STRESS AND STRAIN

2
Topics:

• Introduction
• Main Principles of Statics
Stress
• Normal Stress
• Shear Stress
• Bearing Stress
• Thermal Stress
 Mechanics : The study of how bodies react to forces acting on them

RIGID BODIES DEFORMABLE BODIES

FLUIDS
(Things that do not change shape) (Things that do change shape)

Statics : The study of bodies

in an equilibrium
Incompressible Compressible

Dynamics :
Mechanics of Materials :
1. Kinematics – concerned
The study of the relationships
with the geometric aspects
between the external loads
of the motion
applied to a deformable body and
2. Kinetics – concerned
the intensity of internal forces
with the forces causing the
acting within the body.
motion.

1.1 Introduction 4
 External Loads

Body Force Surface Forces

- developed when one body exerts a force on - caused by direct contact of one body with
another body without direct physical contact the surface of another.
between the bodies.
- e.g earth’s gravitation (weight)

concentrated force

linear distributed load, w(s)

1.2 Main Principles of Statics 5

 Axial Load
 Normal Stress
 Shear Stress
 Bearing Stress
 Allowable Stress
 Deformation of Structural under Axial Load
 Statically indeterminate problem
 Thermal Stress
 Mechanics of material is a study of the
relationship between the external loads applied
to a deformable body and the intensity of
internal forces acting within the body.

 Stress = the intensity of the internal force on a

specific plane (area) passing through a point.

 Strain = describe the deformation by changes in

length of line segments and the changes in the
angles between them
Normal Stress (σ)
- stress which acts perpendicular or normal to the
cross section of the load-carrying member.
- can be either compressive or tensile.

Shear Stress (τ)

- stress which acts tangent to the cross section of
the load-carrying member.
- refers to a cutting-like action.

1.1 Introduction 8
 Normal Stress, 
the intensity of force, or force per unit area, acting
normal to A

 = P / A

A positive sign will be used to indicate a tensile stress

(member in tension)

A negative sign will be used to indicate a compressive

stress (member in compression)
 (b)
(a)

•Unit: Nm -²
Stress (  ) = Force (P) •N/mm2 or MPa
Cross Section (A) N/m2 or Pa
Assumptions :
1. Uniform deformation: Bar
remains straight before and
after load is applied, and
cross section remains flat or
plane during deformation
2. In order for uniform
deformation, force P be
applied along centroidal axis
of cross section C

1.4 Axial Loading – Normal Stress

11
  FRz  Fz ;  d F    dA
A

P  A
P

A
σ = average normal stress at any point
on cross sectional area
P = internal resultant normal force
A = cross-sectional area of the bar

1.4 Axial Loading – Normal Stress

12
• Use equation of σ = P/A for cross-sectional area of a member when
section subjected to internal resultant force P
Internal Loading
• Section member perpendicular to its longitudinal axis at pt
where normal stress is to be determined
• Draw free-body diagram
• Use equation of force equilibrium to obtain internal axial
force P at the section
Average Normal Stress
• Determine member’s x-sectional area at the section
• Compute average normal stress σ = P/A

1.4 Axial Loading – Normal Stress

13
Example 1.1:
Two solid cylindrical rods AB and BC are welded
together at B and loaded as shown. Knowing
that d1=30mm and d2=20mm, find average
normal stress at the midsection of (a) rod AB,
(b) rod BC.
Example 1.2
Two solid cylindrical roads AB and BC are welded
together at B and loaded as shown. Knowing
that d1 = 30 mm and d2 = 50 mm, find the
average normal stress in the mid section of (a)
rod AB, (b) rod BC.
 Normal strain () is the elongation or
contraction of a line segment per unit of
length  = L / Lo

L = elongation
Lo = length

* L = 
Example 1.3:
Determine the corresponding strain for a bar of
length L=0.6m and uniform cross section which
undergoes a deformation =15010-6m.
Example 1.4
A cable and strut assembly ABC supports a vertical load
P=12kN. The cable has an effective cross sectional area of
160mm², and the strut has an area of 340mm².
(a) Calculate the normal stresses in the cable and strut.

(b) If the cable elongates 1.1mm, what is the strain?

(c) If the strut shortens 0.37mm, what is the strain?

Example 1.5

The bar shown has a square cross section

(20mm x 40mm) and length, L=2.8m. If an
axial force of 70kN is applied along the
centroidal axis of the bar cross sectional area,
determine the stress and strain if the bar end
up with 4m length.

70kN 70kN

2.8m
 Tensile test is an experiment to determine
the load-deformation behavior of the
material.
 Data from tensile test can be plot into stress
and strain diagram.
 Example of test specimen
- note the dog-bone geometry

28
 Universal Testing Machine - equipment used
to subject a specimen to tension,
compression, bending, etc. loads and
measure its response

29
Stress-Strain Diagrams

A number of important mechanical properties of materials that can be

deduced from the stress-strain diagram are illustrated in figure above.

30
 Point O-A = linear relationship between stress
and strain
 Point A = proportional limit (PL)
The ratio of stress to strain in this linear region
of stress-strain diagram is called Young’s Modulus
or the Modulus of Elasticity given

 < PL
Unit: MPa

At point A-B, specimen begins yielding.

 Point B = yield point
 Point B-C = specimen continues to elongate without any increase in
stress. Its refer as perfectly plastic zone
 Point C = stress begins to increase
 Point C-D = refer as the zone of strain hardening
 Point D = ultimate stress/strength ; specimen
begins to neck-down
 Point E = fracture stress ..\stress strain diagram.doc

31
 Point O to A

Point C to D

Point D to E

At point E

Normal or engineering stress can be determined by dividing the

applied load by the specimen original cross sectional area.

True stress is calculated using the actual cross sectional area at

the instant the load is measured.

31
 Some of the materials like aluminum (ductile), does not have clear yield
point likes structural steel. Therefore, stress value called the offset yield
stress, YL is used in line of a yield point stress.

As illustrated, the offset yield stress is determine by;

 Drawing a straight line that best fits the data in initial (linear) portion of
the stress-strain diagram
 Second line is then drawn parallel to the original line but offset by
specified amount of strain
 The intersection of this second line with the stress-strain curve determine
the offset yield stress.
 Commonly used offset value is 0.002 or 0.2%
32
Brittle material such as ceramic and glass have low tensile
stress value but high in compressive stress. Stress-strain
diagram for brittle material.

33
 Elasticity refers to the property of a material such that
it returns to its original dimensions after unloading .
 Any material which deforms when subjected to load
and returns to its original dimensions when unloaded
is said to be elastic.
 If the stress is proportional to the strain, the material
is said to be linear elastic, otherwise it is non-linear
elastic.
 Beyond the elastic limit, some residual strain or
permanent strains will remain in the material upon
unloading .
 The residual elongation corresponding to the
permanent strain is called the permanent set .

34
• The amount of strain which is recovered upon unloading is
called the elastic recovery.

35
 When an elastic, homogenous and isotropic material is
subjected to uniform tension, it stretches axially but
contracts laterally along its entire length.
 Similarly, if the material is subjected to axial
compression, it shortens axially but bulges out laterally
(sideways).
 The ratio of lateral strain to axial strain is a constant
known as the Poisson's ratio,

v
lateral

 axial

where the strains are caused by uniaxial stress only

L
 paksi @  x 
L
b d
sisi @  y   
b d 36
Example 1.7
A prismatic bar of circular cross-section is
loaded by tensile forces P = 85 kN. The bar
has length of 3 m and diameter of 30 mm.
It is made from aluminum with modulus of
elasticity of 70 GPa and poisson's ratio =
1/3. Calculate the elongation and the
decrease in diameter d.
Example 1.8
A 10 cm diameter steel rod is loaded with 862 kN by
tensile forces. Knowing that the E=207 GPa and = 0.29,
determine the deformation of rod diameter after being
loaded.
Solution
 in rod,  =

Axial strain,

Lateral strain,

38
A force acting parallel or tangential to a section taken
through a material (i.e. in the plane of the material) is called a
shear force
The shear force intensity, i.e. shear force divided by the area
over which it acts, is called the average shear stress, 
 = shear stress
V = shear force
A = cross-sectional area
 Shear stress arises as a result of the direct action of forces
trying to cut through a material, it is known as direct shear
force

Shear stresses can also arise indirectly as a result of tension,

torsion or bending of a member.

41
 Depending on the type of connection, a connecting
element (bolt, rivet, pin) may be subjected to single
shear or double shear as shown.

Rivet in Single Shear

V P
 
A d2

4

42
Rivet in Double Shear
V P 2P
   2
A d 2
d
2( )
4
Example 1.9
For the 12 mm diameter bolt shown in the bolted joint below,
determine the average shearing stress in the bolt.

43
Single Shear Double Shear

P F
 ave  
A A P F
 ave  
A 2A
 The effect of shear stress is to distort the shape of a
body by inducing shear strains
 The shear strain,  is a measure of the angular
distortion of the body.

x
V

L 

x
 
L (units: degrees, radians)

44
 Bolts, pins and rivets create stress
in the members they connect,
along the bearing surface or
surface of contact. It is also
known as contact stress.

Bearing stress in shaft key;

P M r 2M
b   
Ab (h 2) L rhL

Bearing stress in rivet and plate;

P
b 
td
45
 It also known as Shear Modulus of Elasticity or the
Modulus of Rigidity.
 Value of shear modulus can be obtained from the linear
region of shear stress-strain diagram.

  G (Unit : Pa)

 The Modulus Young (E), Poisson’s ratio() and the

Modulus of rigidity (G) can be related as

E
G 
2(1   )

48
 Becauseof the change in the dimensions of a body as
a result of tension or compression, the volume of the
body also changes within the elastic limit.

 Considera rectangular parallel piped having sides a,

b and c in the x, y and z directions, respectively.

58
 The tensile force P causes an axial elongation of a
and lateral contractions of b and c in the x, y,
and z directions respectively. Hence,
Initial
body

Initial volume of body, Vo = abc

Final volume, Vf = (a + a)(b - b)(c - c)

= abc(1 + )(1 - )2
59
Expanding and neglecting higher orders of  (since  is
very small),

Final volume, Vf = abc(1 +  - 2)

Change in volume,
V = Final Volume - Initial Volume
= abc(1 +  - 2 ) - abc
= abc(1 +  - 2  - 1)
= abc( - 2 )
= Vo (1 - 2)
Hence,

60
 Isotropic material is subjected to general triaxial
stress x, y and z.
 Since all strain satisfy  << 1, so v = x + y + z
x = 1
E

 x  ( y   z ) 

y =
1
E

 y  ( x   z ) 

z =
1
E

 z  ( x   y ) 

1  2
v  ( x   y  z)
E
 Applied load that is less than the load the member can fully
support. (maximum load)

 One method of specifying the allowable load for the design or

analysis of a member is use a number called the Factor of Safety
(FS).

FS > 1

Allowable-Stress Design
 If a bar is fixed at both ends, as shown in
fig. (a), two unknown axial reactions
occurs, and the force equilibrium equation
becomes; F  0;
 y
FB  FA  P  0
• In this case, the bar is called statically
indeterminate, since the equilibrium
equation are not sufficient to determine
the reactions.
• the relative displacement of one end of the bar
with respect to the other end is equal to zero
since the ends supports are fixed. Hence; A / B 0

• the relationship between the forces acting on

the bar and its changes in length are known as
force-displacement relations
 PL
 A / B  0,  A  B  0 FB  FA  P  0, FA  P  FB
AE

• Realizing that the internal force in segment AC is +FA, and in segment CB,
the internal force is –FB. Therefore, the equation can be written as;
FA L AC FBLCB
 0 F L L L 
AE AE P  FB  B CB P  FB  CB  AC 
L AC  L AC L AC 
FA L AC FBLCB
 F L  L  L AC 
P  B CB  FB P  FB  CB 
AE AE L AC 
F L AE  L AC 
FA  B CB  L 
AE L AC P  FB  CB  1  L 
P  FB  

F L  L AC   AC 
L
FA  B CB
L AC L 
FB  P AC 
 L 
Example
   FX  0,  FA  FB  20(103 )N  0................(1)
FB  20(103 )  FA

B / A  0.001m
A  B  0.001m
FA L AC FB L CB
  0.001m
AE AE
FA (0.4m) FB(0.8m )
  0.001m
   0.0025m    200  10 Nm     0.0025m    200  10 Nm 
2 9 2 2 9 2
       
or
FA (0.4m)  FB (0.8m)  3927.0N................( 2)
Substitute eq (1)int o eq (2)
FA (0.4m)  ( 20, 000N  FA )(0.8m )  3927.0N
FA  16.6kN
FB  3.39kN
Example

Answer
Solution:   Fy  0, FA  FC  FE  15(103 )N  0................(1)
CCW   M C  0
 FA (0.4)  15(103 )(0.2)  FE (0.4)  0 ...........( 2 )

The applied load will cause the horizontal line

ACE move to inclined line A’C’E’
A  E   E
 C
0.8 0.4
C   E  A   E

0.4 0.8
  E
C   E  A  0.4
0. 8
0.4 A  0.4 E
C   E
0.8
C  0.5 A  0.5 E
FC LCD  FA L AB   FE L EF 
 0.5    0 .5  
1.5  105 E st 5
 2.5  10 E st 
5
 2.5  10 E st 
FC (0.5)  FA (0.5)   FE (0.5) 
 0. 5    0 . 5  
1.5  105 E st 5
 2.5  10 E st 
5
 2.5  10 E st 
33.33  103 FC  10  103 FA  10  103 FE
10  103 FA  10  103 FE
FC 
33.33  103
FC  0.3FA  0.3FE .................eq(3)
  Fy  0, FA  FC  FE  15(103 )N  0................(1)
CCW   M C  0
 FA (0.4)  15(103 )(0.2)  FE (0.4)  0 ...........( 2)
FC  0.3FA  0.3FE .................eq(3)
Substitute eq ( 4) int o eq( 2)
 FA (0.4)  15(103 )(0.2)  FE (0.4)  0
Substitute eq (3) int o eq(1)
 FA (0.4)  3(103 )  (0.4) 11.538(103 )  FA   0
FA  FC  FE  15(10 )N  0................(1)
3  
 FA (0.4)  3(103 )  4.615(103 )  0.4FA  0
FA  (0.3FA  0.3FE )FE  15(103 )  0
7.615103
1.3FA  1.3FE  15(10 ) 3 FA 
0.8
15(103 )  1.3FA  9.519(103 )
FE 
1.3  9.52kN
FE 11.538(103 )  FA .......................eq( 4)
Re place FA  9.52kN int o eq ( 4)
 9.52kN
FE 11.538(103 )  FA
11.538(103 )  9.52(103 )
 2.02 kN
Re place FE  2.02 kN int o eq(3)
FC  0.3FA  0.3FE
 0.3(9.519(103 )  0.3( 2.02  103 )
 3.462 kN
 A change in temperature can cause material to change its
dimensions.

 If the temperature increases, generally a material expands,

whereas if the temperature decreases, the material will
contract.

 If this is the case, and the material is homogenous and

isotropic, it has been found from experiment that the
deformation of a member having a length L can be calculated
using the formula;
T =  T L
where,
=linear coefficient of thermal expansion (unit: 1/C)
T=change in temperature
L=original length of the member
T=change in length of the member
Example

Given: =12x10-6/C
Solution:
  FY  0
FA  FB  F

AB =0 0 The change in length of the bar

is zero (because the supports do
not move)
To determine the change in
length, remove the upper support
of the bar and obtain a bar is
fixed at the base and free to
displace at the upper end.
( ) AB  T F So the bar will elongate by an
amount δT when only
temperature change is acting
And the bar shortens by an
amount δF when only the reaction
is acting
(  ) AB  T   F
T   F  0
FL
TL  0
AE
F(1)
12  106 (60  30)(1)  0
0.01 ( 200  10 )
2 9

F(1)
3.6  104 
0.012 ( 200  109 )
F  3.6  104  0.012 ( 200  109 )
 7.2kN

Average normal thermal stress:

F 7.2kN
 ; 2
 72 MPa
A 0.01
Example

Given:

st  12  106 / C
 al  23  106 / C
Est  200  109 Pa
E al  73.1  109 Pa
  Fy  0, 2Fst  Fal  90(103 )N  0.........eq(1)
st  al ...............................eq (2 )
(  ) st  (st )T  (st )F
al  (al )T  (al )F
(st )T  (st )F  (al )T  (al )F
Fst L FL
TL   TL  al
Ast E Aal E
Fst (0.25)
12  106 (80  20)(0.25)  
(0.02) ( 200  10 )
2 9

Fal (0.25)
23  106 (80  20)(0.25) 
(0.03)2 (73.1  109 )
Fst (0.25) Fal (0.25)
1.8  104   3.45  104 
251.327  106 ) ( 206.685  106 )
1.8  104  9.947  1010 Fst  3.45  104  1.21  109 Fal
 9.947  1010 Fst  3.45  104  1.21  109 Fal  1.8  104
1.65  104  1.21  109 Fal
Fst 
 9.947  1010
  165.88  103  1.216Fal ...............eq (3)
Substitute eq (3)int o eq(1)
2Fst  Fal  90(103 )N  0
2( 165.88  103  1.216Fal )  Fal  90(103 )N  0
 331.76  103  2.432Fal  Fal  90(103 )N  0
3.432Fal  421.76  103
Fal  122.89 kN
Substitute Fal  122.89 kN int o eq (3)
Fst   165.88  103  1.216Fal
  165.88  103  1.216(122.89  103 )
  16.445 kN

The negative value for F steel indicates that the

force acts opposite to arrow shown.
THE STEEL POSTS ARE IN TENSION and
ALUMINIUM POSTS IS IN COMPRESSION