When people think of mechanical failure of a composite insulator, there is a tendency to

think only of brittle fracture. However, recent evidence suggests that the incidence of

classical brittle fracture has been significantly reduced through better materials and

product designs. Still, other factors such as the inability of the specified insulator to

cope with dynamic line stresses or improper molding of the housing over the core rod

can also result in fracture-type failures. The features of the failed insulator in this case

differ substantially from what is normally seen during brittle fracture.

This past INMR article was provided by Dr. Bernhard Lutz, Prof. GUAN Zhicheng Guan

as well as Prof. WANG Liming of the Graduate School of Tsinghua University in

Shenzhen and by Dr. ZHANG Fuzeng of the China Southern Power Grid. It deals with

the case of a 500 kV AC composite insulator that fractured yet showed none of the

characteristics associated with brittle fracture. One of the objectives behind their

forensic analysis was to provide test data to allow comparison with any similarly

fractured insulators appearing on other networks. Another goal was encourage both

manufacturers and power grid operators to focus more on the quality of the critical

sheath-core interface to avoid premature interfacial ageing.

Photos: Tsinghua University

Introduction
By comparison with porcelain or glass, there is still only relatively limited service

experience with composite insulators operating at very high voltages. In this regard,

whenever a failure of such a unit occurs, it is important to conduct a thorough analysis

of the root causes and contributing mechanisms. This is the best way to ensure that

product designs as well as manufacturing/quality control practices by the industry

adjust to this information from the field. The fracture failure in question took place in

November 2010 on a composite insulator after 5 years’ service on a 500 kV AC line in

Guizhou Province of China – an area of light pollution severity as defined in IEC 60815.

Previous inspection of the line using of an IR camera (conducted only some two months

before the incident) had identified a minor ‘hot’ spot along this unit located from 1.5 to

2 m from the live end fitting. However, apart from the slightly elevated temperature

observed, i.e. ΔT = 1…2 K, there were no other indications of imminent failure.

Figure 1: Fracture location – high voltage portion (top), opposite side (bottom).

The insulator, with length of 5.315 m and core and sheath diameters of 30 mm and

40 mm respectively, was installed in a double ‘V’ suspension assembly, so there was no

line drop since the parallel insulator did not fail nor show any evidence of degradation.

The point of fracture was located 300 mm from the live end fitting and the core

exhibited regions of darker color. Especially striking was the fact that there were no

classic signs of brittle fracture (e.g. smooth planar fracture surface) and that the
degraded core showed a degree of porosity. This indicated that an entirely different

ageing mechanism was likely involved in this particular failure. In total, 25 punctures of

the sheath occurred along a 1.1 m portion from the high voltage end fitting. About half

of these were filled by eroded, porous silicone rubber (SIR) material that dropped off

easily after dabbing with a needle. The punctures were the result of an erosion

mechanism that probably originated from internal defects.

Before dismantling and cutting open the fractured insulator for analysis, both IR and UV

imaging were performed under an AC test voltage of 550 kV/= 318 kV applied to the

broken end without grading rings. After 5 minutes, areas with higher surface

temperature (i.e. ΔT = 2…3 K) were observed at a distance of 880 to 1040 mm from

the broken end (Fig. 3 left). At this position, the insulator also exhibited sheath

punctures from which corona activity was clearly detectable (Fig. 3 right).

Figure 2: Example of internally initiated sheath punctures before (left) and after

dabbing by a needle.

These findings confirm the presence of conductive interfacial defects having a length of

almost one meter that shifted the high voltage potential toward the ground end.

Moreover, the electric field strength was high enough to initiate corona discharges at

sheath punctures located far from the HV side fitting. The presence of these conductive

interfacial defects was confirmed by measuring DC resistance between different

puncture points using a multimeter. Resistivity values obtained fell within a range of

1 MΩ to 120 MΩ, the lower range measured at shorter distances between the

punctures.
Surface Pollution & Hydrophobicity

The pollution on the surface of both the fractured and the undamaged parallel insulator

of the double string were determined by ESDD and NSDD measurements performed

according to IEC 60815-1 (i.e. upper and bottom surfaces of two sheds at three

different positions along the insulator:

Figure 3: Temperature distribution (left) and corona sources (right) along the fractured

composite insulator under 318 kV

AC test voltage.

namely near the HV fitting, in the middle and near the ground end). It was found that

ESDD and NSDD values on the bottom shed surface near the failed insulator’s live end

were some 5 times higher than on the undamaged parallel insulator. Differences in

degree of pollution at the middle and ground end portions of the two insulators were

significantly less.

The explanation for this, given two identical insulators installed in close proximity to

one another, could be the enhanced electric field strength on the failed unit due to

conductive internal defects located near the fracture point. In environments with little

wind exposure, enhanced pollution deposition is known to occur in regions of high

electric field due to the dielectrophoretic forces acting on airborne particles.

The hydrophobicity class (HC) at different positions was then determined using the

spray method according to IEC TS 62073. No significant differences were found

in HC values on the upper shed surface at the HV side of both the fractured and the

parallel insulator. However, the failed insulator’s bottom shed surface was found to be

almost completely hydrophilic (HC 6) – likely the result of the high pollution at this

position.

Figure 4: Sheath puncture (left) and degraded interface area around LV side of

puncture (right).

Removal of Sheath

Removing the SIR sheath after cutting was fairly easy since almost no adhesion

remained between the sheath and the core rod. Nevertheless, some residue of core

material was stuck to the concave sheath surface, indicating that the mechanical

strength of the FRP core material (i.e. of the microscopic interfaces between the glass

fibers and the resin matrix) had degraded.

Black spots could be observed around the puncture area on surfaces of both the

concave SIR sheath and the core. Furthermore, some regions of the core’s surface

exhibited the same porosity and similar dark color as the fracture point and these spots

were rather conductive (R < 100Ω). Similar degradation of the interface could also be

found when dismantling more punctured portions of the insulator. Since conductive

interfacial defects can trigger sheath cracks and punctures, those observed along the

portion of 1.1 m from the HV end were probably initiated by a growing internal track.

Removal of the SIR sheath at non-punctured portions of the insulator revealed further

regions with weak adhesion (see Fig. 5). However, this time there were no blackened

and colored spots, nor residues of the core material on the concave sheath surface. This

indicated that it was the macroscopic sheath-core interface that was weak rather than

the microscopic glass fiber-resin matrix interfaces.

Figure 5: Areas of weak adhesion between sheath and core. 3.9 m from fracture point

(left), 1.2 m far from fracture point (right).

Standardized Tests on Core

Two standardized tests were carried out on the core material, i.e. the dye penetration

test and the water diffusion test according to IEC 62217.

Dye Penetration Test

Three degraded as well as three non-degraded core material samples were cut from

different parts of the fractured insulator. The degraded material was obtained from a

sheath puncture area some 800 mm from the point of fracture while the non-

degraded material was cut from the insulator’s ground end. Not surprisingly, the
degraded core samples did not pass the dye penetration test. Indeed, after only 3

minutes the dye had reached the upper surface (see Fig. 6), penetrating rapidly

through capillaries within the darkened portion of the core due to degradation of

its microscopic interfaces.

Figure 6: Degraded core material 3 min after start of dye penetration test.

All non-degraded core samples passed the test such that no dye was visible on their

surface after allowing 4 hours for possible penetration to occur. Failure of the

degraded core material in the dye penetration test confirmed the presence of

degraded microscopic interfaces 800 mm from the point of fracture.

Water Diffusion Test

A total of 10 samples were cut from the failed insulator. The SIR sheath of some

samples had been removed for the tests in order to compare the results with

samples with the sheath still attached. The location of the cutting was chosen

randomly in the middle and ground end portions of the failed insulator. Results after

boiling in water for 100 h according to IEC 62217 are presented in Table 2.
 With and without sheath cut from different positions of the fractured insulator

Leakage current through samples with the SIR sheath exceeded 1 mA and these

therefore failed the test. By contrast, samples without the sheath had

leakage currents between 0.024 and 0.027 mA and therefore passed. These results

confirm the weak adhesion at the sheath-core interface that had already been

observed when removing the sheath and which played a critical role in the entire

degradation process.

Scanning Electron Microscopy

Test samples made up from different parts of the core material were produced by

turning with a lathe or cutting with scalpels. These methods generated 1 mm thick

core disks as well as colored (degraded) and white (non-degraded) core material

directly from the fracture point respectively (see Fig. 7).

The dark spots at the degraded core sample (see Fig. 7) indicate interfacial

degradation along the glass fibers but are not present along the non-degraded

core. It is noteworthy that interfacial degradation of the insulator progressed during

service to core sections some distance (i.e. 850 mm) from the fracture point before

failure occurred. These dark spots could also be identified using SEM as areas with
higher erosion around glass fiber bundles (see Fig. 8). In the case of the degraded

core, the surface roughness and porosity of the glass fibers appeared higher than

on non-degraded material (see Fig. 9). Moreover, a large proportion of fibers in the

degraded core became exposed to the environment while fibers within

nondegraded core material remained embedded in the resin. These SEM results

confirm that the microscopic glass fiber-resin interfaces were severely degraded

and this progressively reduced the mechanical strength of the insulator core until

fracture finally occurred.

Figure 7: Degraded (left: 850 mm from fracture) and non-degraded (4.4 m from point

of fracture) parts of core.

Figure 8: SEM image of degraded part of core cut from a position 850 mm from fracture

point (view parallel to glass fibers).

Figure 9: SEM image of degraded (left) and non-degraded (right) core material (view

perpendicular to glass fibers).

Chemical Analysis

In order to better understand the interfacial degradation mechanisms observed in this

incident, chemical analysis of the core material was performed using Fourier

Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. The transmission of light versus wave

number w in cm-1 was plotted (a transmittance unit of 1 represents no absorbance

of light with the wavelength 1/w).

An FTIR analysis of degraded (samples #2 and #3) and non-degraded core material

(sample #1) was performed. The spectral curves were then normalized to the same

base so that peaks could be directly compared and allocated to different

concentrations of molecular groups having different degrees of light absorption. The

following conclusions can be drawn, based on results:

1. The degraded core material exhibited a higher concentration of silicic acid Si(OH)4

as indicated by decreased transmittance at 472…475 cm-1. This most probably

resulted from glass corrosion and ion exchange processes at the microscopic glass

fiber-resin interfaces – mechanisms which both loosen the microscopic interface

structure and require the presence of water. The latter mechanism is due to the

replacement of metal anions in the glass fibers (e.g. Na+) by previously dissociated

hydroxyl ions (OH-). Glass corrosion results from diffusion of water into the glass

surface with subsequent breaking of the Si-O-Si bonds.

 * for non-degraded and degraded core material cut from the fracture location, #1:

white core material sample cut from live portion, #2: colored core material sample cut

from live portion, #3: colored core material sample cut from ground portion

2. The degraded core material also exhibited a higher concentration of nitric acid

(HNO3) as seen from decreased transmittance at 1385 cm-1. This likely resulted

from partial discharge (PD) activity in combination with absorbed moisture as well as

ozone generation.

3. The degraded core had a higher concentration of carbonyl (CO: 1627-1638 cm-1)

and hydroxyl groups (OH: 3440-3500 cm-1) as well, probably resulting from

hydrolysis of the resin material due to absorbed moisture.

Thermal AnalysisIt is important to note that all the above mechanisms require the

presence of water and lead to degradation of the microscopic glass fiber-resin

interfaces. Failure of this composite insulator was therefore triggered by moisture

that became present within the core material as well as the core-sheath interface.

Thermal analysis of degraded and non-degraded sheath material was done using

thermogravimetry (TG).

Degraded material was scratched from inside a sheath puncture (sample #5) while

non-degraded material was obtained by cutting a portion of sheath along a

nonpunctured region (sample #6). Non-degraded sheath material showed two

expected phases of weight loss (see Fig. 11) due to dehydration processes of the

aluminum hydroxide Al(OH)3 filler.

Figure 11: TG curves for degraded sheath material scratched of a puncture (#5) and

non-punctured sheath material (#6).

A similar loss of weight, however, did not take place in the case of the degraded (i.e.

already dehydrated) material scratched from near the sheath puncture.

This confirmed the assumption that the sheath punctures were caused by thermal

degradation and internally initiated tracking and erosion during service.

External sources of puncture, e.g. lightning stroke or flashover, could therefore be

excluded.

Water Vapor Permeation of the Silicone Material

The water vapor permeation property of HTV silicone rubber material was also

investigated during the forensic analysis since water ingress played a major role in

terms of ageing of the core material. Newly manufactured HTV silicone rubber disks

with a thickness of 1 mm were used as samples representing the same material as

the sheath of the fractured insulator. These samples were used as lids for glass cups

by gluing them on the aperture with a viscous impregnationgrease (see Fig. 12).
 Figure 12: Permeation test set-up.

The glass cup contained a packet of drying agent in order to maintain constant

relative humidity below 3%. The RH and the temperature were monitored continually

during the experiment. The glass cups were placed in plastic boxes

including different salt solutions to adjust to constant relative humidity (RH). An

almost constant RH gradient between the surroundings and inner volume of the glass

cups was thus established, causing continuous permeation of water vapor through the

HTV samples and along the glued contact surface, respectively. Using a second glass

cup, this time with a glass lid, it was determined that permeation rate along the

glued contact surface was negligible.

The amount of permeated water vapor Q(t) was determined regularly after starting

the test by measuring the weight of the drying agent in the cups. From Fig. 13, it

can be seen that the amount of permeated water Q(t) increased linearly over time at

different RH values and that the slope of the curves and thus the rate of permeation

dQ(t)/dt decreased with the relative air humidity. The rate of permeation

dQ(t)/dt could then be used to calculate the permeation coefficient

(P) which characterizes the water permeation behavior of the HTV silicone rubber

material.
 Figure 13: Amount of water vapor Q(t) permeating through 1 mm thick HTV SIR disks

at different relative humidity (RH),T = 296 ± 3 K.

A P value of 1?10-7 g cm-1 s-1 cmHg-1 could be assigned to the HTV silicone rubber

material tested at relative humidity greater than 60%. Since this value exceeds the

permeation coefficient of glass fiber reinforced resin by six orders of magnitude, water

vapor permeates much faster through the HTV silicone rubber material examined

than through the fiber reinforced plastic (FRP). In the case of SIR materials with high

permeation coefficients, the insulator sheath cannot be considered a significant

barrier against water vapor permeation. This may be particularly critical for any

insulators with internal defects, such as weak sheath-core adhesion.

Discussion of Results

The results of the analysis reveal that the fractured insulator exhibited weak sheath-

core adhesion and that subsequent degradation mechanisms were accelerated by the

presence of water. Both findings proved decisive in terms of explaining the initiation

and progression of insulator ageing.

Water can penetrate inside composite insulators either in the liquid or vapor state.

During rainy seasons, liquid water accumulating on insulator surfaces first enters

the SIR sheath through a diffusion process. However, due to the relatively slow

water diffusion process in FRP materials (compared to SIR), the amount of absorbed

liquid water is normally too small to initiate severe degradation of the core. Still, if
core materials and coupling agents are used that are prone to hydrolysis or if silicone

rubber housings have greater water absorption characteristics, long-term

degradation of the sheath-core interface due to the presence of water cannot be

excluded.

Figure 14: Flow chart of water induced ageing process.

Absorbed water can further accumulate within internal defects such as voids, cracks

and air gaps, thereby creating localized regions with higher electric conductivity and

dielectric constant. During humid seasons and in the presence of such defects,

water vapor permeation through the silicone rubber sheath will be more critical in

initiating the degradation processes than water absorption. Consequently, air filled

defects at the sheath-core interface or inside the core can become filled with water

vapor rather quickly and which then becomes prone to condensation.

As soon as the defects (particularly in regions of high electric field) have been wetted,

the degradation process will proceed according to the schematic shown in Fig. 14,

namely:

1. Hot spot formation

2. Sheath splitting

3. Sheath puncture and defect growth by tracking and erosion processes

4. Core exposure to environmental factors, e.g. rain or acids and acceleration of

ageing until the point of fracture.

This process emphasizes the important role of the sheath-core interface when it

comes to the long-term service performance of composite insulators. The fractured

insulator studied in this analysis exhibited regions with weak sheath-core adhesion

from which sheath splitting and puncturing were triggered by water ingress. Indeed,

the vulnerability of composite insulators to sheath splitting where there are

weak sheath-core interfaces has already been demonstrated with samples that

included intentionally placed defects.

After sheath splitting and puncture, further ageing occurs due to exposure of the core

to environmental factors. Degradation of the core material by corrosion, ion

exchange and hydrolysis as well as by interfacial tracking can then proceed until the

point where fracture of the composite insulator finally occurs.

Conclusions

In this contribution, a fractured 500 kV (AC) composite insulator with fracture

characteristics different from brittle fracture was analyzed by optical,

chemical, thermal and standardized methods. The mechanical strength of the core

material was degraded by water induced ageing processes, i.e. ion exchange,

glass corrosion and hydrolysis. Interfacial tracking at microscopic (glass fiber-resin)

and macroscopic (sheathcore) interfaces was identified as a further

degradation mechanism.

The origin of the failed insulator’s degradation process is assumed to have been the

relatively weak adhesion detected between its sheath and core – making it especially

prone to water accumulation by water vapor permeation and subsequent

condensation. The observed sheath punctures and interface tracks

consequently developed from sheath splitting caused by partial discharges and

localized heating (hot spots) near wetted defects at the sheath-core interface. Once

sheath puncture occurred, further water induced ageing of the thus exposed core

could only accelerate.

The results of this investigation emphasize the importance of good adhesion between

the sheath and core of composite insulators when it comes to their long-term service

performance. Further research on nondestructive on and offline detection of weak

sheath-core adhesion is therefore required.

In order to address the ageing process identified above during routine online

monitoring, it is recommended focusing on the detection of hot spot phenomena

with IR cameras during or after rainy and humid seasons. Insulators exhibiting any

hot spots and sheath punctures should then be replaced as soon as possible.