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Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
competitive.
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For the past several years, each power electric utility is operated as
power. From few years the restructuring of the utility into separate
electricity and the energy is traded on a real time basis to meet the
consumer requirements.
market clearing price, the power generation and demand levels of all
Bids are submitted for supplying loads because all participants in the
power system effect each other. These bids are been received by ISO.
ISO analyzes the power system situation, develop strategies and define
participant defines its own resource scheduling and sends a bid to the
ISO for supplying other loads. These participants submit hourly offers
instructions from the ISO for each 5-min period. ISO determines
bids but mostly match the spot price with their marginal costs.
traded through the spot market; generators are paid for the electricity
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they sell to the pool while retailers and wholesale end- users pay for
the electricity they use from the pool. It is a process whereby prices for
commit their generators and make it available for dispatch. Once they
for the opportunity to run their generators. A bid is the “sell offer”
electricity market will then selects the required generators and when
supply against demand. A maximum spot price is also set under the
bid.
adjust some control variables (e.g. active power generation from power
function (e.g. power generation cost or active power loss in the target
has been the standard solution algorithm for the power flow problem
for decades [16]. A good reference for the theory of Newton’s method is
as its quadratic convergence properties. This thesis will only cover the
In OPF, when the load is light, the cheapest generators are always
the ones chosen to run first. As the load increases, more and more
expensive generators will then be brought in. Thus, the operating cost
optimization problem.
Subject to
h (u,x) = 0 (1.2)
Where, ‘u’ is the set of controllable quantities in the system and ‘x’
control variables ‘u’ and the operating limit on the other variables of
the system.
attributes
1. Objective function
2. The controls
power system.
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producing more efficient power, but also to look into ways of supplying
is generally more robust and flexible than a system with limited ability
from one area to another over all transmission lines (or paths)
That is, the transfer capability from Area A to Area B is not generally
the Available Transfer Capability (ATC) are the two most generally
(OR)
(ATC).
commercial activity over and above already committed uses [20, 22-
24].
(TTC) less the transmission reliability margin (TRM), less the sum of
as:
commitment)
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Transmission Reliability
Margin (TRM)
Available Transfer
Capability (ATC)
Total Transfer
Capability (TTC) Existing Transfer
Commitments (ETC)
system security.
regions.
and operation of the power system with regard to system security [3,
transmission outages.
verify that the existing operating guides will perform effectively. Based
capability can be taken as the security margin for the system. The
requires an enormous quantity of data and this data is not all readily
typically requires that the transfer capability for a fixed, specific set of
for the application at hand. In general, the longer the time frame for
make up the deficit without too low frequency drop or need to shed
loading and still remain within limit. Because the specific times at
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way that the system will not be left in a dangerous condition would
will take up the flow that was flowing on the now-opened line. If one of
the remaining lines is now heavily loaded, it may open due to relay
action, thereby causing even more load on the remaining lines. This
systems are operated such that any single initial failure event will not
cascading failures.
systems [26, 31-36]. Among the most accurate methods are AC load
flow and Power Supply Capacity (PSC) calculations [31, 32 and 36].
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there should be a very close relationship between the need for TLR
lost and massive import was required. The terminology of ATC was
transmission facility within its security area that is about to, or has
At this point the security coordinator may invoke TLR. This NERC
utilities in the state and the central sector [39]. There are five regional
grids namely North, West, East, Northeast and South. First four are
operation of the power system in the concerned region while the State
about the true cost of generation, that was readily available under
dispatch pattern, to measure the potential for market power for all
nodal prices.
about the generation and spread of power quality problems along the
power system.
analysis.
capability and those outages and elements which could limit the
transmission limits and it also identifies the outages and facilities that
distribution factors for linear load flow methods’. The main objective is
about to form mathematical model for fast linear load flows used in
constraints.
power systems.
markets, trading systems, and the main benefits and success factors
techniques.
based approach for minimizing line losses and finding the optimal
space.
function.
K.L.Lo et al. [63] proposed two Newton-like load flow methods, the
analysis, compared with full AC power flow and fast decoupled load
D.Pudjianto et al. [66] used LP and NLP based reactive OPF for
techniques. The fact that the algorithm can provide an ordered list of
a system.
electric power system. The first uses the brute force method of simply
second uses the straight forward analytical choice of setting all time
system. The new method identifies the location of buses with potential
In recent years, there has been a rapidly growing interest for power
total generation and load increase on specific source and sinks nodes.
Liang Zhao and Ali Abur [73] presented a method, which address
area systems, where each area solves its own TTC based on DC Power
line thermal limits, bus voltage limits and generator reactive power
limits are considered. When combined with the first line contingency
considerations, this method will give the fastest ATC computing and
quantify how ‘close’ the system is to the point of static voltage collapse
system.
Yan Ou et al. [79] have discussed the ATC calculation and have
TTC and two margins, TRM and CBM. Three currently used methods
deregulation environment.
line flow limits and uses DC load flow power system models. However,
conditions or data.
the effects of the transfer through prescribed interfaces and are secure
method for determining the ATC between any two locations in the
system and the ATCs for selected transmission paths between them.
ATCs considered.
leading to the steady state voltage stability limit (critical point) of the
next step in developing this method, nonlinear load models are being
There is very little theory developed for the calculation of the TRM
1.7. SUMMARY