Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Engineering
CERTIFICATE
I hereby declare that the work that is being presented in the Major
The matter embodied in the report has not been submitted for the
award of any other degree or diploma.
Nikhil
Agrawal.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Introduction-
An embedded system is a computer system designed to perform one
or a few dedicated functions, often with real-time computing constraints. It
is embedded as part of a complete device often including hardware and
mechanical parts. In contrast, a general-purpose computer, such as a
personal computer, is designed to be flexible and to meet a wide range of
an end-user's needs. Embedded systems control many of the common
devices in use today.
8-Bit Microcontroller-
A microcontroller (also microcontroller unit, MCU or µC) is a small
computer on a single integrated circuit consisting of a relatively simple CPU
combined with support functions such as a crystal oscillator, timers,
watchdog timer, serial and analog I/O etc. Programmed memory in the form
of NOR flash or OTP ROM is also often included on chip, as well as a typically
small amount of RAM. Microcontrollers are designed for small or dedicated
applications. Thus, in contrast to the microprocessors used in personal
computers and other high-performance or general purpose applications,
simplicity is emphasized. Some microcontrollers may operate at clock rate
frequencies as low as 4 kHz, as this is adequate for many typical
applications, enabling low power consumption (mill watts or microwatts).
They will generally have the ability to retain functionality while waiting for
an event such as a button press or other interrupt; power consumption
while sleeping (CPU clock and most peripherals off) may be just nano watts,
making many of them well suited for long lasting battery applications. 8051
is one of the famous architecture of 8-Bit Microcontroller.
8051 Description-
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Brief History-In 1981, Intel Cooperation introduced an 8-bit
microcontroller called the 8051.this microcontroller had 128 byte of Ram,
4K byte of on chip Rom, two timer, one serial port, and four ports (each 8-
bits wide) all on a single chip. At the it is also referred to as a ”system on
chip”. The 8051 is 8-bit processor, meaning that CPU can work on only 8
bits of data at a time. Data greater than 8- bit has to be broken into 8-bits
pieces to be produced by the CPU
The 8051 became widely popular after Intel allowed other manufactures to
make and market any flavor of the 8051 they please with the condition that
they remain code compatible with the 8051. This led to many versions of
the 8051 with different speed, ROM, and amount of the on chip ROM. It
should be noticed that, although new versions are different in speed,
memory but all are compatible with the original 8051 as war as the
instruction are concerned.
8051- Architecture-
Block Diagram-
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8051 Microcontroller Memory-
Code Memory-Code memory is the memory that holds the actual 8051
program that is to be run. This memory is limited to 64K and comes in many
shapes and sizes: Code memory may be found on-chip, either burned into
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the microcontroller as ROM or EPROM. Code may also be stored completely
off-chip in an external ROM or, more commonly, an external EPROM. Flash
RAM is also another popular method of storing a program. Various
combinations of these memory types may also be used--that is to say, it is
possible to have 4K of code memory on-chip and 64k of code memory off-
chip in an EPROM.
When the program is stored on-chip the 64K maximum is often reduced to
4k, 8k, or 16k. This varies depending on the version of the chip that is being
used. Each version offers specific capabilities and one of the distinguishing
factors from chip to chip is how much ROM/EPROM space the chip has.
As the name suggests, External RAM is any random access memory which is
found off-chip. Since the memory is off-chip it is not as flexible in terms of
accessing, and is also slower. For example, to increment an Internal RAM
location by 1 requires only 1 instruction and 1 instruction cycle. To
increment a 1-byte value stored in External RAM requires 4 instructions and
7 instruction cycles. In this case, external memory is 7 times slower!
As is illustrated in this map, the 8051 has a bank of 128 bytes of Internal
RAM. This Internal RAM is found on-chip on the 8051 so it is the fastest RAM
available, and it is also the most flexible in terms of reading, writing, and
modifying its contents. Internal RAM is volatile, so when the 8051 is reset
this memory is cleared.
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The 128 bytes of internal ram is subdivided as shown on the memory map.
The first 8 bytes (00h - 07h) are "register bank 0". By manipulating certain
SFRs, a program may choose to use register banks 1, 2, or 3. These
alternative register banks are located in internal RAM in addresses 08h
through 1Fh. We'll discuss "register banks" more in a later chapter. For now
it is sufficient to know that they "live" and are part of internal RAM.
Bit Memory also lives and is part of internal RAM. We'll talk more about bit
memory very shortly, but for now just keep in mind that bit memory actually
resides in internal RAM, from addresses 20h through 2Fh.
The 80 bytes remaining of Internal RAM, from addresses 30h through 7Fh,
may be used by user variables that need to be accessed frequently or at
high-speed. This area is also utilized by the microcontroller as a storage
area for the operating stack. This fact severely limits the 8051s stack since,
as illustrated in the memory map, the area reserved for the stack is only 80
bytes--and usually it is less since this 80 bytes has to be shared between
the stack and user variables.
Register Banks- The 8051 uses 8 "R" registers which are used in many of
its instructions. These "R" registers are numbered from 0 through 7 (R0, R1,
R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, and R7). These registers are generally used to assist in
manipulating values and moving data from one memory location to another.
For example, to add the value of R4 to the Accumulator, we would execute
the following instruction. However, as the memory map shows, the "R"
Register R4 is really part of Internal RAM. Specifically, R4 is address 04h.
This can be see in the bright green section of the memory map. Thus the
above instruction accomplishes the same thing as the following operation.
The concept of register banks adds a great level of flexibility to the 8051,
especially when dealing with interrupts (we'll talk about interrupts later).
However, always remember that the register banks really reside in the first
32 bytes of Internal RAM.
There are 128 bit variables available to the user, numbered 00h through
7Fh. The user may make use of these variables with commands such as
SETB and CLR. For example, to set bit number 24 (hex) to 1 you would
execute the instruction:
For example, if you want to add the number 10 and 20, the resulting 30 will
be stored in the Accumulator. Once you have a value in the Accumulator
you may continue processing the value or you may store it in another
register or in memory.
The "R" Registers- The "R" registers are a set of eight registers that are
named R0, R1, etc. up to and including R7.
The "B" Register- The "B" register is very similar to the Accumulator in the
sense that it may hold an 8-bit (1-byte) value.
The "B" register is only used by two 8051 instructions: MUL AB and DIV AB.
Thus, if you want to quickly and easily multiply or divide A by another
number, you may store the other number in "B" and make use of these two
instructions.
Aside from the MUL and DIV instructions, the "B" register is often used as
yet another temporary storage register much like a ninth "R" register.
The Data Pointer (DPTR)- The Data Pointer (DPTR) is the 8051s only user-
accessible 16-bit (2-byte) register. The Accumulator, "R" registers, and "B"
register are all 1-byte values.
While DPTR is most often used to point to data in external memory, many
programmers often take advantage of the fact that its the only true 16-bit
register available. It is often used to store 2-byte values which have nothing
to do with memory locations.
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The Program Counter (PC)- The Program Counter (PC) is a 2-byte
address which tells the 8051 where the next instruction to execute is found
in memory. When the 8051 is initialized PC always starts at 0000h and is
incremented each time an instruction is executed. It is important to note
that PC isn’t always incremented by one. Since some instructions require 2
or 3 bytes the PC will be incremented by 2 or 3 in these cases.
The Program Counter is special in that there is no way to directly modify its
value. That is to say, you cant do something like PC=2430h. On the other
hand, if you execute LJMP 2430h you’ve effectively accomplished the same
thing.
The Stack Pointer (SP) - The Stack Pointer, like all registers except DPTR
and PC, may hold an 8-bit (1-byte) value. The Stack Pointer is used to
indicate where the next value to be removed from the stack should be
taken from.
When you push a value onto the stack, the 8051 first increments the value
of SP and then stores the value at the resulting memory location.
When you pop a value off the stack, the 8051 returns the value from the
memory location indicated by SP, and then decrements the value of SP.
Output pin-A logic zero (0) is applied to a bit of the P register. The output
FE transistor is turned on, thus connecting the appropriate pin to ground.
Input pin-A logic one (1) is applied to a bit of the P register. The output FE
transistor is turned off and the appropriate pin remains connected to the
power supply voltage over a pull-up resistor of high resistance.
Port 1 -P1 is a true I/O port, because it doesn't have any alternative
functions as is the case with P0, but can be configured as general I/O only. It
has a pull-up resistor built-in and is completely compatible with TTL circuits.
Port 3-All port pins can be used as general I/O, but they also have an
alternative function. In order to use these alternative functions, a logic one
(1) must be applied to appropriate bit of the P3 register. In terms of
hardware, this port is similar to P0, with the difference that its pins have a
pull-up resistor built-in.
8051-Microcontroller Programming-
There are many ways to program a microcontroller, for example we can
develop a program in Assembly language and burn into microcontroller IC
by the use of Assembler. Now a day the codes of the program are
developed in “c” language. Now this code which is encoded in “c” is
converted into Assembly language and then transferred to microcontroller.
The IED used for this purpose is KEIL. It is a 8051 developing tool and used
for developing code using “c language”. By the term IDE we understand
integrated development environment, it provides the facility of developing a
code, debugging and simulation of the developed code. After the
compilation of the code the keil develops a .hex file at defined destination
and this hex file is actually burned into microcontroller. For burning purpose
we use new software known as “Flash Magic”. This software is used to
download the code in microcontroller.
Why use of C?
Compiler produces hex files that we download into the ROM of the
microcontroller. The size of the hex file produced by the compiler is on of
the main concern of the microcontroller programming, for two reasons:
While working on Assembly language, it produces the hex file that is much
smaller than C, but programming in Assembly Language is tedious and time
consuming. C programming, on the other hand, is less time consuming and
much easier to write, but the hex file produced is much larger than if we
use Assembly language.
Data Types in C- There are some specific C Data types that are most
useful and widely used for 8051 microcontroller.
2. Signed char- it is also a 8 bit data type that uses the most significant bit
D7 to represent the – or + value. As a result, we have only 7 bits for
magnitude to the signed number, giving us the value from -128 to +128. It
also stores the ASCII values of all characters.
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3. Unsigned int- this is 16 bit data type which only takes the integer value
and it ranges from 0 to 65535(0000-FFFFH).
4. Signed int- this is similar to signed char, but the only difference is that it
take sonly the integer value which ranges from -32,768 to +32767.
5. Sbit (single bit)- this sbit is widely used for accessing the single- bit
addressable registers.
Interfacing of Microcontroller-
1. Interfacing with LED- This comes under the port programming
concept. The output voltage of pin of microcontroller can be upto 5 V.
We directly connect the LED to the pin, but doing so can damage the
LED. That’s why we use to connect a resistor in series with it and
microcontroller. The connectional block diagram is shown in the
figure in next page.
Here we will be only discussing the Common Anode type. In common Anode
in order to turn ON a segment the corresponding pin must be set to 0. And
to turn it OFF it is set to 1.
When interfacing more than one 7-seg display the segment's (A-G) of all
displays are connected together whereas their ANODE (Cathode in case of
CC displays) are switched ON one after another. Consider we have to
display '31' on the above 7-seg display so we TURN ON the first transistor
by setting its corresponding pin to 1 & then give the 7-seg equivalent code
for '3' which is 4fh. Then we TURN OFF the first transistor & TURN ON the
second & output its corresponding 7-seg equivalent code of '1' i.e. 06h.Then
we again go back to display '3' this is a never ending loop.
ABOUT IC
Pin out-
Vref/2 Vin
Step size
(Volts (Volts
(mV)
) )
Open 5/256 =
0 to 5
(2.5) 19.53
0 to 5.12/256
2.56
5.12 =20
0 to 2.56/256 =
1.28
2.56 10
0.5 0 to 1 1/256=3.90
Default 0-5V. Can be changed by setting different value for Vref/2 pin.
Vin =Vin(+) – Vin (-)
Range=0 to 2x Vref/2. For Vin = 2x Vref/2. We get 256 as a digital output
on D0-D7. (Refer Table)
Step Size Smallest change– (2 x Vref/2)/ 256 for ADC804, for eg.
for step size 10mv ,digital output on D0-D7 changes by one count for
every 10mv change of the input analog voltage.
Data Out- Dout = Vin / Step Size. For input voltage of 2.56 volts (Vref=1.28
volts) and step size of 10mv Dout =2560/10 =256 or FF that is full scale
output.
Channel CBA
IN0 000
IN1 001
IN2 010
IN3 011
IN4 100
IN5 101
IN6 110
IN7 111 DIGITAL TO ANALOG
CONVERTER (DAC)-
Usage- Just write a byte to the IO port and the DAC converts it to an
analog value Some 8051 clones have ADCs and DACs in built.
Moreover for protection of circuit from back EMF output diodes are included
within the IC. The output supply (VCC2) has a wide range from 4.5V to 36V,
which has made L293D a best choice for DC motor driver. A simple
schematic for interfacing a DC motor using L293D is shown below.
As you can see in the circuit, three pins are needed for interfacing a
DC motor (A, B, Enable). If you want the o/p to be enabled completely then
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you can connect Enable to VCC and only 2 pins needed from controller to
make the motor work.
As per the truth mentioned in the image above its fairly simple to
program the microcontroller. It’s also clear from the truth table of BJT circuit
and L293D the programming will be same for both of them, just keeping in
mind the allowed combinations of A and B. We will discuss about
programming in C as well as assembly for running motor with the help of a
microcontroller
8. Interface with Stepper Motor- here are actually many ways you can
interface a stepper motor to your controller, out of them the most used
interfaces are:
As you see in the circuit above the four pins "Controller pin 1",2,3 and 4
will control the motion and direction of the stepper motor according to
the step sequence programmed in the controller.
As already discussed in case of L293D, Here in this circuit too the four
pins "Controller pin 1",2,3 and 4 will control the motion and direction of
the stepper motor according to the step sequence sent by the controller.
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2wire connection for Unipolar Stepper Motor.-
PIC Microcontroller-
1.Introduction-PIC is a family of Harvard
architecture microcontrollers made by Microchip Technology, derived from
the PIC1640 originally developed by General Instrument's Microelectronics
Division. The name PIC initially referred to "Peripheral Interface
Controller".
PICs are popular with both industrial developers and hobbyists alike due to
their low cost, wide availability, large user base, extensive collection of
application notes, availability of low cost or free development tools, and
serial programming (and re-programming with flash memory) capability.
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Microchip announced on February 2008 the shipment of its six billionth PIC
processor.
2. Core Architecture- The PIC architecture is distinctively minimalist. It is
characterized by the following features:
PIC Programming-
During the training module we have use the PIC16F876. It is a product
of microchip cooperation. KIEL is used for programming the 8051, like in
same way microC is a IDE for the code development of PIC microcontroller.
MicroC- mikroC is a powerful, feature rich development tool for PIC micros.
It is designed to provide the programmer with the easiest possible solution
for developing applications for embedded systems, without compromising
performance or control.
mikroC IDE
PIC and C fit together well: PIC is the most popular 8-bit chip in the world,
used in a wide variety of applications, and C, prized for its efficiency, is the
natural choice for developing embedded systems. mikroC provides a
successful match featuring highly advanced IDE, ANSI compliant compiler,
broad set of hardware libraries, comprehensive documentation, and plenty
of ready-to-run examples.
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Features- mikroC allows you to quickly develop and deploy
complex applications:
• Write your C source code using the built-in Code Editor (Code and
Parameter Assistants, Syntax Highlighting, Auto Correct, Code
Templates, and more…)
• Use the included mikroC libraries to dramatically speed up the
development: data acquisition, memory, displays, conversions,
communications… Practically all P12, P16, and P18 chips are
supported.
• Monitor your program structure, variables, and functions in the Code
Explorer.
• Generate commented, human-readable assembly, and standard HEX
compatible with all programmers.
• Inspect program flow and debug executable logic with the integrated
Debugger.
• Get detailed reports and graphs: RAM and ROM map, code statistics,
assembly listing, calling tree, and more…
• We have provided plenty of examples for you to expand, develop, and
use as building bricks in your projects. Copy them entirely if you deem
fit – that’s why we included them with the compiler.
PCB Designing-
2. Standards- There are industry standards for almost every aspect of PCB
design. These standards are controlled by the former Institute for
Interconnecting and Packaging Electronic Circuits, who are now known
simply as the IPC (www.ipc.org). There is an IPC standard for every aspect
of PCB design, manufacture, testing, and anything else that you could ever
need.
Local countries also have their own various standards for many aspects of
PCB design and manufacture, but by and large the IPC standards are the
accepted industry standard around the world. Printed Circuit Boards are also
known (some would say, more correctly known) as Printed Wiring Boards, or
simply Printed Boards. But we will settle on the more common term PCB for
this article.
3. The Schematic- Before we even begin to lay out our PCB, you MUST
have a complete and accurate schematic diagram. Many people jump
straight into the PCB design with nothing more than the circuit in their head,
or the schematic drawn on loose post-it notes with no pin numbers and no
order. This just isn’t good enough, if you don’t have an accurate schematic
then your PCB will most likely end up a mess, and take you twice as long as
it should.
4. Working To Grids- The second major rule of PCB design, and the one
most often missed by beginners, is to lay out our board on a fixed grid. This
is called a “snap grid”, as our cursor, components and tracks will “snap”
into fixed grid positions. Not just any size grid minds, but a fairly coarse
one. 100 thou is a standard placement grid for very basic through hole
work, with 50 thou being a standard for general tracking work, like running
tracks between through hole pads. For even finer work we may use a 25
thou snap grid or even lower. Many designers will argue over the merits of a
20 thou grid vs. a 25 thou grid for instance. In practice, 25 thou is often
more useful as it allows you to go exactly half way between 50 thou spaced
pads.
5. Working From The Top- PCB design is always done looking from the
top of our board, looking through the various layers as if they were
transparent. This is how all the PCB packages work. The only time we will
look at our board from the bottom is for manufacturing or checking
purposes. This “through the board” method means that we will have to get
used to reading text on the bottom layers as a mirror image, get used to it.
7. Vias- Vias connect the tracks from one side of our board to another, by
way of a hole in our board. On all but cheap homemade and low end
commercial prototypes, vias are made with electrically plated holes, called
Plated through Holes (PTH). Plated through holes allow electrical connection
between different layers on your board.
10. Basic Routing- Now it’s time for some basic routing rules. Routing is
also known as “tracking”. Routing is the process of laying down tracks to
connect components on your board. An electrical connection between two
or more pads is known as a “net”.
Keep nets as short as possible. The longer your total track length, the
greater it’s resistance, Capacitance and Inductance. All of which can
be undesirable factors.
Tracks should only have angles of 45 degrees. Avoid the use of right
angles, and under no circumstances use an angle greater than 90
degrees. This is important to give a professional and neat appearance
to your board. PCB packages will have a mode to enforce 45 degree
movements, make use of it. There should never be a need to turn it
off. Contrary to popular belief, sharp right angle corners on tracks
don’t produce measurable EMI or other problems. The reasons to
avoid right angles are much simpler - it just doesn’t look good, and it
may have some manufacturing implications.
Forget nice rounded track corners, they are harder and slower to
place and have no real advantage. Stick to 45 degree increments.
Rounded track bends belong to the pre-CAD taped artwork era.
“Snake” your tracks around the board, don’t just go “point to point”.
Point to point tracking may look more efficient to a beginner at first,
but there are a few reasons you shouldn’t use it. The first is that it’s
ugly, always an important factor in PCB design! The second is that it is
not very space efficient when you want to run more tracks on other
layers.
Enable your Electrical grid, which is sometimes referred to as a “snap
to center” or “snap to nearest” option. Let the software find the
centers of pads and ends of tracks automatically for you. This is great
for when you have pads and tracks which aren’t lined up to your
current snap grid. If you don’t have these options enabled then you
may have to keep reducing your snap grid until you find one that fits.
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Far more trouble than it’s worth. There is almost never a reason to
have these options disabled.
Always take your track to the center of the pad, don’t make your track
and pad “just touch”. There are few reasons for this. The first is that
it’s sloppy and unprofessional. The second is that your program may
not think that the track is making electrical connection to the pad.
Proper use of a snap grid and electrical grid will avoid problems here.
Use a single track, not multiple tracks tacked together end to end. It
may make no difference to the look of your final board, but it can be a
pain for future editing. Often you’ll have to extend a track a bit. In this
case it’s best to delete the old one and place a new one. It may take a
few extra seconds, but it’s worth it. People looking at your finished
board may not know, but YOU’LL know! It’s the little touches like this
that set good PCB designers apart.
Make sure your tracks go right through the exact center of pads and
components, and not off to one side. Use of the correct snap grid will
ensure that you get this right every time. If your track doesn’t go
through the exact center then you are using the wrong snap grid. Why
do you need to do this? It makes your board neater and more
symmetrical, and it gives you the most clearance.
Only take one track between 100 thou pads unless absolutely
necessary. Only on large and very dense designs should you consider
two tracks between pads. Three tracks between pads is not unheard
of, but we are talking seriously fine tolerances here.
For high currents, use multiple vias when going between layers. This
will reduce your track impedance and improve the reliability. This is a
general rule whenever you need to decrease the impedance of your
track or power plane.
Don’t “drag” tracks to angles other than 45 degrees
“Neck down” between pads where possible. Eg, a 10 thou track
through two 60 thou pads gives a generous 15 thou clearance
between track and pad.
If your power and ground tracks are deemed to be critical, then lay
them down first. Also, make your power tracks as BIG as possible.
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An example of GOOD power routing (Left) and BAD power routing
(Right).
11. Finishing Touches- Once we have finished all our routing, our board
isn’t done quite yet. There are a few last minute checks and finishing
touches you should do.
If we have thin tracks (<25 thou) then it’s nice to add a “chamfer” to
any “T” junctions, thus eliminating any 90 degree angles. This makes
the track more physically robust, and prevents any potential
manufacturing etching problems. But most importantly, it looks nice.
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Check that we have any required mounting holes on the board. Keep
mounting holes well clear of any components or tracks. Allow room
for any washers and screws.
Minimize the number of hole sizes. Extra hole sizes cost you money,
as the manufacturer will charge you based on not only the number of
holes in your boards, but the number of different hole sizes you have.
It takes time for the very high speed drill to spin down, change drill
bits, and then spin up again. Check with your manufacturer for these
costs, but you can’t go wrong by minimizing the number of hole sizes.
Double check for correct hole sizes on all your components. Nothing is
more annoying than getting your perfectly laid out board back from
the manufacturer, only to find that a component won’t fit in the
holes! This is a very common problem, don’t get caught out.
Ensure that all our vias are identical, with the same pad and hole
sizes. Remember our pad to hole ratio. Errors here can cause
“breakouts” in our via pad, where the hole, if shifted slightly can be
outside of your pad. With plated through holes this is not always fatal,
but without a complete annular ring around your hole, your via will be
mechanically unreliable.
Check that there is adequate physical distance between all our
components. Watch out for components with exposed metal that can
make electrical contact with other components, or exposed tracks
and pads.
Change our display to “draft” mode, which will display all your tracks
and pads as outlines. This will allow us to see your board “warts and
all”, and will show up any tracks that are tacked on or not ending on
pad centers.
If we wish, add “teardrops” to all your pads and vias. A teardrop is a
nice “smoothing out” of the junction between the track and the pad,
not surprisingly, shaped like a teardrop. This gives a more robust and
reliable track to pad interface, better than the almost right angle
between a standard track and pad. Don’t add teardrops manually
though, it’s a waste of time. But if your program supports automatic
teardrop placement, feel free to use it.
12. Single Sided Design- Single sided design can greatly reduce the cost
of our board. If we can fit our design on a single sided board then it is
preferable to do so. Look inside many of today’s consumer items like TV’s
and DVD players, and we will almost certainly find some single sided
boards. They are still used because they are so cheap to manufacture.
Single sided design however requires some unique techniques which are
aren’t required once we go to doubled sided and multi-layer design. It is
certainly more challenging than a double sided layout. In fact, a single sided
board design will be regarded inversely proportional to the number of
jumper links used. No jumper links earns the admiration of many peers!
It is all about a balance between board size and the number of jumper
links required. Almost every single sided board will require some jumper
links, so it is important to minimize these.
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Component placement is even more critical on a single sided board, so
this is no time to make all our components nice and neatly aligned. Arrange
your components so that they give the shortest and most efficient tracking
possible. It is like playing a game Chess, if we don’t think many moves
ahead then we will get our self in a corner pretty quickly. Having just one
track running from one side of your board to the other can ruin your whole
layout, as it makes routing any other perpendicular tracks impossible.
Many people will route their board as though it is a double sided board,
but only with straight tracks on the top layer. Then when the board is to be
manufactured, the top layer tracks are replaced with jumper links. This can
be a rather inefficient way to approach single sided design, and is not
recommended. We must be frugal in our placement, and don’t be afraid to
rip everything up and try again if you see a better way to route something.
With experience, we will be able to tell before we even start, if a design if
worth trying to route on a single sided board.
14. PCB Designing Tools- There are many tools available in maket for the
designing of PCB. For example, PCB Express, Orcade, Dip Trace, and many
more. During the training module we have trained on Dip Trace software. It
is good and much easier to work when you are beginner.
First we develop a schematic diagramed of the circuit in schematic
editor.
be appear in front of us. Now the new task of placing the components and
to arrange the component in systematically arranged manner, in order to
get good PCB. The picture in next page will show how it appears.
Now after completion of placement, tracking and routing the PCB appears
as.
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FINAL PCB LAYOUT.