if the object is located less than one
focal length from the converging lens. To see why this is so, a ray diagram can be used.
 A ray diagram for the case in which the object is located
in front of the focal point is shown in the diagram at the
right. Observe that in this case the light rays diverge
after refracting through the lens. When refracted rays
diverge, a virtual image is formed. The image location
can be found by tracing all light rays backwards until
they intersect. For every observer, the refracted rays
would seem to be diverging from this point; thus, the
point of intersection of the extended refracted rays is
the image point. Since light does not actually pass
through this point, the image is referred to as a virtual
image. Observe that when the object in located in front
of the focal point of the converging lens, its image is an
upright and enlarged image which is located on the
object's side of the lens. In fact, one generalization
which can be made about all virtual images produced by lenses (both converging and
diverging) is that they are always upright and always located on the object's side of the
lens.

Ray Diagram for Object Located at the Focal Point

Thus far we have seen via ray diagrams that a real image is produced when an object is
located more than one focal length from a converging lens; and a virtual image is formed
when an object is located less than one focal length from a converging lens (i.e., in front of
F). But what happens when the object is located at F? That is, what type of image is formed
when the object is located exactly one focal length from a converging lens? Of course a ray
diagram is always one tool to help find the answer to such a question. However, when a ray
diagram is used for this case, an immediate difficulty is encountered. The diagram below
shows two incident rays and their corresponding refracted rays.

For the case of the object located at the focal point (F), the light rays neither converge nor
diverge after refracting through the lens. As shown in the diagram above, the refracted rays
are traveling parallel to each other. Subsequently, the light rays will not converge to form a
real image; nor can they be extended backwards on the opposite side of the lens to
intersect to form a virtual image. So how should the results of the ray diagram be
interpreted? The answer: there is no image!! Surprisingly, when the object is located at the
focal point, there is no location in space at which an observer can sight from which all the
refracted rays appear to be coming. An image cannot be found when the object is located at
the focal point of a converging lens.

Converging Lenses - Object-Image Relations

Previously in Lesson 5, ray diagrams were constructed in order to determine the general
location, size, orientation, and type of image formed by double convex lenses. Perhaps you
noticed that there is a definite relationship between the image characteristics and the
location where an object placed in front of a double convex lens. The purpose of this portion
of the lesson is to summarize these object-image relationships.
The best means of summarizing this relationship is to divide
the possible object locations into five general areas or points:

• Case 1: the object is located beyond the 2F point

• Case 2: the object is located at the 2F point
• Case 3: the object is located between the 2F point
and the focal point (F)
• Case 4: the object is located at the focal point (F)
• Case 5: the object is located in front of the focal point (F)

Case 1: The object is located beyond 2F

When the object is located at a location beyond the 2F point, the
image will always be located somewhere in between the 2F point
and the focal point (F) on the other side of the lens. Regardless of
exactly where the object is located, the image will be located in
this specified region. In this case, the image will be an inverted
image. That is to say, if the object is right-side up, then the
image is upside down. In this case, the image is reduced in size; in other words, the
image dimensions are smaller than the object dimensions. If the object is a six-foot tall
person, then the image is less than six feet tall. Earlier in Unit 13, the term magnification
was introduced; the magnification is the ratio of the height of the object to the height of
the image. In this case, the magnification is a number with an absolute value less than 1.
Finally, the image is a real image. Light rays actually converge at the image location. If a
sheet of paper was placed at the image location, the actual replica or likeness of the object
would appear projected upon the sheet of paper.

Case 2: The object is located at 2F

When the object is located at the 2F point, the image will also be
located at the 2F point on the other side of the lens. In this case,
the image will be inverted (i.e., a right-side-up object results in an
upside-down image). The image dimensions are equal to the
object dimensions. A six-foot tall person would have an image
which is six feet tall; the absolute value of the magnification is
exactly 1. Finally, the image is a real image. Light rays actually converge at the image
location. As such, the image of the object could be projected upon a sheet of paper.
Case 3: The object is located between 2F and F
When the object is located in front of the 2F point, the image
will be located beyond the 2F point on the other side of the
lens. Regardless of exactly where the object is located between
C and F, the image will be located in the specified region. In
this case, the image will be inverted (i.e., a right-side-up object
results in an upside-down image). The image dimensions are
larger than the object dimensions. A six-foot tall person would
have an image which is larger than six feet tall. The absolute value of the magnification is
greater than 1. Finally, the image is a real image. Light rays actually converge at the image
location. As such, the image of the object could be projected upon a sheet of paper.

Case 4: The object is located at F

When the object is located at the focal point, no image is formed.
As discussed earlier in Lesson 5, the refracted rays neither converge
or diverge. After refracting, the light rays are traveling parallel to
each other and cannot produce an image.

Case 5: The object is located in front of F

When the object is located at a location in front of the focal point,
the image will always be located somewhere on the same side of
the lens as the object. Regardless of exactly where in front of F
the object is located, the image will always be located on the
object's side of the lens and somewhere further from the lens.
The image is located behind the object. In this case, the image
will be an upright image. That is to say, if the object is right-
side up, then the image will also be right-side up. In this case, the image is enlarged; in
other words, the image dimensions are greater than the object dimensions. A six-foot tall
person would have an image which is larger than six feet tall. The magnification is greater
than 1. Finally, the image is a virtual image. Light rays diverge upon refraction; for this
reason, the image location can only be found by extending the refracted rays backwards on
the object's side the lens. The point of their intersection is the virtual image location. It
would appear to any observer as though light from the object were diverging from this
location. Any attempt to project such an image upon a sheet of paper would fail since light
does not actually pass through the image location.

It might be noted from the above descriptions that there is a relationship between the
object distance and object size and the image distance and image size. Starting from a
large value, as the object distance decreases (i.e., the object is moved closer to the lens),
the image distance increases; meanwhile, the image height increases. At the 2F point, the
object distance equals the image distance and the object height equals the image height. As
the object distance approaches one focal length, the image distance and image height
approaches infinity. Finally, when the object distance is equal to exactly one focal length,
there is no image. Then altering the object distance to values less than one focal length
produces images which are upright, virtual and located on the same side of the lens as the
object. Finally, if the object distance approaches 0, the image distance approaches 0 and
the image height ultimately becomes equal to the object height. These patterns are
depicted in the diagram below. Eight different object locations are drawn in red and labeled
with a number; the corresponding image locations are drawn in blue and labeled with the
identical number.

Diverging Lenses - Ray Diagrams

Earlier in Lesson 5, we learned how light is refracted by double concave lens in a manner
that a virtual image is formed. We also learned about three simple rules of refraction for
double concave lenses:

• Any incident ray traveling parallel to the principal axis of a diverging lens will
refract through the lens and travel in line with the focal point (i.e., in a direction such that
its extension will pass through the focal point).
• Any incident ray traveling towards the focal point on the way to the lens will
refract through the lens and travel parallel to the principal axis.
• An incident ray which passes through the center of the lens will in affect continue
in the same direction that it had when it entered the lens.
These three rules will be used to construct ray diagrams. A ray diagram is a tool used to
determine the location, size, orientation, and type of image formed by a lens. Ray diagrams
for double convex lenses were drawn in a previous part of Lesson 5. In this lesson, we will
see a similar method for constructing ray diagrams for double concave lenses.

Step-by-Step Method for Drawing Ray Diagrams

The method of drawing ray diagrams for a double concave lens is described below.

1. Pick a point on the top of the object and draw three incident rays traveling towards the
lens.
 Using a straight edge, accurately draw one ray so that it travels
towards the focal point on the opposite side of the lens; this ray
will strike the lens before reaching the focal point; stop the ray
at the point of incidence with the lens. Draw the second ray
such that it travels exactly parallel to the principal axis. Draw
the third ray to the exact center of the lens. Place arrowheads
upon the rays to indicate their direction of travel.

2. Once these incident rays strike the lens, refract them according to the three rules of
refraction for double concave lenses.

The ray that travels towards the focal point will refract through
the lens and travel parallel to the principal axis. Use a straight
edge to accurately draw its path. The ray which traveled
parallel to the principal axis on the way to the lens will refract
and travel in a direction such that its extension passes through
the focal point on the object's side of the lens. Align a straight
edge with the point of incidence and the focal point, and draw
the second refracted ray. The ray which traveled to the exact
center of the lens will continue to travel in the same direction.
Place arrowheads upon the rays to indicate their direction of travel. The three rays should
be diverging upon refraction.

3. Locate and mark the image of the top of the object.

The image point of the top of the object is the point where the three refracted rays
intersect. Since the three refracted rays are diverging, they
must be extended behind the lens in order to intersect. Using
a straight edge, extend each of the rays using dashed lines.
Draw the extensions until they intersect. All three extensions
should intersect at the same location. The point of
intersection is the image point of the top of the object. The
three refracted rays would appear to diverge from this point.
This is merely the point where all light from the top of the
object would appear to diverge from after refracting through the double concave lens. Of
course, the rest of the object has an image as well and it can be found by applying the
same three steps to another chosen point. See note below.
4. Repeat the process for the bottom of the object.

The goal of a ray diagram is to determine the location, size, orientation, and type of image
which is formed by the double concave lens. Typically, this
requires determining where the image of the upper and lower
extreme of the object is located and then tracing the entire
image. After completing the first three steps, only the image
location of the top extreme of the object has been found.
Thus, the process must be repeated for the point on the
bottom of the object. If the bottom of the object lies upon the
principal axis (as it does in this example), then the image of
this point will also lie upon the principal axis and be the same
distance from the lens as the image of the top of the object. At this point the complete
image can be filled in.

Some students have difficulty understanding how the entire image of an object can be
deduced once a single point on the image has been determined. If the object is merely a
vertical object (such as the arrow object used in the example below), then the process is
easy. The image is merely a vertical line. This is illustrated in the diagram below. In theory,
it would be necessary to pick each point on the object and draw a separate ray diagram to
determine the location of the image of that point. That would require a lot of ray diagrams
as illustrated in the diagram below.

Fortunately, a shortcut exists. If the object is a vertical line, then the image is also a vertical
line. For our purposes, we will only deal with the simpler situations in which the object is a
vertical line which has its bottom located upon the principal axis. For such simplified
situations, the image is a vertical line with the lower extremity located upon the principal
axis.

The ray diagram above illustrates that the image of an object in front of a double concave
lens will be located at a position behind the double concave lens. Furthermore, the image
will be upright, reduced in size (smaller than the object), and virtual. This is the type of
information which we wish to obtain from a ray diagram. The characteristics of this image
will be discussed in more detail in the next section of Lesson 5.
Once the method of drawing ray diagrams is practiced a couple of times, it becomes as
natural as breathing. Each diagram yields specific information about the image. It is
suggested that you take a few moments to practice a few ray diagrams on your own and to
describe the characteristics of the resulting image. The diagrams below provide the setup;
you must merely draw the rays and identify the image. If necessary, refer to the method
described above.

Diverging Lenses - Object-Image Relations

Previously in Lesson 5, ray diagrams were constructed in order to determine the location,
size, orientation, and type of image formed by double concave lenses (i.e., diverging
lenses). The ray diagram constructed earlier for a diverging lens revealed that the image of
the object was virtual, upright, reduced in size and located on the same side of the lens as
the object. But will these always be the characteristics of an image produced by a double
concave lens? Can convex lenses ever produce real images? Inverted images? Magnified
Images? To answer these questions, we will look at three different ray diagrams for objects
positioned at different locations along the principal axis. The diagrams are shown below.
(Note that only two sets of incident and refracted rays were used in the diagram in order to
avoid overcrowding the diagram with rays.)

The diagrams above shows that in each case, the image is

• located on the object' side of the lens

• a virtual image
• an upright image
• reduced in size (i.e., smaller than the object)
Unlike converging lenses, diverging lenses always produce images which share these
characteristics. The location of the object does not affect the characteristics of the image. As
such, the characteristics of the images formed by diverging lenses are easily predictable.
Another characteristic of the images of objects formed by diverging lenses pertains to how a
variation in object distance effects the image distance and size. The diagram below shows
five different object locations (drawn and labeled in red) and their corresponding image
locations (drawn and labeled in blue).

The diagram shows that as the object distance is decreased, the image distance is
decreased and the image size is increased. So as an object approaches the lens, its virtual
image on the same side of the lens approaches the lens as well; and at the same time, the
image becomes larger.

The Mathematics of Lenses

Ray diagrams can be used to determine the image location,
size, orientation and type of image formed of objects when
placed at a given location in front of a lens. The use of these
diagrams were demonstrated earlier in Lesson 5 for both
converging and diverging lenses. Ray diagrams provide useful
information about object-image relationships, yet fail to provide
the information in a quantitative form. While a ray diagram may help one determine the
approximate location and size of the image, it will not provide numerical information about
image distance and image size. To obtain this type of numerical information, it is necessary
to use the Lens Equation and the Magnification Equation. The lens equation expresses
the quantitative relationship between the object distance (do), the image distance (di), and
the focal length (f). The equation is stated as follows:

The magnification equation relates the ratio of the image distance and object distance to the
ratio of the image height (hi) and object height (ho). The magnification equation is stated as
follows:

These two equations can be combined to yield information about the image distance and
image height if the object distance, object height, and focal length are known.
As a demonstration of the effectiveness of the lens equation and magnification equation,
consider the following sample problem and its solution.

Sample Problem #1
A 4.00-cm tall light bulb is placed a distance of 45.7 cm from a double convex lens having a
focal length of 15.2 cm. Determine the image distance and the image size.

Like all problems in physics, begin by the identification of the unknown information.

ho = 4.00 cm do = 45.7 cm f = 15.2 cm

Next identify the unknown quantities which you wish to solve for.

di = ??? hi = ???

To determine the image distance, the lens equation must be used. The following lines
represent the solution to the image distance; substitutions and algebraic steps are shown.

1/f = 1/do + 1/di

1/(15.2 cm) = 1/(45.7 cm) + 1/di

0.0658 cm-1 = 0.0219 cm-1 + 1/di

0.0439 cm-1 = 1/di

di = 22.8 cm

The numerical values in the solution above were rounded when written down, yet
unrounded numbers were used in all calculations. The final answer is rounded to the third
significant digit.

To determine the image height, the magnification equation is needed. Since three of the
four quantities in the equation (disregarding the M) are known, the fourth quantity can be
calculated. The solution is shown below.

hi/ho = - di/do

hi /(4.00 cm) = - (22.8 cm)/(45.7 cm)

hi = - (4.00 cm) • (22.8 cm)/(45.7 cm)

hi = -1.99 cm

The negative values for image height indicate that the image is an inverted image. As is
often the case in physics, a negative or positive sign in front of the numerical value for a
physical quantity represents information about direction. In the case of the image height, a
negative value always indicates an inverted image.
From the calculations in this problem it can be concluded that if a 4.00-cm tall object is
placed 45.7 cm from a double convex lens having a focal length of 15.2 cm, then the image
will be inverted, 1.99-cm tall and located 22.8 cm from the lens. The results of this
calculation agree with the principles discussed earlier in this lesson. In this case, the object
is located beyond the 2F point (which would be two focal lengths from the lens) and the
image is located between the 2F point and the focal point. This falls into the category of
Case 1 : The object is located beyond 2F for a converging lens.

Now lets try a second sample problem:

Sample Problem #2
A 4.00-cm tall light bulb is placed a distance of 8.30 cm from a double convex lens having a
focal length of 15.2 cm. (NOTE: this is the same object and the same lens, only this time
the object is placed closer to the lens.) Determine the image distance and the image size.

Again, begin by the identification of the unknown information.

ho = 4.00 cm do = 8.3 cm f = 15.2 cm

Next identify the unknown quantities which you wish to solve for.

di = ??? hi = ???

To determine the image distance, the lens equation will have to be used. The following lines
represent the solution to the image distance; substitutions and algebraic steps are shown.

1/f = 1/do + 1/di

1/(15.2 cm) = 1/(8.30 cm) + 1/di

0.0658 cm-1 = 0.120 cm-1 + 1/di

-0.0547 cm-1 = 1/di

di = -18.3 cm

The numerical values in the solution above were rounded when written down, yet
unrounded numbers were used in all calculations. The final answer is rounded to the third
significant digit.

To determine the image height, the magnification equation is needed. Since three of the
four quantities in the equation (disregarding the M) are known, the fourth quantity can be
calculated. The solution is shown below.

hi/ho = - di/do
 hi /(4.00 cm) = - (-18.3 cm)/(8.30 cm)

hi = - (4.00 cm) • (-18.3 cm)/(8.30 cm)

hi = 8.81 cm

The negative value for image distance indicates that the image is a virtual image located on
the object's side of the lens. Again, a negative or positive sign in front of the numerical
value for a physical quantity represents information about direction. In the case of the
image distance, a negative value always means the image is located on the object's side of
the lens. Note also that the image height is a positive value, meaning an upright image. Any
image which is upright and located on the object's side of the lens is considered to be a
virtual image.

From the calculations in the second sample problem it can be concluded that if a 4.00-cm
tall object is placed 8.30 cm from a double convex lens having a focal length of 15.2 cm,
then the image will be enlarged, upright, 8.81-cm tall and located 18.3 cm from the lens on
the object's side. The results of this calculation agree with the principles discussed earlier in
this lesson. In this case, the object is located in front of the focal point (i.e., the object
distance is less than the focal length) and the image is located behind the lens. This falls
into the category of Case 5: The object is located in front of F (for a converging lens).

The third sample problem will pertain to a diverging lens.

Sample Problem #3
A 4.00-cm tall light bulb is placed a distance of 35.5 cm from a diverging lens having a focal
length of -12.2 cm. Determine the image distance and the image size.

Like all problems in physics, begin by the identification of the unknown information.

ho = 4.00 cm do = 35.5 cm f = -12.2 cm

Next identify the unknown quantities which you wish to solve for.

di = ??? hi = ???

To determine the image distance, the lens equation will have to be used. The following lines
represent the solution to the image distance; substitutions and algebraic steps are shown.

1/f = 1/do + 1/di

1/(-12.2 cm) = 1/(35.5 cm) + 1/di

-0.0820 cm-1 = 0.0282 cm-1 + 1/di

 -0.110 cm-1 = 1/di

di = -9.08 cm

The numerical values in the solution above were rounded when written down, yet
unrounded numbers were used in all calculations. The final answer is rounded to the third
significant digit.

To determine the image height, the magnification equation is needed. Since three of the
four quantities in the equation (disregarding the M) are known, the fourth quantity can be
calculated. The solution is shown below.

hi/ho = - di/do

hi /(4.00 cm) = - (-9.08 cm)/(35.5 cm)

hi = - (4.00 cm) * (-9.08 cm)/(35.5 cm)

hi = 1.02 cm

The negative values for image distance indicates that the image is located on the object's
side of the lens. As mentioned, a negative or positive sign in front of the numerical value for
a physical quantity represents information about direction. In the case of the image
distance, a negative value always indicates the existence of a real image located on the
object's side of the lens. In the case of the image height, a positive value indicates an
upright image.

From the calculations in this problem it can be concluded that if a 4.00-cm tall object is
placed 35.5 cm from a diverging lens having a focal length of 12.2 cm, then the image will
be upright, 1.02-cm tall and located 9.08 cm from the lens on the object's side. The results
of this calculation agree with the principles discussed earlier in this lesson. Diverging lenses
always produce images which are upright, virtual, reduced in size, and located on the
object's side of the lens.

Sign Conventions

The sign conventions for the given quantities in the lens equation and magnification
equations are as follows:

• f is + if the lens is a double convex lens (converging lens)

• f is - if the lens is a double concave lens (diverging lens)
• di is + if the image is a real image and located on the opposite side of the lens.
• di is - if the image is a virtual image and located on the object's side of the lens.
• hi is + if the image is an upright image (and therefore, also virtual)
• hi is - if the image an inverted image (and therefore, also real)
Like many mathematical problems in physics, the skill is only acquired through much
personal practice. Perhaps you would like to take some time to try the following problems.

Questions:

1-How can a plane mirror, concave mirror, convex mirror, converging lens
and/or diverging lens be used to produce an image which has the same size
as the object?

Solutions:

Plane mirrors will always do this.

Concave mirrors will do this when the object is at C or when the object is right on the mirror
surface.

Converging lenses will do this when the object is at the 2F point or when the object is right on
the lens surface.

Convex mirrors and diverging lenses will only do this when the object is right on the mirror or
lens surface.

2. How can a plane mirror, concave mirror, convex mirror, converging lens
and/or diverging lens be used to produce a magnified image?

Solution:

Plane mirrors, convex mirrors, and diverging lenses will never do this.

Concave mirrors will do this when the object is in front of C.

Converging lenses will only do this when the object is in front of 2F.

3. How can a plane mirror, concave mirror, convex mirror, converging lens
and/or diverging lens be used to produce an upright image?
Solution

Plane mirrors, convex mirrors, and diverging lenses will always produce an
upright image.

A concave mirror and a converging lens will only produce an upright image if
the object is located in front of the focal point.

4. How can a a plane mirror, concave mirror, convex mirror, converging lens
and/or diverging lens be used to produce a real image?

Solution

Plane mirrors, convex mirrors, and diverging lenses can never produce a real
image.

A concave mirror and a converging lens will only produce a real image if the
object is located beyond the focal point (i.e., more than one focal length
away).

5. The image of an object is found to be upright and reduced in size. What

type of mirror and/or lens is used to produce such an image?

solution

A plane mirror cannot do this.

A convex mirror and a diverging lens always do this.

A concave mirror and a converging lens can produce an upright image and
and image reduced in size, but never one which is both upright AND reduced
in size.
1. Determine the image distance and image height for a 5-cm tall object
placed 45.0 cm from a double convex lens having a focal length of 15.0
cm.

solution
Given: f =15 cm and do = 45 cm and ho= 5 cm

Use 1 / f = 1 / do + 1 / di to solve for di

1 / (15 cm) = 1 / (45 cm) + 1 / di

1 / (15 cm) - 1 / (45 cm) = 1 / di

0.0444 cm-1 = 1 / di

di = 1 / (0.0444 cm-1)

di = 22.5 cm

Then use hi / ho = - di / do to solve for hi

hi / (5 cm) = - (22.5 cm) / (45 cm)

hi = - (5 cm) • (22.5 cm) / (45 cm)

hi = -2.5 cm

2. Determine the image distance and image height for a 5-cm tall object
placed 30.0 cm from a double convex lens having a focal length of 15.0 cm.

Solution

Given: f =15 cm and do = 30 cm and ho = 5 cm

Use 1 / f = 1 / do + 1 / di

1 / (15 cm) = 1 / (30 cm) + 1 / di

1 / (15 cm) - 1 / (30 cm) = 1 / di

0.0.333 cm-1 = 1 / di

di = 1 / (0.0333 cm-1)
di = 30 cm

Then use hi / ho = -di / do

hi / (5 cm) = - (30 cm) / (30 cm)

hi = - (5 cm) • (30 cm) / (30 cm)

hi = -5.0 cm

2. Determine the image distance and image height for a 5-cm tall object
placed 20.0 cm from a double convex lens having a focal length of 15.0
cm.

Solution

Given: f = 15 cm and do = 20 cm and ho = 5 cm

Use 1 / f = 1 / do + 1 / di

1 / (15 cm) = 1 / (20 cm) + 1 / di

1 / (15 cm) - 1 / (20 cm) = 1 / di

0.0167 cm-1 = 1 / di

di = 1 / (0.0167 cm-1)

di = 60.0 cm

Then use hi / ho = -di / do

hi / (5 cm) = - (60 cm) / (20 cm)

hi = - (5 cm) • (60 cm) / (20 cm)

hi = -15.0 cm

3. Determine the image distance and image height for a 5-cm tall object
placed 10.0 cm from a double convex lens having a focal length of 15.0
cm.

Solution

Given: f = 15 cm and do = 10.0 cm and ho = 5 cm

Use 1 / f = 1 / do + 1 / di
 1 / (15 cm) = 1 / (10 cm) + 1 / di
1 / (15 cm) - 1 / (10 cm) = 1 / di

-0.0333 cm-1 = 1 / di

di = 1 / (-0.0333 cm-1)

di = - 30.0 cm

Then use hi / ho = - di / do

hi / (5 cm) = - (-30 cm) / (10 cm)

hi = - (5 cm) • (-30 cm) / (10 cm)

hi = 15.0 cm

4. Determine the image distance and image height for a 5-cm tall object
placed 10.0 cm from a double convex lens having a focal length of 15.0 cm.

Solution
Given: f = 15 cm and do = 10.0 cm and ho = 5 cm

Use 1 / f = 1 / do + 1 / di

1 / (15 cm) = 1 / (10 cm) + 1 / di

1 / (15 cm) - 1 / (10 cm) = 1 / di

-0.0333 cm-1 = 1 / di

di = 1 / (-0.0333 cm-1)

di = - 30.0 cm

Then use hi / ho = - di / do

hi / (5 cm) = - (-30 cm) / (10 cm)

hi = - (5 cm) • (-30 cm) / (10 cm)

hi = 15.0 cm
 5 A magnified, inverted image is located a distance of 32.0 cm from a
double convex lens with a focal length of 12.0 cm. Determine the
object distance and tell whether the image is real or virtual.

solution

Given: f = 12 cm and di = + 32 cm (inverted images are real and have + image distances)

Use 1 / f = 1 / do + 1 / di

1 / (12 cm) = 1 / do + 1 / (32 cm)

1 / (12 cm) - 1 / (32 cm) = 1 / do

0.052083 cm-1 = 1 / do

do = 1 / (0.052083 cm-1)

do = 19.2 cm

All inverted images produced by lenses are real images.

6. An inverted image is magnified by 2 when the object is placed 22 cm in

front of a double convex lens. Determine the image distance and the focal
length of the lens.

Solution
Given: do = 22 cm and M = -2 (inverted images have negative image heights and therefore
negative magnification values)

The magnification of an image is both the hi / ho ratio and the -di / do ratio. Setting the -di / do
ratio equal to -2 allows one to determine the image distance:

M = -di / do = -2
-di / (22 cm) = -2

di = 2 • (22 cm)

di = 44 cm

Now substitute the di and do values into the lens equation 1 / f = 1 / do + 1 / di to solve for the
focal length.

1 / f = 1 / (22 cm) + 1 / (44 cm)

1 / f = 0.06818 cm-1
f = 1 / (0.06818 cm-1)

f = 14.7 cm

7. A double concave lens has a focal length of -10.8 cm. An object is placed
32.7 cm from the lens's surface. Determine the image distance.

Solution

Given: f = -10.8 cm and do = +32.7 cm

Use the equation 1 / f = 1 / do + 1 / di

Substitute and solve for di.

1 / (-10.8 cm) = 1 / (+32.7 cm) + 1 / di

1 / (-10.8 cm) - 1 / (+32.7 cm) = 1 / di

-0.1232 cm-1 = 1 / di

di = 1 / (-0.1232 cm-1)

di = -8.12 cm

8. Determine the focal length of a double concave lens which produces an

image which is 16.0 cm behind the lens when the object is 28.5 cm from the
lens.

Solution

Given: do = 28.5 cm and di = -16.0 cm

(Careful: image distances for double concave lens are always negative)

Use the equation 1 / f = 1 / do + 1 / di where

Substitute and solve for f.

1 / f = 1 / (28.5 cm) + 1 / (-16.0 cm)

1 / f = -0.02741 cm-1

f = 1 / (-0.02741 cm-1)

f = -36.5 cm

9.A 2.8-cm diameter coin is placed a distance of 25.0 cm from a double

concave lens which has a focal length of -12.0 cm. Determine the image
distance and the diameter of the image.

Solution
Given: f = -12.0 cm and do = +25.0 cm and ho = 2.8 cm

Use the equation 1 / f = 1 / do + 1 / di

Substitute and solve for di.

1 / (-12.0) = 1 / (25.0) + 1 / di
1 / (-12.0) - 1 / (25.0) = 1 / di

-0.1233 cm-1 = 1 / di

di = 1 / (-0.1233 cm-1)

di = -8.11 cm

Then use hi / ho = - di / do to solve for hi.

hi / (2.8 cm) = - (-8.11 cm) / (25 cm)

hi = - (2.8 cm) • (-8.11 cm) / (25 cm)

hi = 0.908 cm

10. The focal point is located 20.0 cm from a double concave lens. An object
is placed 12 cm from the lens. Determine the image distance.

Solution
Given: f = -20.0 cm and do = +12.0 cm
(Careful: double concave lens have focal lengths which are negative.)

Use the equation 1 / f = 1 / do + 1 / di

Substitute and solve for di.

1 / (-20.0) = 1 / (12.0) + 1 / di
1 / (-20.0) - 1 / (12.0) = 1 / di

-0.1333 cm-1 = 1 / di

di = 1 / (-0.1233 cm-1)

di = -7.5 cm