Plumbing

A complex arrangement of rigid steel piping and stop

valves regulate flow to various parts of the building

Plumbing is any system that conveys

fluids for a wide range of applications.
Plumbing uses pipes, valves, plumbing
fixtures, tanks, and other apparatuses to
convey fluids.[1] Heating and cooling
(HVAC), waste removal, and potable water
delivery are among the most common
uses for plumbing, but it is not limited to
these applications.[2] The word derives
from the Latin for lead, plumbum, as the
first effective pipes used in the Roman era
were lead pipes.[3]

In the developed world, plumbing

infrastructure is critical to public health
and sanitation.[4][5] Boilermakers and
pipefitters are not plumbers, although they
work with piping as part of their trade, but
their work can include some plumbing.
History

Roman lead pipe with a folded seam, at the Roman

Baths in Bath, England

Plumbing originated during ancient

civilizations such as the Greek, Roman,
Persian, Indian, and Chinese cities as they
developed public baths and needed to
provide potable water and wastewater
removal, for larger numbers of people.[6]
Standardized earthen plumbing pipes with
broad flanges making use of asphalt for
preventing leakages appeared in the urban
settlements of the Indus Valley Civilization
by 2700 BC.[7] The Romans used lead pipe
inscriptions to prevent water theft. The
word "plumber" dates from the Roman
Empire.[8] The Latin for lead is plumbum.
Roman roofs used lead in conduits and
drain pipes[9] and some were also covered
with lead, lead was also used for piping
and for making baths.[10]

Plumbing reached its early apex in ancient

Rome, which saw the introduction of
expansive systems of aqueducts, tile
wastewater removal, and widespread use
of lead pipes. With the Fall of Rome both
water supply and sanitation stagnated—or
regressed—for well over 1,000 years.
Improvement was very slow, with little
effective progress made until the growth
of modern densely populated cities in the
1800s. During this period, public health
authorities began pressing for better
waste disposal systems to be installed, to
prevent or control epidemics of disease.
Earlier, the waste disposal system had
merely consisted of collecting waste and
dumping it on the ground or into a river.
Eventually the development of separate,
underground water and sewage systems
eliminated open sewage ditches and
cesspools.

Most large cities today pipe solid wastes

to sewage treatment plants in order to
separate and partially purify the water,
before emptying into streams or other
bodies of water. For potable water use,
galvanized iron piping was commonplace
in the United States from the late 1800s
until around 1960. After that period,
copper piping took over, first soft copper
with flared fittings, then with rigid copper
tubing utilizing soldered fittings.
The use of lead for potable water declined
sharply after World War II because of
increased awareness of the dangers of
lead poisoning. At this time, copper piping
was introduced as a better and safer
alternative to lead pipes.[11][12]

Systems

Copper piping system in a building

The major categories of plumbing systems

or subsystems are:[13]
potable cold and hot tap water supply
plumbing drainage venting
sewage systems and septic systems
with or without hot water heat recycling
and graywater recovery and treatment
systems
Rainwater, surface, and subsurface
water drainage
fuel gas piping
hydronics, i.e. heating and cooling
systems utilizing water to transport
thermal energy, as in district heating
systems, like for example the New York
City steam system.
Water pipes

A system of copper water tubes used in a radiator

heating system.

A water pipe is a pipe or tube, frequently

made of plastic or metal,[a] that carries
pressurized and treated fresh water to a
building (as part of a municipal water
system), as well as inside the building.
History

Old water pipe, remnant of the Machine de Marly near

Versailles, France

For many centuries, lead was the favoured

material for water pipes, because its
malleability made it practical to work into
the desired shape. (Such use was so
common that the word "plumbing" derives
from plumbum, the Latin word for lead.)
This was a source of lead-related health
problems in the years before the health
hazards of ingesting lead were fully
understood; among these were stillbirths
and high rates of infant mortality. Lead
water pipes were still widely used in the
early 20th century, and remain in many
households. In addition, lead-tin alloy
solder was commonly used to join copper
pipes, but modern practice uses tin-
antimony alloy solder instead, in order to
eliminate lead hazards.[14]

Despite the Romans' common use of lead

pipes, their aqueducts rarely poisoned
people. Unlike other parts of the world
where lead pipes cause poisoning, the
Roman water had so much calcium in it
that a layer of plaque prevented the water
contacting the lead itself. What often
causes confusion is the large amount of
evidence of widespread lead poisoning,
particularly amongst those who would
have had easy access to piped water.[15]
This was an unfortunate result of lead
being used in cookware and as an additive
to processed food and drink, for example
as a preservative in wine.[16] Roman lead
pipe inscriptions provided information on
the owner to prevent water theft.

Wooden pipes were used in London and

elsewhere during the 16th and 17th
centuries. The pipes were hollowed-out
logs, which were tapered at the end with a
small hole in which the water would pass
through.[17] The multiple pipes were then
sealed together with hot animal fat. They
were often used in Montreal and Boston in
the 1800s, and built-up wooden tubes were
widely used in the USA during the 20th
century. These pipes, used in place of
corrugated iron or reinforced concrete
pipes, were made of sections cut from
short lengths of wood. Locking of adjacent
rings with hardwood dowel pins produced
a flexible structure. About 100,000 feet of
these wooden pipes were installed during
WW2 in drainage culverts, storm sewers
and conduits, under highways and at army
camps, naval stations, airfields and
ordnance plants.

Cast iron and ductile iron pipe was long a

lower-cost alternative to copper, before the
advent of durable plastic materials but
special non-conductive fittings must be
used where transitions are to be made to
other metallic pipes, except for terminal
fittings, in order to avoid corrosion owing
to electrochemical reactions between
dissimilar metals (see galvanic cell).[18]

Bronze fittings and short pipe segments

are commonly used in combination with
various materials.[19]

Difference between pipes and

tubes

Typical PVC municipal water main being installed in

Ontario, Canada

 
A plastic water pipe being installed. Note that the inner
tube is actually transporting the water, while the outer
tube only serves as a protective casing

The difference between pipes and tubes is

simply in the way it is sized. PVC pipe for
plumbing applications and galvanized
steel pipe for instance, are measured in
IPS (iron pipe size). Copper tube, CPVC,
PeX and other tubing is measured
nominally, which is basically an average
diameter. These sizing schemes allow for
universal adaptation of transitional
fittings. For instance, 1/2" PeX tubing is
the same size as 1/2" copper tubing. 1/2"
PVC on the other hand is not the same
size as 1/2" tubing, and therefore requires
either a threaded male or female adapter
to connect them. When used in agricultural
irrigation, the singular form "pipe" is often
used as a plural.[20]

Pipe is available in rigid "joints", which

come in various lengths depending on the
material. Tubing, in particular copper,
comes in rigid hard tempered "joints" or
soft tempered (annealed) rolls. PeX and
CPVC tubing also comes in rigid "joints" or
flexible rolls. The temper of the copper,
that is whether it is a rigid "joint" or flexible
roll, does not affect the sizing.[20]
The thicknesses of the water pipe and
tube walls can vary. Pipe wall thickness is
denoted by various schedules or for large
bore polyethylene pipe in the UK by the
Standard Dimension Ratio (SDR), defined
as the ratio of the pipe diameter to its wall
thickness. Pipe wall thickness increases
with schedule, and is available in
schedules 20, 40, 80, and higher in special
cases. The schedule is largely determined
by the operating pressure of the system,
with higher pressures commanding
greater thickness. Copper tubing is
available in four wall thicknesses: type
DWV (thinnest wall; only allowed as drain
pipe per UPC), type 'M' (thin; typically only
allowed as drain pipe by IPC code), type 'L'
(thicker, standard duty for water lines and
water service), and type 'K' (thickest,
typically used underground between the
main and the meter). Because piping and
tubing are commodities, having a greater
wall thickness implies higher initial cost.
Thicker walled pipe generally implies
greater durability and higher pressure
tolerances.

Wall thickness does not affect pipe or

tubing size.[21] 1/2" L copper has the same
outer diameter as 1/2" K or M copper. The
same applies to pipe schedules. As a
result, a slight increase in pressure losses
is realized due to a decrease in flowpath
as wall thickness is increased. In other
words, 1 foot of 1/2" L copper has slightly
less volume than 1 foot of 1/2 M copper.

Materials

Water systems of ancient times relied on

gravity for the supply of water, using pipes
or channels usually made of clay, lead,
bamboo, wood, or stone. Hollowed
wooden logs wrapped in steel banding
were used for plumbing pipes, particularly
water mains. Logs were used for water
distribution in England close to 500 years
ago. US cities began using hollowed logs
in the late 1700s through the 1800s.[11]
Today, most plumbing supply pipe is made
out of steel, copper, and plastic; most
waste (also known as "soil")[22] out of
steel, copper, plastic, and cast iron.[22]

The straight sections of plumbing systems

are called "pipes" or "tubes". A pipe is
typically formed via casting or welding,
whereas a tube is made through extrusion.
Pipe normally has thicker walls and may
be threaded or welded, while tubing is
thinner-walled and requires special joining
techniques such as brazing, compression
fitting, crimping, or for plastics, solvent
welding. These joining techniques are
discussed in more detail in the piping and
plumbing fittings article.

Steel

Galvanized steel potable water supply and

distribution pipes are commonly found
with nominal pipe sizes from 3⁄8 inch
(9.5 mm) to 2 inches (51 mm). It is rarely
used today for new construction
residential plumbing. Steel pipe has
National Pipe Thread (NPT) standard
tapered male threads, which connect with
female tapered threads on elbows, tees,
couplers, valves, and other fittings.
Galvanized steel (often known simply as
"galv" or "iron" in the plumbing trade) is
relatively expensive, and difficult to work
with due to weight and requirement of a
pipe threader. It remains in common use
for repair of existing "galv" systems and to
satisfy building code non-combustibility
requirements typically found in hotels,
apartment buildings and other commercial
applications. It is also extremely durable
and resistant to mechanical abuse. Black
lacquered steel pipe is the most widely
used pipe material for fire sprinklers and
natural gas.

Most typical single family home systems

won't require supply piping larger than 3⁄4
inch (19 mm) due to expense as well as
steel piping's tendency to become
obstructed from internal rusting and
mineral deposits forming on the inside of
the pipe over time once the internal
galvanizing zinc coating has degraded. In
potable water distribution service,
galvanized steel pipe has a service life of
about 30 to 50 years, although it is not
uncommon for it to be less in geographic
areas with corrosive water contaminants.

Copper

Copper pipe and tubing was widely used

for domestic water systems in the latter
half of the twentieth century. Demand for
copper products has fallen due to the
dramatic increase in the price of copper,
resulting in increased demand for
alternative products including PEX and
stainless steel.

Plastic

Plastic hot and cold supply piping for a sink

Plastic pipe is in wide use for domestic
water supply and drain-waste-vent (DWV)
pipe. Principal types include: Polyvinyl
chloride (PVC) was produced
experimentally in the 19th century but did
not become practical to manufacture until
1926, when Waldo Semon of BF Goodrich
Co. developed a method to plasticize PVC,
making it easier to process. PVC pipe
began to be manufactured in the 1940s
and was in wide use for Drain-Waste-Vent
piping during the reconstruction of
Germany and Japan following WWII. In the
1950s, plastics manufacturers in Western
Europe and Japan began producing
acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) pipe.
The method for producing cross-linked
polyethylene (PEX) was also developed in
the 1950s. Plastic supply pipes have
become increasingly common, with a
variety of materials and fittings employed.

PVC/CPVC – rigid plastic pipes similar

to PVC drain pipes but with thicker walls
to deal with municipal water pressure,
introduced around 1970. PVC stands for
polyvinyl chloride, and it has become a
common replacement for metal piping.
PVC should be used only for cold water,
or for venting. CPVC can be used for hot
and cold potable water supply.
Connections are made with primers and
solvent cements as required by code.[23]
PP – The material is used primarily in
housewares, food packaging, and
clinical equipment,[24] but since the early
1970s has seen increasing use
worldwide for both domestic hot and
cold water. PP pipes are heat fused,
being unsuitable for the use of glues,
solvents, or mechanical fittings. PP pipe
is often used in green building
projects.[25][26]
PBT – flexible (usually gray or black)
plastic pipe which is attached to barbed
fittings and secured in place with a
copper crimp ring. The primary
manufacturer of PBT tubing and fittings
was driven into bankruptcy by a class-
action lawsuit over failures of this
system. However, PB and PBT tubing
has since returned to the market and
codes, typically first for "exposed
locations" such as risers.
PEX – cross-linked polyethylene system
with mechanically joined fittings
employing barbs, and crimped steel or
copper rings.
Polytanks – plastic polyethylene
cisterns, underground water tanks,
above ground water tanks, are usually
 made of linear polyethylene suitable as
a potable water storage tank, provided in
white, black or green.
Aqua – known as PEX-Al-PEX, for its
PEX/aluminum sandwich, consisting of
aluminum pipe sandwiched between
layers of PEX, and connected with
modified brass compression fittings. In
2005, a large number of these fittings
were recalled.

Present-day water-supply systems use a

network of high-pressure pumps, and
pipes in buildings are now made of
copper,[27] brass, plastic (particularly
cross-linked polyethylene called PEX,
which is estimated to be used in 60% of
single-family homes[28]), or other nontoxic
material. Due to its toxicity, most cities
moved away from lead water-supply piping
by the 1920s in the United States,[29]
although lead pipes were approved by
national plumbing codes into the 1980s,[30]
and lead was used in plumbing solder for
drinking water until it was banned in
1986.[29] Drain and vent lines are made of
plastic, steel, cast-iron, or lead.[31][32]

Gallery
  

Monument to water pipe in Mytishchi

(Russia)

A specific water pipe made for use with

pressure vessels. The pipe can sustain
high pressure-water and is relatively small
  

Concrete water pipe

Connecting to an existing water line (white

pipe) with a stainless steel tapping sleeve
and valve (red). A concrete thrust block is
being formed behind the new connection.
Components

A variety of stainless steel plumbing components

commonly used to connect various pipes and devices
together

In addition to lengths of pipe or tubing,

pipe fittings are used in plumbing systems,
such as valves, elbows, tees, and
unions.[33] Pipe and fittings are held in
place with pipe hangers and strapping.
Plumbing fixtures are exchangeable
devices using water that can be connected
to a building's plumbing system. They are
considered to be "fixtures", in that they are
semi-permanent parts of buildings, not
usually owned or maintained separately.
Plumbing fixtures are seen by and
designed for the end-users. Some
examples of fixtures include water
closets[34] (also known as toilets), urinals,
bidets, showers, bathtubs, utility and
kitchen sinks, drinking fountains, ice
makers, humidifiers, air washers,
fountains, and eye wash stations.

Sealants
Threaded pipe joints are sealed with
thread seal tape or pipe dope. Many
plumbing fixtures are sealed to their
mounting surfaces with plumber's
putty.[35]

Equipment and tools

A plumber tightening the fitting on a gas supply line.

Plumbing equipment includes devices
often hidden behind walls or in utility
spaces which are not seen by the general
public. It includes water meters, pumps,
expansion tanks, back flow preventers,
water filters, UV sterilization lights, water
softeners, water heaters, heat exchangers,
gauges, and control systems.

There are many tools [36] a plumber needs

to do a good plumbing job. While many
simple plumbing tasks can be completed
with a few common hand held tools, other
more complex jobs require specialised
tools, designed specifically to make the
job easier.
Specialized plumbing tools include pipe
wrenches, flaring pliers, pipe vise, pipe
bending machine, pipe cutter, dies and
joining tools such as soldering torches and
crimp tools. New tools have been
developed to help plumbers fix problems
more efficiently. For example, plumbers
use video cameras for inspections of
hidden leaks or problems, they use hydro
jets, and high pressure hydraulic pumps
connected to steel cables for trench-less
sewer line replacement.

Flooding from excessive rain or clogged

sewers may require specialized
equipment, such as a heavy duty pumper
truck designed to vacuum raw sewage.

Problems
Bacteria have been shown to live in
"premises plumbing systems". The latter
refers to the "pipes and fixtures within a
building that transport water to taps after
it is delivered by the utility".[37] Community
water systems have been known for
centuries to spread waterborne diseases
like typhoid and cholera, however
"opportunistic premises plumbing
pathogens" have been recognized only
more recently; Legionella pneumophila
discovered in 1976, Mycobacterium avium,
and Pseudomonas aeruginosa are the
most commonly tracked bacteria, which
people with depressed immunity can
inhale or ingest and may become infected
with.[38] These opportunistic pathogens
can grow for example in faucets, shower
heads, water heaters and along pipe walls.
Reasons that favor their growth are "high
surface-to-volume ratio, intermittent
stagnation, low disinfectant residual, and
warming cycles". A high surface-to-volume
ratio, i.e. a relatively large surface area
allows the bacteria to form a biofilm,
which protects them from disinfection.[38]
Regulation

A pipe wrench for holding and turning pipe

Much of the plumbing work in populated

areas is regulated by government or quasi-
government agencies due to the direct
impact on the public's health, safety, and
welfare. Plumbing installation and repair
work on residences and other buildings
generally must be done according to
plumbing and building codes to protect the
inhabitants of the buildings and to ensure
safe, quality construction to future buyers.
If permits are required for work, plumbing
contractors typically secure them from the
authorities on behalf of home or building
owners.

In the United Kingdom the professional

body is the Chartered Institute of Plumbing
and Heating Engineering (educational
charity status) and it is true that the trade
still remains virtually ungoverned;[39] there
are no systems in place to monitor or
control the activities of unqualified
plumbers or those home owners who
choose to undertake installation and
maintenance works themselves, despite
the health and safety issues which arise
from such works when they are
undertaken incorrectly; see Health Aspects
of Plumbing (HAP) published jointly by the
World Health Organization (WHO) and the
World Plumbing Council (WPC).[40][41] WPC
has subsequently appointed a
representative to the World Health
Organization to take forward various
projects related to Health Aspects of
Plumbing.[42]
In the United States, plumbing codes and
licensing are generally controlled by state
and local governments. At the national
level, the Environmental Protection Agency
has set guidelines about what constitutes
lead-free plumbing fittings and pipes, in
order to comply with the Safe Drinking
Water Act.[43]

Some widely used Standards in the United

States are:

ASME A112.6.3 – Floor and Trench

Drains
ASME A112.6.4 – Roof, Deck, and
Balcony Drains
 ASME A112.18.1/CSA B125.1 –
Plumbing Supply Fittings
ASME A112.19.1/CSA B45.2 –
Enameled Cast Iron and Enameled Steel
Plumbing Fixtures
ASME A112.19.2/CSA B45.1 – Ceramic
Plumbing Fixtures

See also
Active fire protection
Copper pipe
Domestic water system
Double-walled pipe
EPA Lead and Copper Rule
Fire hose
Flange
Garden hose
Heat pipe
Hose
MS Pipe, MS Tube
Passive fire protection
Pipe
Pipe fitting
Pipe network analysis
Pipeline transport
Piping and plumbing fittings
Plastic pipework
Plastic pressure pipe systems
Plumbing & Drainage Institute
 Plumbosolvency
Sanitation in ancient Rome
Tube
Victaulic
Water supply network

References
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Elsevier. p. 3.
2. Blankenbaker, Keith. Modern Plumbing.
Goodheart Willcox.
3. "What Is The Origin Of The Word
"plumbing"?" . Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. May
12, 1942. Retrieved December 27, 2013.
4. "Health Aspects of Plumbing" .
5. Plumbing: the Arteries of Civilization,
Modern Marvels video series, The History
Channel, AAE-42223, A&E Television, 1996
6. "Archaeologists Urge Pentagon To Keep
Soldiers From Destroying" . Herald-Journal.
Mar 19, 2003. Retrieved December 27,
2013.
7. Teresi et al. 2002
8. Pulsifer,Notes For a History of Lead, New
York University Press, 1888 pp. 132, 158
9. Middleton, The Remains of Ancient
Rome, Vol. 2, A & C Black, 1892
10. Historical production and uses of lead .
ila-lead.org
11. Kavanaugh, Sean. "History of Plumbing
Pipe and Plumbing Material" . Archived
from the original on May 24, 2013.
12. "Public Notice .Lead Contamination
Informative City Ok Moscow Water
System" . Moscow-Pullman Daily News.
August 12, 1988. Retrieved December 27,
2013.
13. "Basic Plumbing System" . Retrieved
4 January 2016.
14. "Lead in Drinking Water" . Epa.gov.
Retrieved 22 January 2014.
15. Hansen, Roger. "WATER AND
WASTEWATER SYSTEMS IN IMPERIAL
ROME" . Waterhistory.org. Retrieved
22 January 2014.
16. Lead Poisoning:
http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyc
lopaedia_romana/wine/leadpoisoning.html
[1]
17. "Wooden water pipe" . BBC. Retrieved
22 January 2014.
18. "Types of Pipe Material" . Virginia's
Community Colleges. Retrieved 22 January
2014.
19. Worldwide Market for Industrial and
Domestic Water Equipment as of 2010 .
PwC. March 2012. Retrieved January 28,
2014.
20. "Difference between Pipes and Tubes" .
Retrieved 22 January 2014.
21. "Wall thickness does not affect pipe o"
(PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on
September 3, 2013. Retrieved January 22,
2014.
22.
http://www.cispi.org/products/types.aspx
Cast Iron Soil Pipe Institute
23. "What's the difference between PVC and
CPVC pipe?" .
24. Bidisha Mukherjee. "Polypropylene
Properties and Uses" . Buzzle.
25.
http://www.greenbuildingpro.com/resource
s/whitepapers/1337-one-of-utahs-leeding-
residences-full
26. "Walking The Talk" . pmengineer.com.
27. Copper Tube Handbook, the Copper
Development Association, New York, USA,
2006
28. California’s PEX Battle Continues .
Builderonline.com
29. Macek, MD.; Matte, TD.; Sinks, T.;
Malvitz, DM. (Jan 2006). "Blood lead
concentrations in children and method of
water fluoridation in the United States,
1988–1994" . Environ Health Perspect. 114
(1): 130–4. doi:10.1289/ehp.8319 .
PMC 1332668  . PMID 16393670 .
30. Rabin, Richard (2017-03-06). "The Lead
Industry and Lead Water Pipes "A MODEST
CAMPAIGN" " . American Journal of Public
Health. 98 (9): 1584–1592.
doi:10.2105/AJPH.2007.113555 .
ISSN 0090-0036 . PMC 2509614  .
PMID 18633098 .
31. Uniform Plumbing Code, IAPMO
32. International Plumbing Code, ICC
33. "Miscellaneous Valves" . Archived from
the original on April 26, 2009. Retrieved
December 27, 2013.
34. "Basic Plumbing Principles" . The
Evening Independent. November 10, 1926.
Retrieved December 27, 2013.
35. "Key To Pop-up Drain Is Fresh Plumber's
Putty" . Daily News. January 12, 2003.
Retrieved December 27, 2013.
36. Plumbing Tool Kit
37. Carol Potera (August 2015). "Plumbing
Pathogens: A Fixture in Hospitals and
Homes" . Environ Health Perspectives;. 123
(8). doi:10.1289/ehp.123-A217 .
PMC 4528999  .
38. Joseph O. Falkinham III; Elizabeth D.
Hilborn; Matthew J. Arduino; Amy Pruden;
Marc A. Edwards (August 2015).
"Epidemiology and Ecology of Opportunistic
Premises Plumbing Pathogens: Legionella
pneumophila, Mycobacterium avium, and
Pseudomonas aeruginosa" . Environ Health
Perspectives;. 123 (8).
doi:10.1289/ehp.1408692 .
39. "The Chartered Institute of Plumbing
and Heating Engineering (CIPHE)" .
Retrieved March 29, 2014.
40. "World Plumbing Council" . Retrieved
October 11, 2009.
41. "WHO Health aspects of plumbing" .
Retrieved October 11, 2009.
42. "World Plumbing Council" . Archived
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43. "Section 1417 of the Safe Drinking
Water Act: Prohibition on Use of Lead Pipes,
Solder, and Flux" . Retrieved December 20,
2016.

Notes
a. Materials used to make water pipes are
polyvinyl chloride, polypropylene,
polyethylene, ductile iron, cast iron, steel,
copper and formerly lead.

Further reading
Teresi, Dick (2002). Lost Discoveries:
The Ancient Roots of Modern Science--
from the Babylonians to the Maya. New
York: Simon & Schuster. pp. 351–352.
ISBN 0-684-83718-8.
External links
  Media related to Plumbing at
Wikimedia Commons
  The dictionary definition of plumbing
at Wiktionary
  Quotations related to Plumbing at
Wikiquote
  Plumbing at Wikibooks
ATSDR Case Studies in Environmental
Medicine: Lead Toxicity U.S.
Department of Health and Human
Services
Lead Water Pipes and Infant Mortality in
Turn-of-the-Century Massachusetts
 Case Studies in Environmental Medicine
- Lead Toxicity
ToxFAQs: Lead

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