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Sign conventions
1
• Shear forces are given a special symbol on Vy
and Vz
2
• The couple moment along the axis of the member is
given
M x = T = Torque
M y = M z = bending moment.
Solid Mechanics
We need to follow a systematic sign convention for
systematic development of equations and reproducibility of
the equations
The sign convention is like this.
If a face (i.e. formed by the cutting plane) is +ve if its outward
normal unit vector points towards any of the positive coordinate
directions otherwise it is –ve face
• A force component on a +ve face is +ve if it is directed
towards any of the +ve coordinate axis direction. A force
component on a –ve face is +ve if it is directed towards any of
the –ve coordinate axis direction. Otherwise it is –v.
Thus sign conventions depend on the choice of coordinate
axes.
Shear force and bending moment diagrams of beams
Beam is one of the most important structural components.
• Beams are usually long, straight, prismatic members and
always subjected forces perpendicular to the axis of the beam
Two observations:
(1) Forces are coplanar
Solid Mechanics
(2) All forces are applied at the axis of the beam.
Application of method of sections
What are the necessary internal forces to keep the segment of
the beam in equilibrium?
Fx = 0 P
Fy = 0 V
Fz = 0 M
(2) Cantilever beam: Beam fixed at one end and free at other
[Σ Fx = 0 → + ]
Σ Fy = 0 ↑ +
V + ∆V − V + P∆x = 0
∆V = − P∆x
∆V
= −P
∆x
∆V dV
lim ∆x = dx = − P
∆ x →0
P ∆x 2
[ Σ M A = 0 ] V ∆x − M + M + ∆ M − =0
2
P∆x 2
V ∆x + ∆ M − =0
2
∆M P∆x
+V − =0
∆x 2
Solid Mechanics
∆ M dM
lim ∆x = dx = −V
∆x →0
dV
From equation = − P we can write
dx
XD
VD − VC = − Pdx
XC
dM
From equation = −V
dx
MD − MC = − Vdx
Special cases:
Solid Mechanics
Solid Mechanics
Solid Mechanics
Solid Mechanics
0 ≤ x ≤ 2 − ( 1) − ( 1)
2 ≤ x ≤ 6 −(2 −(2)
6 ≤ x ≤ 8 − ( 3) − ( 3)
8 ≤ x ≤ 10 − ( 4 ) − ( 4 )
0 ≤ x ≤ 2 ( 1) − ( 1)
V −5=0
V =5
VA = 5 ; VB = 5
2 ≤ x ≤ 6 (2) − (2)
V − 5 + 30 − 7.5 ( x − 2 ) = 0
V = 5 − 30 + 7.5 ( x − 2 )
VB = −25 ; VC = 5
−25 + 7.5 ( x − 2 ) = 0
x = 5.33
6 ≤ x ≤ 8 ( 3) − ( 3)
V − 5 + 30 − 30 − 10 = 0
V = +15
VC = +15 ; VD = +15
8 ≤ x ≤ 10 ( 4 ) − ( 4 )
V − 5 + 30 − 30 − 10 + 20 = 0
V +5=0
V = −5
VD = −5 ; VE = −5
Solid Mechanics
0 ≤ x ≤ 2 − ( 1) − ( 1)
M − 10 + 5x = 0
M = −5x + 10
M A = +10 ; M B = 0
2 ≤ x ≤ 6 − (2) − (2)
7.5 ( x − 2 )2
M − 10 + 5x − 30 ( x − 2 ) + =0
2
7.5 ( x − 2 )2
M = 10 − 5x + 30 ( x − 2 ) −
2
ME x =5.33 = 41.66 +
MC x =6
= 40
6 ≤ x ≤ 8 − ( 3 ) − ( 3 ) [C − D]
M − 10 + 5x − 30 ( x − 2 ) + 30 ( x − 4 ) + 10 ( x − 6 ) + 20 = 0
MC x =6
= 20 +
MD x =8 = −10
8 ≤ x ≤ 10 [ D − E] ( 4 ) − ( 4 )
M − 10 + 5x − 30 ( x − 2 ) + 30 ( x − 4 ) + 10 ( x − 6 ) + 20 − 20 ( x − 8 ) = 0
M E x =8 = 0
V −5=0 M − 10 + 5x = 0
V =5 M = 10 − 5x
VA = 5 M A = 10 ; MB = 0
VB = 5
2 ≤ x ≤ 6 [B − C ]
( x − 2 )2
V − 5 + 30 − 7.5 ( x − 2 ) = 0 M − 10 + 5x − 30 ( x − 2 ) + 7.5 =0
2
V = 7.5 ( x − 2 ) + 5 − 30 x=6
VB = −25 ; VC = 5 MC = 40
−25 + 7.5 ( x − 2 ) = 0 ME x = 5.33 = 41.66
x = 5.33 x=2
MB = 0
6 ≤ x ≤ 8 [C − D]
V − 5 + 30 − 10 − 30 = 0
V = 15
VC = 15 , VD = 15
Solid Mechanics
8 ≤ x ≤ 10 [ D − E]
V − 5 + 30 − 10 − 30 + 20 = 0
V = −5
VD = −5 , VE = −5
Solid Mechanics
[ Fx → + = 0 ] R Ax = 0
Fy ↑ + = 0 R Ay + 60 − 90 = 0
RAy = 30 kN ↑
[ M∆ = 0] M + 60 − 90 × 4.5 = 0
M = 285 k − m
30 + V + 60 − 30 ( x − 3 ) = 0
V = 30 ( x − 3 ) − 90
= 30 × 3 − 90
= 90 − 90
=0
M B − M A = − ( −60 )
M B = 60 + M A = 60 − 285
= −225
Solid Mechanics
MC − M B = − ( −90 )
MC = MB + 90 = −225 + 90
= −135
MD − MC = − ( −135 )
MD = MC + 135 = −135 + 135 = 0
Fy ↑ + = 0
R Ay + RCy − 200 − 240 = 0
R Ay + RCy = 440 ( 1)
[ M A = 0]
− 200 × 3 − 240 × 4 + RCy × 8 = 0
RCy = 195 kN ↑
RAy = 245 kN ↑
V + 245 − 200 − 30 x = 0
V = 30 x − 45
V = 30 × 8 − 45 = 240 − 45
V = 195
Solid Mechanics
M − 245 × 3 + 90 × 1.5
M = 245 × 3 − 90 × 1.5
*
M = 600
RAy + RBy = 32
[ M A = 0 ] − 32 × 2 + 18 + 8 + 4 RBy = 0
−64 + 16 + 4 RBy = 0
RBy = 12 kN
RAy = 20 kN
Solid Mechanics
V + 20 − 8x = 0
V = 8x − 20
8x − 20 = 0
x = 20 / 8 = 2.5
MC − M A = − ( −50 )
MC = M A + 50 = −8 + 25 = 17
Problem:
[ Fx → + = 0 ]
RAx = 0
Fy = 0 ↑ + R Ay + RDy − 60 − 50 = 0 R Ay + RDy = 110 ( 1)
[ M A = 0 ] − 60 × 1.5 − 50 × 4 + RDy × 5 = 0
290
RDy = = 58 kN ↑
5
RAy = 52 kN ↑
Solid Mechanics
Fy = 0 ↑ + V + 52 − 20 x = 0
( B)
V = 20 x − 52 0 ≤ x ≤ 3m
[ M = 0]
20 x 2
M+ − 52 x = 0
2
20 x 2
M = 52 x − ( 0 ≤ x ≤ 3m )
2
Fy = 0 ↑ +
V + 52 − 60 = 0
B C
V = 8 kN ↑ 3 ≤ x ≤ 4m
[ M = 0] M − 52 x + 60 ( x − 1.5 ) = 0
B C
M = 52 x − 60 ( x − 1.5 ) 3 ≤ x ≤ 4m
Solid Mechanics
Fy = 0 ↑ +
V + 52 − 60 − 50 = 0
V = 58 kN ( 4 ≤ x ≤ 5)
[ M = 0] M − 52 x + 60 ( x − 1.5 ) + 50 ( x − 4 ) = 0
M = 52 x − 60 ( x − 1.5 ) − 50 ( x − 4 ) ( 4 ≤ x ≤ 5 )
dM
= −V
dx
dV
= −P
dx
20 × −52 = 0
x = 52 / 20 = 2.6 m
M B − ME = −1.6
M B = −1.6 + 67.6
Solid Mechanics
M B − M A = − Vdx
dM
= −V
dx
dV
= −P
dx
20 × −52 = 0
x = 52 / 20 = 2.6
MB − ME = −1.6
MB = −1.6 + ME = −1.6 + 67.6
= 66
MC − MB = −8
MC = −8 + MB
= −8 + 66 = 58
MD − MC = −58
MD = MC + 58
= 58 − 58 = 0
Solid Mechanics
2. Concept of stress
Traction vector or Stress vector
Now we define a quantity known as “stress vector” or
“traction” as
∆FR
Tn = lim ∆ A units Pa − N / m2
∆ A→0
(a) experimental
(b) as ∆ A → 0, ∆FR becomes resultant of a parallel
force distribution. Therefore ∆ M R = 0 for force
system.
(5) Tn varies from point to point on a given plane
Components of Tn
Tx = σ xxˆi + τ xy ˆj + τ xz kˆ
where
∆Fx
σ xx = lim ∆ A = Normal stress
∆ A→0
∆vy ∆v
τ xy = lim = Shear stress; τ xz = lim z = Shear stress
∆ A→0 ∆ A ∆ A→0 ∆ A
Solid Mechanics
dFx = σ xx dA dvy = τ xy dA dvz = τ xz dA
Similarly,
∆FR ∆ vx ˆ ∆Fy ∆ vz ˆ
Ty = lim = lim i + lim ˆj +
∆ A ∆ A ∆ A
lim ∆ A k
∆ A→0 ∆ A→0 ∆ A→0 ∆ A→0
Ty = τ yxˆi + σ yy ˆj + τ yz kˆ
Tz = τ zxˆi + τ zy ˆj + σ zz kˆ
σ xx τ xy τ xz
σ jj = τ yx σ yy τ yz Rec tan gular stresscomponents
τ zx τ zy σ zz
Tn = τ nxˆi + τ ny ˆj + τ nz kˆ
No difference!
Except for their origin!
Solid Mechanics
Sign convention of stress components.
A positive components acts on a +ve face in a +ve coordinate
direction
or
A positive component acts on a negative face in a negative
coordinate direction.
+σ xx +τ xy +τ xz
σ ij = +τ yx +σ yy +τ yz
P
+τ zx +τ zy +σ zz
σ xx = σ xx ( x,y ,z )
Continuous functions of x,y ,z
σ yy = σ yy ( x ,y ,z )
dz
τ xy
σx
dy τ xz
x
dx
z
[ Fx = 0 → + ]
σ x dydz + τ yx dxdz + τ zx dydx − σ x dydz − τ yx dxdz − τ zx dxdy = 0
M zP = 0
C.C.W + ve
(τ xy dydz ) dx − (τ yx dxdz ) dy = 0
τ xy − τ yx = 0
τ xy = τ yx
σ xx τ xy τ xz
σ ij = τ yx = τ xy σ xy τ yz is sec ond rank symmetric tensor
τ zx = τ xz τ zy = τ yz σ yz
[ Fx → + = 0 ]
∂σ x ∂τ yx ∂τ
σx + ∆x ∆y∆z + τ yx + ∆y ∆x∆z + τ zx + zx ∆z ∆y∆x
∂x ∂y ∂z
−σ x ∆y∆z − τ xy ∆x∆z − τ zx ∆y∆x + Bx ∆x∆y∆z = 0
∂σ x ∂τ yx 2τ
∆x∆y∆z + ∆y∆x∆z + zx x∆y∆z + Bx ∆x∆y∆z = 0
∂x ∂y ∂z
Canceling ∆x∆y and ∆z terms and taking limit
∂σ x ∂τ yx ∂τ zx
lim + + + Bx = 0
∆x →0 ∂x ∂y ∂z
∆y →0
∆z→0
M zp = 0
∂τ xy x ∆x ∂τ yx ∆y
τ xy + ∆x ∆y∆z + τ xy ∆y∆z − τ yx + ∆y ∆x∆z
∂x 2 2 ∂y 2
∆y
−τ yx ∆x∆z =0
2
Solid Mechanics
2τ xy ∆y∆x∆z ∂τ xy ∆x 2 ∆y∆z 2τ yx ∆x∆y∆z ∂τ yx ∆x∆y 2 ∆z
+ − − =0
2 ∂x 2 2 ∂y 2
∂τ xy ∆x ∂τ yx ∆y
τ xy + − τ yx − =0
∂x 2 ∂y 2
Taking limit
∂τ xy ∆x ∂τ yx ∆y
lim τ xy + − τ yx − =0
∆x →0 ∂x 2 ∂y 2
∆y →0
∆z→0
τ xy − τ yx = 0 τ xy = τ yx
Relations between stress components and internal force
resultants
Solid Mechanics
Fx = σ xx dA ; Vy = τ xy dA ; Vz = τ xz dA
A A A
yτ xz dA − τ xy dAz = dMx
Mx = ( yτ xz − τ xy z ) dA
A
M y = σ xz dA ; M z = − σ xy dA
A A
Solid Mechanics
2 D − State of stress
σ x τ xy 0
σx τ xy
σ ij = τ xy σy 0 =
τ yx =τ xy σy
0 0 0
Stresscomponents in plane xy
If
σ x ( x,y ) τ xy ( x,y )
σ ij = − plane stress-is a --- state of stress
τ xy ( x,y ) σ yy ( x,y )
σ x τ xy σ nn τ nt
σ ij = =
τ xy σy τ nt σ tt
Solid Mechanics
* We can determine the stress components on any plane “n”
by knowing the stress components on any two mutually
⊥ planes.
Fn +=0
σ nn dA − σ x dACosθ Cosθ − τ xy dACosθ Sinθ − τ xy dASinθ Cosθ −
σ yy dASinθ Sinθ = 0
(
τ nt = −σ xCosθ Sinθ + σ y Sinθ Cosθ + τ xy Cos 2θ − Sin2θ )
( ) (
τ nt = −Cosθ Sinθ σ x − σ y + τ xy Cos 2θ − Sin 2θ )
τ nt
( σx −σy )
Sin2θ + τ
=− xyCos 2θ
2
σx +σy σx −σy
σ nn = + Cos 2θ + τ xy Sin2θ
2 2
σx +σy σx −σ y
σt = + Cos 2θ − τ xy Sin2θ
2 2
σx −σ y
τ nt = − Sin2θ + τ xyCos 2θ
2
Solid Mechanics
σ n + σ t = σ x + σ y = σ x′ + σ y ′ = I 1
σ x = −46
σ y = 12
τ xy = −19
Q = −15 it is in C.W.
Solid Mechanics
σx +σy −46 + 12 −34
= = = −17 MPas
2 2 2
σx −σy −46 − 12 −58
= = = −29 MPa
2 2 2
σ n1 = −32.6 MPas
τ tn = τ n2t2 = τ nt θ =75
As a check
4. Principal Stresses
Principal Stresses
Now we are in position to compute the direction and
magnitude of the stress components on any inclined plane at
any point, provided if we know the state of stress (Plane
stress) at that point. We also know that any engineering
component fails when the internal forces or stresses reach a
particular value of all the stress components on all of the
infinite number of planes only stress components on some
particular planes are important for solving our basic
question i.e under the action of given loading whether the
component will ail or not? Therefore our objective of this
class is to determine these plane and their corresponding
stresses.
σn +σ y σn −σ y
(1) σ n = σ n (θ ) = + Cos 2θ + τ xy Sin2θ
2 2
σn +σy σn −σ y
(3) σ n = + Cos 2θ + τ xy Sin2θ
2 2
For maxima or minima, we know that
dσ n
dθ
( )
= 0 = − σ x − σ y Sin2θ + 2τ xyCos 2θ
2τ xy
tan 2θ =
σx −σy
(4) The above equations has two roots, because tan repeats
itself after π . Let us call the first root as θ P1
2τ xy
tan 2θ P1 =
σx −σy
2τ xy
(
tan 2θ P2 = tan 2θ P1 + π = ) σx −σy
Solid Mechanics
π
θ P2 = θ P1 + s
2
(5) Let us verify now whether we have minima or minima at
θ P1 and θ P2
d 2σ n
dθ 2 ( )
= −2 σ x − σ y Cos 2θ − 4τ xy Sin2θ
d 2σ n
∴
dθ 2 θ =θ
( )
= −2 σ x − σ y Cos 2θ P1 − 4τ xy Sin2θ P1
P1
2τ xy τ xy
Sin2θ P1 = =
2 2
σx −σy 2 σx −σy 2
2 + τ xy + τ xy
2 2
d 2σ n
=
(
−2 σ x − σ y σ x − σ y)( )− 4τ xyτ xy
dθ 2 θ =θ σx −σy 2
σx −σy 2
P1 2 2
2 + τ xy + τ xy
2 2
( )
2 2
− σx −σy 4τ xy
= −
2 2
σx −σy 2 σx −σy 2
+ τ xy + τ xy
2 2
2
−4 σx −σy 2
= + τ xy
σx −σy 2 2
2
+ τ xy
2
2
d 2σ n σx −σy 2
∴ = −4 + τ xy (-ve)
dθ 2 2
d2σn
dθ 2 θ =θ π
( ) (
= 2 σx −σ y Cos 2θP1 + π − 4τ xySin 2θP1 + π ) ( )
P2 =θP1 +
2
( )
= 2 σ x − σ y Cos2θP1 + 4τ xySin2θP1
2
d 2σ n σx −σy 2
∴ = −4 + τ xy s (+ve)
dθ 2 θ =θ 2
P2
Solid Mechanics
Thus the angles θ P1 s and θ P2 s define planes of either
maximum normal stress or minimum normal stress.
(6) Now, we need to compute magnitudes of these stresses
We know that,
σx +σy σx −σy
σn = + Cos 2θ + τ xy Sin2θ
2 2
σx +σy σx −σy
σ n θ =θ = σ1 = + Cos 2θ P1 + τ xy Sin2θ P1
P1 2 2
Substituting Cos 2θ P1 s and Sin2θ P1
2
σx +σy σx −σy 2
σ1 = + + τ xy
2 2
Max.Normal stress because of + sign
Similarly,
σx +σy σx −σy
σ n θ =θ
P2 =θ P1 =
π = σ2 =
2
+
2
(
Cos 2θ P1 + π + )
2
τ xy Sin ( 2θ P1 + π )
σx +σy σx −σy
= − Cos 2θ P1 − τ xy Sin2θ P1
2 2
Substituting Cos 2θ P1 and Sin2θ P1
Solid Mechanics
2
σx +σy σx −σy 2
σ = − + τ xy
2 2
Min.normal sress because of − ve sign
We can write
2
σx +σy σx −σy 2
σ 1 or σ 2 = ± + τ xy
2 2
( )
τ nt = 0 = − σ x − σ y Sin2θ + τ xyCos2θ
2τ xy
tan 2θ =
σx =σy
= directions of principal plans
Thus on the principal planes no shearing stresses act.
Conversely, the planes on which no shearing stress acts are
known as principal planes and the corresponding normal
stresses are principal stresses. For example the state of stress
at a point is as shown.
Then σx and σy are
principal stresses because
no shearing stresses are
acting on these planes.
Solid Mechanics
(9) Since, principal planes are ⊥ to each other at a point P,
this also means that if an element whose sides are parallel to
the principal planes is taken out at that point P, then it will
be subjected to principal stresses. Observe that no shearing
stresses are acting on the four faces, because shearing
stresses must be zero on principal planes.
tan 2θ =
(
− σx −σy )
2τ xy
tan 2θS1 =−
( σx −σy )
2τ xy
s − stan ds for shear stress
p − stan ds for principal stresses.
Solid Mechanics
(
− σx −σy )
(
tan 2θS2 = tan 2θS1 + π = ) 2τ xy
π
∴ θS2 = θS1 +
2
Now we have to show that at these two angles we will have
maximum and minimum shear stresses at that point.
Similar to the principal stresses we must calculate
d 2τ nt
dθ 2 ( )
= 2 σ x − σ y Sin2θ − 4τ xyCos 2θ
d 2τ nt
dθ 2 θ =θ
( )
= 2 σ x − σ y Sin2θS1 − 4τ xyCos 2θS1
S1
2τ xy
Cos 2θS1 =
2
σx −σy 2
2 + τ xy
2
Sin2θS1 =
(
− σx −σy )
2
σx −σy 2
2 + τ xy
2
d 2τ nt
= - ve
dθ 2 θ =θ
S1
d 2τ nt
= + ve
dθ 2 θ =θ π
S2 =θS1 +
2
Thus the angles θS1 and θS2 define planes of either maximum
shear stress or minimum shear stress. Planes that define
maximum shear stress & minimum shear stress are again ⊥
to each other.. Now we wish to find out these values.
τ nt
( σx −σy )
Sin2θ + τ
=− xyCos 2θ
2
τ nt θ =θ =−
( σx −σy )
Sin2θ + τ xyCos 2θS1
S1
S1 2
Substituting Cos 2θS1 and Sin2θS1 s , we can show that
2
σx −σy 2
τ max = + + τ xy
2
( σx −σy )
Sin ( 2θS
τ nt θ =θ
S2 =θS1 +
π =−
2 1 ) (
+ π + τ xyCos 2θS1 + π )
2
2
σx −σy 2
τ min = − + τ xy
2
Solid Mechanics
τ max is algebraically > τ min , however their absolute
magnitude is same. Thus we can write
2
σx −σy 2
τ max or τ min = ± + τ xy
2
Generally
τ max −θS1
τ min −θS2
Q. Why τ max and τ min are numerically same. Because θS1 &
θS2 are ⊥ planes.
σx +σy σx −σy
σ n θ =θ = + Cos 2θS1 + τ xy Sin2θS1
S1 2 2
Substituting Cos 2θS1 and Sin2θS1
σx +σy
σ = σ n θ =θ =
S1 2
σx +σy σx −σy
σ n θ =θ
S2 =θS1 +
π =
2
+
2
(
Cos 2θS1 + π )
2
(
+τ xy Sin 2θS1 + π )
Simplifying this equation gives
σx +σy
σ = σ n θ =θ =
S2 2
Therefore the normal stress on maximum and minimum
shear stress planes is same.
(3) Both the principal planes are ⊥ to each other and also the
planes of τ max and τ min are also ⊥ to each other. Now let us
see there exist any relation between them.
Solid Mechanics
6. Mohr’s circle
Mohr’s circle for plane stress
So far we have seen two methods to find stresses acting on
an inclined plane
(a) Wedge method
(b) Use of transformation laws.
σx −σ y 2
R= + τ xy
2
(
• The coordinates of the plane A = +σ x , +τ xy )
( )
The coordinates of B = +σ y , −τ xy s
τ max = ± R
σ = σ avg
Finally
• Intersection of Mohr’s circle with the σ -axis gives
principal stresses.
• The top and bottom points of Mohr’s circle gives
maximum –ve shear stress and maximum +ve shear
stress.
• Do not forget that all these inclined planes are obtained
by rotation about z-axis.
Solid Mechanics
Mohr’ circle problem
= 5000 2 + 4000 2
R = 6403 MPa
σx −σy
= 5000
(a) 2
Solid Mechanics
Point D : σ x′ = 10000 + 6403Cos 41.34 = 14807 MPa
τ x′y′ = −6403Sin 41.34 = −4229 MPa
38.66
b) σ 1 = 16403 ; θ P1 = = 19.33
2
σ 2 = 3597 MPa
(2) θ = 45
Principal stresses and principal shear stresses.
Solution:
σx +σy −50 + 10
= = −20
2 2
2
σx −σy −50 − 10 2
R= 2
+ τ xy = + ( −40 )2 = 50 MPa
2 2
σx +σy
A → ( −50 , −40 ) p1 = σ 1 = + R = −20 + 50 = 30s
2
B → ( 10 , 40 ) σx +σy
p2 = σ 2 = − R = −20 − 50 = −70
2
Solid Mechanics
2Qp1 = 233.13
Qp1 = 116.6
Qp2 = 206.6
2Qs1 = 143.13
Qs1 = 71.6
Qs2 = 161.6
Solid Mechanics
Q. σ x = 31 MPa, σ y = −5 MPa and τ xy = 33 MPa
A ( 31 , 33 )
B ( −5 , −33 )
σ x′ = RCosβ + σ avg s
= 37.6 Cos 28.64 + 13 = 46 MPa
∴ σ 1 = 50.6 MPa
σ 2 = −24.6 MPa
θ p1 = 30.68
7. 3D-Stress Transformation
3D-stress components on an arbitrary plane
n x ′x n x ′y n x ′z − D i r . c o s i n e s o f x ′
ˆi ′ = n x ′ x ˆi + n x ′ y ˆj + n x ′ z kˆ
( )(
σ x′ = Tnˆi′ = Tx′xˆi + Tx′y ˆj + Tx′z kˆ . nx′xˆi + nx′y ˆj + nx′z kˆ ) (1)
( )(
σ y′ = Ty′xˆi + Ty′y ˆj + Ty′z kˆ ny′xˆi + ny′y ˆj + ny′z kˆ ) (4)
( )(
τ y′z′ = Ty′xˆi + Ty′y ˆj + Ty′z kˆ nz′xˆi + nz′y ˆj + nz′z kˆ ) (6)
σ z′ = 0 : τ x′z′ = 0 : τ y′z′ = 0
=σz
Principal stresses
nx ,ny ,nz
(
Tn = σ nˆ = σ nxˆi + ny ˆj + nz kˆ )
Tn = Tnxˆi + Tny ˆj + Tnz kˆ
Where
Tnx = σ x nx + τ yx ny + τ zx nz
Tny = τ xy nx + σ y ny + τ zy nz
Tnz = τ xznx + τ yzny + σ znz
σx −σ τ xy τ zx nx
τ xy σ y −σ τ zy ny = ( 0 )
τ zx τ yz σz −σ nz
( ) (
σ 3 − σ x + σ y + σ z σ 2 + σ xσ y + σ yσ z + σ zσ x − τ xy
2 2
− τ yz 2
− τ zx σ)
( 2
− σ xσ yσ z + 2τ xyτ yzτ zx − σ xτ yz 2
− σ yτ zx 2
− σ zτ xy =0)
This has 3- real roots σ 1 ,σ 2 ,σ 3
(σ x − σ 1 ) nx + τ yx ny + τ zx nz = 0
( )
τ yx nx + σ y − σ 1 ny + τ zy nz = 0
and nx2 + ny2 + nz2 = 1
nx ,ny ,nz → σ 1
σ1 > σ2 > σ3
Stress invariants
σ 3 − I 1σ 2 + I 2σ − I 3 = 0 (1)
Solid Mechanics
I1 = σ x + σ y + σ z
2 2 2
I 2 = σ xσ y + σ yσ z + σ xσ z − τ xy − τ yz − τ zx stress inv ar iants
2 2 2
I 3 = σ xσ yσ z + 2τ xyτ yzτ zx − σ xτ yz − σ yτ zx − σ zτ xy
σ 3 − I 1′ σ 2 + I 3′ = 0
I 1 = I 1′ ; I 2 = I ′2 ; I 3 = I ′3
3D 2D
I1 = σ 1 + σ 2 + σ 3 I1 = σ 1 + σ 2
I 2 = σ 1σ 2 + σ 2σ 3 + σ 3σ 1 I 2 = σ 1σ 2
I 3 = σ 1σ 2σ 3 I3 = 0
n̂ = nxˆi + ny ˆj + nz kˆ
n̂′ = nx′ˆi + ny′ˆj + nz′ kˆ
Tn = Tnxˆi + Tny ˆj + Tnz kˆ
Tn′ = Tn′xˆi + Tn′y ˆj + Tn′z kˆ
Solid Mechanics
Tnnˆ ′ = Tn′nˆ
τ xy = τ yx
Tnnˆ ′ = Tn′nˆ
(σ 1nˆ ) nˆ ′ = (σ 2 nˆ ′ ) nˆ
( ) (
σ 1 nx nx′ + ny ny′ + nznz′ = σ 2 nx nx′ + ny ny′ + nznz′ )
σ1 ≠ σ2
nx nx′ + ny ny′ + nznz′ = 0
σ2 −σ3
τ1 = σ1 > σ2 > σ3
2
σ +σ3
στ 1 = 1
2
σ −σ3
τ2 = 1
2
σ +σ2
στ 2 = 1
2
σ −σ2 σ1 −σ2 σ2 −σ3 σ3 −σ1
τ3 = 1 τ max = max , ,
2 2 2 2
σ −σ2
στ 3 = 1
2
Solid Mechanics
2
σx −σ y 2
τ =± + τ xy ---- in plane principal shear stresses.
2
σ1 −σ3 σ1
τ max = =
2 2
Solid Mechanics
Problem
At appoint in a component, the state of stress is as shown.
Determine maximum shear stress.
Solution:
100 0
σ ij = - plane stress problem
0 50
100 0 0
We can also write the matrix as aij = 0 50 0
0 0 0
σ 1 = 100
σ 2 = 50
σ 1 − σ 2 100 − 50
= = 25
2 2
τ max = 25 MPa
Solid Mechanics
Now with σ 1 = 100 , σ 2 = 50 , σ 3 = 0
σ1 −σ3
τ max = = 50 MPa
2
Occurs in the plane 1-3 instead of 1-2
Solid Mechanics
Some important states of stresses
(1) Uniaxial state of stress: Only one non-zero principal
stress.
σ1 0 0
σ1 0
0 0 0 = - plane stress.
0 0
0 0 0
+P 0 0
0 +P 0 hydrostatic tension
0 0 +P
−P 0 0
0 −P 0 hydrostatic compression.
0 0 −P
σ x τ xy τ xz
σ ij = τ xy σ y τ yz
τ zx τ zy σz
0 τ x′y′ τ x′z′
σ ij = τ x′y′ 0 τ y′z′
τ z′x′ τ z′y′ 0
τ oct = Tn 2 − σ oct
2
1
τ oct = (σ 1 − σ 2 ) 2 + (σ 2 − σ 3 ) 2 + (σ 3 − σ 1 ) 2
3
u = u ( x ,y ,z )
v = v ( x,y ,z ) ( x,y ,z) is the point in the undeformed geometry
w = w ( x,y ,z )
P* Q* − PQ ∆s* − ∆s
∈n ( P ) = lim = lim
∆s→0 PQ ∆s→0 ∆s
We can also define the same point ∈x ,∈y ,∈z
∆x* ( 1+ ∈x ) ∆x
lim ∆x* = ( 1+ ∈x ) ∆x
∆x →0
2 2 2
* ∂u ∂v ∂w
∆x = 1 + ∆x + ∆x + ∆x
∂x ∂x ∂x
2 2 2
∂u ∂u ∂v ∂w
= 1+ 2 + + + ∆x
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x
Solid Mechanics
∆x* − ∆x
∈x = lim
∆x →0 ∆x
2 2 2
∂u ∂u ∂v ∂w
= lim 1+ 2 + + + −1
∆x →0 ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x
2 2 2
∂u ∂u ∂v ∂w
∈x = 1 + 2 + + + −1
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x
2 2 2
∂v ∂u ∂v ∂w
∈y = 1 + 2 + + + −1
∂y ∂y ∂y ∂y
2 2 2
∂w ∂u ∂v ∂w
∈z = 1 + 2 + + + −1
∂z ∂z ∂z ∂z
So far no assumption has been made except for size of
∆x, ∆y & ∆z
* ∂u ∆x ∂u ∆y
Cosφxy = 1+
∂x ∆x* ∂y ∆y*
∂v ∆x ∂v ∆y
+ 1+
∂x ∆x* ∂y ∆y*
∂w ∆x ∂w ∆y
+
∂x ∆x* ∂y ∆y*
π *
Yxy = lim − φxy
∆x →0 2
∆y →0
∆z→0
Solid Mechanics
*
SinYxy = lim Cosφxy
∆x →0
∆y →0
∆z→0
∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v ∂w ∂w ∆x∆y
SinYxy = lim 1+ + 1+ +
∆x →0 ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y ∆x* ∆y*
∆y →0
∆z→0
∆x* = ( 1+ ∈x ) ∆x
(
∆y* = 1+ ∈y ∆y)
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v ∂w ∂w
+ + + +
∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
SinYxy = lim
∆x →0 ( 1+ ∈x ) ( 1+ ∈y )
∆y →0
∆z→0
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v ∂w ∂w
Sin −1 + + + +
∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
Yxy =
( 1+ ∈x ) ( 1+ ∈y )
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v ∂w ∂w
+ + + +
∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
Yyz = sin −1
( 1+ ∈x ) ( 1+ ∈y )
∂w ∂u ∂w ∂w ∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v
+ + + +
Yxz = sin −1 ∂x ∂w ∂x ∂z ∂x ∂w ∂x ∂z
( 1+ ∈x )( 1+ ∈z )
∂w ∂u
Yxz = +
∂x ∂z
∂v ∂w
Yyz = +
∂z ∂y
Another derivation : Let us take plane PQRS in xy plane.
Also assume that u = u ( x ,y ) & v = v ( x ,y ) only.
Small deformation
Displacements are small
Strains are small
P* Q* − PQ ∆x* − ∆x
∈x = lim =
∆x →0 PQ ∆x
′ ∂y
∆x* P* Q* = 1 + ∆x
∂x
∂y
1+ ∆x − ∆x
∂x ∂u
∈x = lim =
∆x →0 ∆x ∂x
∂v
1+ ∆y − ∆y Strains<0.001
∂y ∂v
∈y = lim =
∆y →0 ∆y ∂y Y < 0.06
∆s* = 0.2002
s = 2 × 10 −4 mm
Solid Mechanics
π *
Yxy = lim − φxy = lim α + β
∆x →0 2 ∆x →0
∆y →0 ∆y →0
∂v ∂v
∆x
tan α = ∂x = ∂x
∂y ∂y
1+ ∆x 1 +
∂x ∂x
tan α ≈ α
∂v ∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v
α= , , , 1
∂x ∂u ∂v ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
Yxy = + 2 2
∂u ∂y ∂x ∂u 2
∂u ∂v
β= , ,
∂y ∂x ∂y ∂yx
State of strain
∈x Yxy Yxz - Engineering strain matrix
Eij = Yxy ∈y Yyz - We can find ∈n in any
direction we can find Ynt for
Yxz Yyz ∈z
any two arbitrary directions.
Solid Mechanics
2D- strain transformation
∈x =∈x ( x,y )
∈x Yxy
∈y =∈y ( x,y )
Yxy ∈y
Yxy = Yxy ( x ,y )
implication of these
∈z = 0 equation is that a point in
Yyz = 0 a given plane does not
Yzx = 0 leave that plane all
deformations are in to
plane of the body.
Solid Mechanics
Given ∈x ,∈y & Yxy what are ∈n ,∈t & Ynt .
dy
α 2 =∈y cosθ =∈y cosθ sinθ
ds
dy
α 3 = Yxy sinθ
ds
= Yxy sinθ sinθ
Solid Mechanics
dL =∈x dx cosθ + ∈y dy sinθ + Yxy dy cosθ
dL dx dy dy
=∈n =∈x cosθ + ∈y sinθ + Yxy cosθ
dS ds ds ds
=∈x cosθ cosθ + ∈y sin2 θ + Yxy sinθ cosθ
∈x + ∈y ∈x − ∈y Yxy
∈n = + cos 2θ + sin 2θ
2 2 2
Ynt
=−
(
∈x − ∈y
sin 2θ +
)
Yxy
cos 2θ
2 2 2
∈x Yxy
Yxy ∈y - state of strain at a point
σ x τ xy - stress tensor
Yxy
∈x τ xy σy
2 - strain tensor
Yxy Replace
∈y
2 σ x →∈x
∈x ∈xy Yxy σ y →∈y
∈xy =
∈xy ∈y 2 Yxy
τ xy →∈xy =
2
Solid Mechanics
Principal shears and maximum shear
In plane- principal strains
2 ∈xy → ϒ xy / 2
tan 2Qp =
∈x − ∈y
θ p1 − θ p2 − ⊥ to each other
∈1 ,∈2 ∈1 >∈2
tan 2θs =−
(∈x − ∈y )
2 ∈xy
θ s = θ p1 ± π / 4
3D-strain transformation
Yxy
σ x →∈x ; σ y →∈y ;σ z →∈z ;τ xy =∈xy =
2
(∈x − ∈) ∈xy ∈xz
∆s 2 = ∆x 2 + ∆y 2
*2 * * ′2 * * ′2
∆s =P Q +P R
2 2
∂u ∂v
= 1+ ∆x + 1+ ∆y − ∆x 2 + ∆y 2
∂x ∂x
Solid Mechanics
2
∆y
∈n = 1 + .∆x
∆x
2 2
∂u ∂v ∆y
= 1+ + 1+ ∆x 2 − ∆x 2 − ∆y 2
∂x ∂x ∆x
2 2
∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v
1+ +2 ∆x 2 + 1 + +2 ∆y 2 − ∆x 2 − ∆y 2
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y
=
2
∆y
1+ ∆x
∆x
∂u ∂v
1+2 ∆x 2 + 1 + 2 ∆y 2 − ∆x 2 + ∆y 2
∂x ∂y
=
2
∆y
1+ ∆x
∆x
∈x ∈xy
2
J 2 =∈x∈y + ∈x∈z + ∈y ∈z − ∈xy − ∈2yz − ∈2zx +
∈xy ∈y
∈y ∈yz ∈x ∈xz
+
∈yz ∈z ∈xz ∈z
∈x ∈xy ∈xz
− ∈z∈2xy ∈yx ∈y ∈yz
∈zx ∈zy ∈z
∈1 >∈2 >∈3
Solid Mechanics
(∈x − ∈1 ) nx + ∈xy ny + ∈zx nz = 0
( )
∈xy nx + ∈y − ∈1 ny + ∈zy nz = 0
if ∈1 +ve, ∈2 -ve.
if ∈1 +ve, ∈2 -ve
deformation
( P * R * )2 = ( P * R * )2 + ( Q * R * )2 − 2 ( P * R * )(Q * R * )
π
cos + Yxy
2
( )
2 2 2
∆x′ ( 1+ ∈x′ ) = ∆x ( 1+ ∈x ) + ∆y 1+ ∈y − 2 ∆x ( 1+ ∈x )
π
(
∆y 1+ ∈y ) cos
2
+ Yxy
∆x = ∆x′ cos θ and ∆y = ∆x′ sinθ
( )
cos π2 + Yxy = − sinYxy ≈ −Yxy
( )
2 2 2
∆x′2 ( 1+ ∈x′ ) = ∆x′2 cos 2 θ ( 1+ ∈x ) + ∆x′2 sin2 θ 1+ ∈y
(
− 2 ∆x′2 sinθ cosθ ( 1+ ∈x ) 1+ ∈y −Yxy )( )
Solid Mechanics
2 2 Yxy
∈x′ =∈x cos θ + ∈y sin θ + sin 2θ
2
∈x + ∈y ∈x − ∈y Yxy
∈x′ = + cos 2θ + sin 2θ
2 2 2
π
If θ =Q+ ∈y′
2
∈x + ∈y ∈x − ∈y Yxy
∈x′ = + cos 2θ + sin 2θ
2 2 2
∈x + ∈y ∈x − ∈y Yxy
∈y′ = + cos 2θ − sin 2θ
2 2 2
∈x′ + ∈y′ =∈x + ∈y = J 1 = first invariant of strain.
Solid Mechanics
∈x + ∈y Yxy
∈x′ Q=π =∈OB = +
4 2 2
2 ∈OB =∈x + ∈y +Yxy
Yxy = 2 ∈OB − ∈x + ∈y ( )
(
Yx′y = 2 ∈OB′ − ∈x′ + ∈y′ )
(
= 2 ∈OB′ − ∈x + ∈y ) ( 3)
∈x + ∈y ∈x − ∈y Yxy
∈x′ Q=Q+ π =∈OB′ = − sin 2θ + cos 2θ - (4)
4 2 2 2
Substituting (4) in (3)
( ) ( )
Yx′y′ = ∈x + ∈y − ∈x − ∈y sin 2θ + Yxy cos 2θ − ∈x + ∈y ( )
Yx′y′ = − (∈x − ∈y ) sin 2θ + Yxy cos 2θ (5)
∈x + ∈y ∈x − ∈y
∈x′ = + cos 2θ + ∈xy sin 2θ
2 2
∈x + ∈y ∈x − ∈y
∈y′ = − cos 2θ − ∈xy sin 2θ
2 2
∈x′y′ =−
(∈x − ∈y )
sin 2θ + ∈ cos 2θ
xy
2
Solid Mechanics
Problem:
An element of material in plane strain undergoes the
following strains
(
Yxy = 2 ∈OB − ∈x + ∈y )
(
= 2 × 360 × 10 −6 − 520 × 10 −6 − 80 × 10 −6 )
= 280 × 10 −6 rad
(1) ∈x + ∈y 520 × 10 −6 − 80 × 10 −6
= = 220 × 10 −6
2 2
Solid Mechanics
∈x − ∈y 520 × 10 −6 + 80 × 10 −6
= = 300 × 10 −6
2 2
2 ∈xy e × 140 × 10 −6
tan 2θ p = =
∈x − ∈y 300 × 10 −6
Yxy280 × 10 −6
∈xy = = = 140 × 10 −6
2 2
∴ 2θ p = 25.02
θ p = 12.51 θ p = 102.51
2
∈x + ∈y ∈x − ∈y 2
∈1 or ∈2 = ± + ∈xy
2 2
( ) ( )
2 2
= 220 × 10 −6 ± 300 × 10 −6 + 140 × 10 −6
= 220 × 10 −6 ± 331.06 × 10 −6
∴ ∈1 = 551.06 × 10 −6
∈2 = −111.06 × 10 −6
∈x′ θ =12.51
∈x + ∈y ∈x − ∈y
= + Cos 2θ + ∈xy Sin2θ
2 2
= 220 × 10 −6 + 300 × 10 −6 cos ( 2 × 12.51 ) + 140 × 10 −6 Sin ( 2 × 12.51 )
= 551.06 × 10 −6
Solid Mechanics
θ p1 = 12.51 and θ p2 = 102.51
tan 2Qs =−
(∈x − ∈y ) −300 × 10 −6
=
2. ∈xy 140 × 10 −6
2Qs = 64.98
Qs = −32.5 Qs = 57.5
∈x′y′ =−
(∈x − ∈y )
Sin2 ( 57.5 ) + ∈ Cos 2 ( 57.5 )
xy
Q = 57.5 2
= −271.89 × 10 −6 − 59.17 × 10 −6 = 331.06 × 10 −6
Solid Mechanics
θ s1 = −32.5 and θ s2 = −32.5
Ymin = −662.11 × 10 −6
Ymax = 662.11 × 10 −6
∈x + ∈y
∈= = 220 × 10 −6
2
Solid Mechanics
L f − Lo
∈=
Lo
Region O-A
(1) σ and ∈ linearly proportional.
(2) A- Proportional limit
σ p - proportionality is maintained.
Region B-C
(1) The slope at point B is horizontal.
(2) At this point B, ∈ increases without increase in further
load. I.e no noticeable change in load.
(3) This phenomenon is known as yielding
(4) The point B is said to be yield points, the corresponding
stress is yield stress σ ys of the steel.
Region C-D
(1)The steel begins to “strain harden” at “C” . During strain
hardening the material under goes changes in its crystalline
structure, resulting in increased resistance to the
deformation.
(2)Elongation of specimen in this region requires additional
load,
∴ σ − ∈ diagram has + ve slope C to D.
(3) The load reaches maximum value – ultimate stress.
(4)The yield stress and ultimate stress of any material is also
known as yield strength and the ultimate strength .
(5) σ u is the highest stress the component can take up.
Region-DE
Further stretching of the bar is needed less force than
ultimate force, and finally the component breaks into two
parts at E.
Solid Mechanics
Look of actual stress strain diagrams
∈C toE >∈BtoC >∈Oto A
G
1
ϒ
(2)τ ,Y diagrams are (shape of them) similar in shape to
tension test diagrams (σ Vs ∈) for the same material,
although they differ in magnitude.
(3)From τ − Y diagrams also we can obtain material
properties proportional limit, modulus of elasticity, yield
stress and ultimate stress.
(4)Properties are usually ½ of the tension properties.
(5)For many materials, the initial part o the shear stress
diagram is a st. line through the origin just in case of tension.
τ = GY - Hooke’s law in shear
G = Shear modulus of elasticity or modulus of rigidity.
= Pa or N / m2 s
Proportional limit
Elastic limit
Material properties
Yield stress
Ultimate stress
Solid Mechanics
E,v, and G → material properties – elastic constants - elastic
properties.
Basic assumptions solid mechanics
Fundamental assumptions of linear theory of elasticity are:
(a) The deformable body is a continuum
(b) The body is homogeneous
(c) The body is linearly elastic
(d) The body is isotropic
(e) The body undergoes small deformations.
Continuum
Completely filling up the region of space with matter it
occupies with no empty space.
Because of this assumption quantities like
u = u ( x,y ,z )
σ = σ ( x ,y ,z )
∈=∈ ( x,y ,z )
Homogeneous
Elastic properties do not vary from point to point. For non-
homogenous body
E = E ( x ,y ,z )
v = v ( x,y ,z )
G = G ( x,y ,z )
Solid Mechanics
Linearly elastic
Material follows Hooke’s law
σ = E∈
τ = GY
v = Constant
Isotropic
Material properties are same in all directions at a point in the
body
E = C1 for allθ
ν = C2 for allθ
G = C3 for allθ
The meaning is that
σ x = E ∈x
σ y = E ∈y
Principal of superposition:
This principle states that the effect of a given combined loading on
a structure can be obtained by determining separately the effects of
the various loads individually and combining the results obtained,
provided the following conditions are satisfied.
(1)Each effect is linearly related to the load that produces it.
(2)The deformations must be small.
Solid Mechanics
σy
∈y =
E
σy
∈x = − v
E
σy
∈z = − v
E
Similarly, σ z alone is applied
σz
∈z =
E
σz
∈x = − v
E
σz
∈y = − v
E
Contribution to ∈x due to all three normal stresses is
σ x vσ y vσ 3
∈x = − −
E E E
Therefore
∈x =
1
E
(
σx − v σy +σz )
1
∈y = σ y − v (σ x + σ z )
E
1
(
∈x = σ z − v σ x + σ y
E
)
Normal strains are not affected by shear stresses
Solid Mechanics
Now let us apply only τ xy
τ xy
Yxy =
G
τ yz
Yyz =
G
τ xz
Yxz =
G
Therefore, when all six components of stresses and strains
are acting on an infinitesimal element or at a point then the
relation between six components of stresses and strains is
∈x =
1
E
(
σx − v σy +σz )
1
∈y = σ y − v (σ x + σ z )
E
1
(
∈x = σ z − v σ x + σ y
E
)
τ xy
Yxy =
G
τ yz
Yyz =
G
τ xz
Yxz =
G
These six equations are known as generalized Hooke’s law for
isotropic materials.
Solid Mechanics
Matrix representation of generalized Hooke’s law for
isotropic materials is therefore,
1 −v −v
0 0 0
E E E
∈x −v 1 −v σx
0 0 0
E E E
∈y σy
−v −v 1
∈z 0 0 0 σz
E E E
=
Yxy 1 τ xy
0 0 0 0 0
Yyz G τ yz
1
Yxz 0 0 0 0 0 τ xz
G
1
0 0 0 0 0
G
Stress components in terms of strains
∈x + ∈y + ∈z =
1
E
(
σx +σy +σz −
2v
E
σx +σy +σz s ) ( )
1 − 2v
(
e = σx +σy +σz
E
)
∈x + ∈y + ∈z = e
∈x =
1
E
σ x − vσ x − v σ y + σ z ( )
=
1
E
(
σ x − v σ x + σ y + σ z + vσ x )
=
1
E
(
σ x (1 + v) − v σ x + σ y + σ z )
Solid Mechanics
1 veE
= σ x (1 + v) −
E (1 − 2v)
σ × (1 + v) ve
= −
E (1 − 2v)
ve E
∴ σ x = ∈x +
1 − 2v 1 + v
E Ev
= µ (mu) where λ=
1+ v ( 1 + v )( 1 − 2 v )
λ,µ are Lames constants
σ x = eλ + ∈x µ
σ y = eλ + ∈y µ
σ z = eλ + ∈z µ
τ xy = YxyG = 2 µYxy
τ xy = YyzG = 2 µYyz
τ xy = YzxG = 2 µYzx
1
∈x = σ x − vσ y
E
σ x = λ e + µ ∈x σ x = 2σ y
1
∈y = σ y − vσ x
E σ x = −σ y
σ y = λ e + µ ∈y
1 1
∈x = σ x − vλ e − vµ ∈y ∈x = σ x + vσ y
E E
1+ v
= σx
E
1
σ 1 = τ xy ∈1 = (σ 1 − vσ 2 )
E
1
σ 2 = −τ xy ∈2 = (σ 2 − vσ 1 )
E
τ xy ( 1 + v )
∈1 =
1
E
(τ xy + vτ xy = ) E
−τ xy ( 1 + v )
∈2 =
E
Yxy τ xy
∈1 =∈xy = =
2 2G
−τ xy
∈2 =
2G
τ xy ( 1 + v ) τ xy
=
E 2G
E
G=
2 (1 + v)
Only two elastic constants are independent.
Solid Mechanics
Volumetric strain-dilatation
Consider a stress element size dx,dy ,dz
dv = dxdydz
After deformations
dx* = ( 1+ ∈x ) dx
(
dy* = 1+ ∈y dy)
dz* = ( 1+ ∈z ) dz
In addition to the changes of length of the sides, the element
also distorts so that right angles no longer remain sight
angles. For simplicity consider only Yxy .
( )
dv* = Area OA* B* C* × dz*
(
dv* = 1+ ∈x + ∈y + ∈z dxdydz )
Now, analogous to normal strain, we define the measure of
volumetric strain as
- Solid Sections
- Hollow Sections
Solid Mechanics
- Other sections
F=P
Mx = M y = M z = 0
Vy = Vz = 0
section.
The distribution cannot determine by the methods of static
or equations of equilibrium- statically indeterminate
To know about the distribution of σ x in any given section, it is
necessary to consider the deformations resulting from the
application of loads.
Since the body needs to develop only σ x component in order
to maintain equilibrium, therefore the state of stress at any
point of prismatic rod is
σx 0 0
σ ij = 0 0 0
0 0 0
Solid Mechanics
We make the following assumptions on deformation based
on experimental evidence
(1)The axis of the bar remains straight after Key
deformation kinematical
(2)All plane cross-sections remain plane and assumptions
perpendicular to the axis of the bar
of x- only.
In the present case situation is same at all cross-sections of
the prismatic bar, therefore
∈x = Constant
at all points of the body i.e ∈x is also no a function of x.
Solid Mechanics
Since we are studying a homogenous, linearly elastic and
isotropic prismatic bar
σx
∈x =
1
E
(
σx − v σy −σz → ) ∈x =
E
1 V
∈y = σ y − v (σ x − σ z ) → ∈y = − σ x
E E
1
(
∈z = σ z − v σ x − σ y →
E
) V
∈z = − σ x
E
In the present case, ∈x is independent of y and z coordinates,
therefore σ x is also independent of y and z coordinates i.e
σ x is uniformly distributed in a cross-section
F P
∴ σ= =
A A
M y = σ x .zdA = 0 zdA = 0
A A
(1)
M z = − σ x .ydA = 0 ydA = 0
A A
Eq. (1) indicates that moment are taken about the centroid of
the cross-section.
Elongation or Contraction
σx P
∈x = =
E AE
Total elongation of the rod
L L
P PL
u ( L ) − u ( 0 ) = δ = ∈x da = dx =
0 0
AE AE
Solid Mechanics
P
σx =
A
PL
δ=
AE
AE = Axial rigidity
If A,E and P are functions of x then
L
P (x)
δ= dx
0
A(x) E(x)
P = kS
S = fP
1
k=
f
AE L
k= f =
L AE
These are useful in computer analysis of structural members.
Solid Mechanics
Extension of results: Non-uniform bars (non-prismatic)
For a prismatic bar
P PL
σx = & δ=
A AE
P(x) F (x)
σx = =
A(x ) A(x)
L
P(x)
S= dx
0
A ( x ) E ( x )
Approximate exp ression
The above formula becomes a good approximation for
uniformly varying cross-sectional area A ( x ) member.
Above formula is quite satisfactory if the angle of taper is
small
Plane sections remain plane and perpendicular to the x- axis
is no longer valid for the case of non-prismatic rods.
Solid Mechanics
Σ Fx = 0 σ x ( b∆y ) − τ yx ( b∆x ) = 0
∆y
τ xy = τ yx = σ x ( x ) . s
∆x
∆y
Taking ∆x → 0 , we note that τ yx → 0 only if → 0 i.e at the
∆x
slope of the upper surface of the rod tends to zero.
Solid Mechanics
Case2
PL − ( PA + PB ) L2
δ BC = =
AE A2 E2
PL − PAL1
δ AB = =
AE A1E1
σ BC = −
( PA + PB )
A2
σ AB = − PA / A1
δCA = SBC + S AB
This method can be used when a bar consists of several
prismatic segments each having different material, each
having different axial forces, different dimensions and
different materials. The change in length may be obtained
from the equation
n
Pi Li Pi
δ= and σi =
i =1 Ai Ei Ai
Solid Mechanics
Statically indeterminate problems
Equilibrium
Σ Fy = 0
Fa1 + Fa 2 + Fs − P = 0
[Σ MC = 0]
bFa1 − bFa 2 = 0
Fa 1 = Fa 2
2 Fa + Fs = P (1)
σ max
Stress concentration factor=K =
σ ave
P
σ nom =
bt
Solid Mechanics
Stress concentration due to hole
Discontinuities of cross section may result in high localized
or concentrated stresses.
σ max P
K= σ nom =
σ nom dt
K = Stressconcentration factor
Solid Mechanics
Stress Concentration due to fillet
σ max P
K= σ ave =
σ ave dt
Solid Mechanics
Fx = Vy = Vz = M y = M z = 0
Mx = T = T0
dT = dF × r = σ xθ rdA
T = τ xθ rdA (1)
A
T = T0
0 0 0
0 0 τθ x
0 τ xθ 0
While the relation in (1) express an important condition that
must be satisfied by the shearing stresses τ xQ in any given
cross-section of the bar it does not tell how these stresses are
distributed in the cross-section.
The actual distribution of stresses under a given load is
statically indeterminate. So we must know about the
deformation of the bar.
Presence of τ xθ in polar coordinates means, presence of
τ xy = τ xQCosθ
τ xz = τ xQSinθ
Solid Mechanics
Therefore the state of stress in case pure torsion in terms of
rectangular stress components is then
0 τ xy τ xz
τ yx 0 0 - state of pure shear.
τ zx 0 0
Vy = τ xy dA = 0
Vz = τ xz dA = 0
φ - angle of twist.
Solid Mechanics
*φ - varies along the axis of the bar.
dφ
= − rate of twist angle of twist per unit length.
dx
dφ
Y =r
dx
Solid Mechanics
In case of pure torsion the shear strain Y varies linearly with
“r”
Maximum shear strain Y occurs at the outer surface of the
circular bar i.e., r = R
dφ
Ymax = R
dx
Shear strain is zero at the center of the bar.
dφ
The equation Y = r is strictly valid to circular bars having
dx
small deformations.
If the material is linearly elastic
τ = GY
Therefore, variation of shear stress τ xQ in pure torsion is
given by
dφ
τ = τ xQ = GYxQ = GY
dx
dφ
τ max = τ xQmax = RG
dx
Solid Mechanics
The torsion formula
Relation between internal torque T and shear stressτ
T = τ rdA
A
dφ
T = Gr rdA
dx
dφ
Since G & are independent of area A then
dx
dφ 2
T =G r dA
dx A
I P = r 2 dA
A
Polar moment of inertia of across − sec tion
π π
For solid circular bar, IP = D4 IP = R4
32 2
dφ
∴ T = GI P
dx
∴ dφ T
= =
dx GI P
dφ
But τ = Gr
dx
τ T
=
Gr GI P
Tr
τ=
IP
Torsion formula
Solid Mechanics
This is the relation between shear stresses τ xQ and torque T
existing at the section.
Torsion formula is independent of material property.
TR
τ max = τ xQmax =
IP
16T
τ max =
π D3
for solid circular bars
Angles of twist
We now determine the relative rotation of any two cross-
sections
dφ T
= =
dx GI P
xB
T
φB / A = φB − φ A = dx
xA
GI P
Solid Mechanics
In case of prismatic circular bar subjected to equal opposite
torques at the ends
TL
φB / A = φB − φA = n
GI P
if xB − x A = L
puretorsion
TL T0L
φ= =
GI P GI P
dφ T
Since = = then, in case of pure torsion.
dx GI P
dφ φ
= = = constant
dx L
GI P L
k= ; f =
L GI P
τ xy = τ xQCosθ
τ xz = τ xQSinθ
Vy = τ xy dA = τ xθ Cosθ dA
A A
2π R
Tr
Vy = Cosθ drdθ
0
I
0 P
2π R
T
= rCosθ drdθ = 0
IP 0 0
∴ Vy = 0
2π R
T
Vz = rSinθ drdθ = 0
IP 0 0
∴ Vz = 0
Hollow circular bars: The deformation of hollow circular
bars and solid circular bars are same. The key kinematic
assumptions are valid for any circular bar, either solid or
hollow. Therefore all equations of solid circular bars can be
employed for hollow circular bars, instead of using
Solid Mechanics
π 4
IP = D − Soild
32
π
IP =
32
( )
Do 4 − Di4 − hollow
TRo
τ max =
IP
TR
τ min = i
IP
Hollow bars are move efficient than solid bars of same “A”.
• Most of the material in soild shaft is stressed below the
maximum stress and also have smaller moment arm “r”.
• In hollow tube most of the material is near the outer
boundary, where τ is maximum values and has large
moment arms “r”.
Tr
τ=
IP
π 4
IP = D − solid
32
π
=
32
( )
Do4 − Di4 − hollow
Solid Mechanics
TR TRo
τ max = ;
IP IP
TR
τ min = i
IP
τ
Y=
G
τ ,Y − f ( r )
dφ T
= =
dx GI P
TL
φ B / A = φB − φ A =
GI P
L = xB − x A
= constant
φ = linearly with x
(4) If weight reduction and savings of materials are
important, it is advisable to use a circular tube.
(5) Ex large drive shafts, propeller shafts, and generator
shafts usually have hollow circular cross sections.
Extension of results
Case-I Bar with continuously varying cross-sections and
continuously varying torque
• Pure torsion refers to torsion of prismatic bar subjected
to torques acting only at the ends.
Solid Mechanics
• All expressions are developed based on the key
kinematic assumptions, these are therefore, strictly valid
only for prismatic circular bars.
T (x)r
τ (x) =
IP (x )
dφ T (x)
(x) = =
dx GI P ( x )
xB
T (x)
φB − φ A = φB / A = dx
xA
GI P ( x )
Tr T (x)r
τ (x) = τ (x) =
IP (x ) IP
T T (x)
(x) = (x) =
GI P ( x ) GI P
Case II
Ti ri
τi =
I Pi
n
Ti Li
φB / A =
i =1 Gi I Pi
Solid Mechanics
Statically indeterminate problems
[Σ Mx = 0] TA + TC + T = 0 (1)
We note that within AB, T = TA and
within BC T = TC
P
σx =
A
Principal of
superposition
TR
τ max = P
IP σx =
A
Solid Mechanics
Stress concentrations in torsion
R − Radius of curvature
1
k= = Curvature
R
in general R = R ( x ) and k = k ( x ) .
RdQ = dS
1 dQ
k= = for any amount of R
R dS
The deflections of beams are very small under small
deformation condition. small deflections means that the
deflection curve is nearly flat.
1 dQ
under small deformations.
k= =
R dX
Solid Mechanics
Fx = Vy = Vz = 0
Mx = My = 0
M z = M = M0
Solid Mechanics
M = − yσ x dA
Fx = 0 σ x dA = 0
My = 0 zσ x dA = 0
Mz = M − yσ x dA = M
Final length of ef = e* f * = ( R − y ) dQ
The distance dx between two planes is unchanged at the
neutral surface,
1 dQ
RdQ = dx k= =
R dx
Solid Mechanics
Therefore, the longitudinal strain i.e ∈x at a distance “y”
from the neutral axis is
e* f * − ef ( R − y ) dQ − dx − y
∈x = = =
ef dx R
y ∈x = − ky
∴ ∈x = −
R
ydA = 0
A
M = − σ x ydA
A
Ey
M=+ ydA
A
R
E
M= y 2 dA
RA
y 2 dA = I zz = Moment of inertia of
A cross-sectional area about
neutral axis
EI
∴ M=
R
1 M
k= =
R EI
1 M0
k= =
R EI Moment-Curvature relation
Solid Mechanics
Curvature k is directly proportional to M- internal bending
moment and inversely proportional to EI- flexural rigidity of
the beam.
Flexural rigidity is a measure of the resistance of a beam to
bending.
− MC1 M MC 2 M
σ1 = =− σ2 = =
I S1 I S2
I I
S1 = and S2 = -Section moduli
C1 C2
S = Section modulus
bh 3 bh 2
I zz = S=
12 6
π π d3
I zz = d 4 S=
64 32
bh 3
I zz =
36
h = 3 b / 2 for eqilateral triangle
I zz = 0.1098r 4
Solid Mechanics
Distribution σ x on various cross-sections
M
σ max =
S
I
S=
ymax
M = σ alllowS
Ssquare
= 1.18
Scircle
Solid Mechanics
• This result shows that a beam of square cross-section is
more efficient in resisting bending then circular beam of
same area.
• A circle has a relatively larger amount of material
located near the neutral axis. This material is less highly
stresses.
• I - Section is more efficient then a rectangular cross-
section of the same area and height, because I - section
has most of the material in the flanges at the greatest
available distance from the neutral axis.
Extension of results
Long prismatic beam under pure bending, and symmetrical
bending.
M ≠ M (x)
M = Constant
My σx
σx (y) = − ∈x =
I E
I = I zz ∈y = − v ∈x
1 M ∈z = − v ∈z
k= =
R EI
dM
= −V
dx
−M (x ) y σ x ( x,y )
σ x ( x,y ) = ∈x ( x,y ) =
I E
1 M (x) ∈y = −ν ∈x
k= =
R (x) EI ∈z = −ν ∈x
Solid Mechanics
The above results can also be used for non-uniform bending
problems provided if they satisfy the following conditions.
M (x) y
σx = −
I (x)
1 M (x)
k (x) = =
R ( x ) EI ( x )
Solid Mechanics
Problem
Determine the maximum tensile and compressive stresses in
the beam due to the uniform load.
Solution
Centroid :-
A mm2 y yA mm3
1 20 × 90 = 1800 50 90 × 10 3
2 40 × 30 = 1200 20 24 × 10 3
3
A = Σ A = 3000 Σ yA = 114 × 10
Ay = Σ yA y 3000 = 114 × 10 3 y = 38 mm
(
I zz = I = Σ I + Ad 2 s )
bh 3
=Σ + Ad 2
12
1 1
= 90 × 20 3 + 1800 × 12 2 + × 30 × 40 2 + 1200 × 182
12 12
I 868 × 10 −9 −6
S1 = = = 39 .45 × 10
C1 22 × 10 −3
I 868 × 10 −9
S2 = = −3
= 22.84 × 10 −6
C 2 38 × 10
at D:
M 1.898
σt = =
max s2 22.84 × 10 −6
σt = 83.1 MPa
max
M 1.898
σC = =
max s1 39.45 × 10 −6
σC = 48.11 MPa
max
Solution
Mmax = 720 N-m
1 0.06 × 0.033
SA = = 9 × 10 −6 m 3
12 0.015
M PL
σ tmax = σ Cmax = =
SA SA
σ tmax = σ Cmax = σ allow
σ allow × S A
Palow = = 150 N
L
1 0.03 × 0.06 3
SB = = 1.8 × 10 −5 m3
12 0.03
σ ×S
Palow = allow B = 300 N
L
Vy ( x ) = τ xy dA
A
1
τ yxt = σ x ( x + ∆x,y ) dA − σ x ( x,y ) dA
∆x A A
−M (x ) y
σ x ( x ,y ) =
I
1 1 1
τ yxt = − M ( x + ∆x ) ydA + M ( x ) ydA
∆x I A IA
1
τ yxt = − M ( x + ∆x ) − M ( x ) ydA
∆xI A
−1 M ( x + ∆x ) − M ( x )
τ yx = ydA
It ∆x A
taking limit as ∆x → 0
−1 M ( x + ∆x ) − M ( x )
τ yx = lim ydA
It ∆x→0 ∆x A
−1 dM
τ yx = ydA
It dx A
dM
= −Vy ( x )
dx
Vy ( x )
∴ τ yx = ydA
It A
Solid Mechanics
The above integral is by definition the first moment of are A
From (1)
VyQ VQ
τ yxt = f = =
I I
The quantity “f” is known as the “shear flow”.
Shear flow is the horizontal shear force per unit distance
along the longitudinal axis of the beam.
Solid Mechanics
Distribution of shear stresses in a Rectangular beam
An example of application of equations
h h / 2−y
Q = udA = b −y y+ s
A
2 2
b h2
Q= − y2
2 4
1 3
I= bh
12
VQ V h 2
τ xy = τ yx = = − y2
It 2 I 4
h
at y = ± τ xy = τ yx = 0
2
Vh 2 3 V
τ xymax = τ yxmax = =
8I 2A
Solid Mechanics
Thus τ max in a beam of rectangular cross-section is 50%
V
larger than the average shear stress
A
Solution
bh 2
S= A = bh
6
M 6 Pa
∴ σ max = max = 2
S bh
3 Vmax 3 P 3 P
τ xymax = τ yxmax = τ max = = =
2 A 2 A 2 bh
Therefore, the maximum permissible values of the load P in
dending and shear respectively are
σ allowbh 2 2τ allow bh
Pallow b = Pallow s =
6a 3
Solid Mechanics
Substituting numerical values into these formulas,
Pallow b = 8.25 kN
Pallow s = 8.25 kN
Solution
1
( ) ( )
2 2
τt = σ ys − 0 + ( 0 − 0 )2 + σ ys − 0
3
2
τt = σ ys
3
2
Von Mises theory says that τ oct ≥ σ ys
3
3
σ von = τ oct
2
Von Mises theory says that τ von ≥ σ ys
Mr Tr
σA = τ1 =
I Ip
4V
τ2 =
3A
Solid Mechanics
Bending + axial loading
− My
σx =
I
P
σx = P − M zz y
A σx = +
A I zz
Neutral surface is now shifted due to the application of axial
load.
Solid Mechanics
1
dWint = σ x ∈x dV
2
This internal work is stored in the volume of the element as
the internal elastic energy or the elastic strain energy.
1
∴ dU = σ x ∈x dV
2
dV = volume of the element.
The strain energy density U0 is defined as the internal elastic
energy stored in an elastic body per unit volume of the
material.
dU σ x ∈x
∴ Strain energy density = U0 = =
dV 2
Solid Mechanics
U0 can be interpreted as an area under the inclined line on
the stress-strain diagram. Similar expressions can developed
for σ y and σ z corresponding to strains ∈y and ∈z .
1
dUshear = τ xy dxdz × Yxy dy
2
distance
average force
1
dU shear = τ xy Yxy dv
2
Analogous expressions apply for the shearing stresses
τ xz ,τ zx with the corresponding shear strains Yyz and Yxz
U0 =
1
2E
( ) (
v
σ x2 + σ y2 + σ z2 − σ xσ y + σ yσ z + σ zσ x
E
)
+
1 2
2G
( 2
τ xy + τ yz 2
+ τ zx )
It is the expression for elastic strain energy per unit volume
for linearly plastic, homogeneous, isotropic materials.
In general, for a stressed body the total strain energy is
obtained by integration of U over its volume.
0
σ x = σ z = τ xy = τ xz = τ yz = 0
1 1 σ 1 2
∴ U 0 = σ x ∈x = σ x x = σx
2 2 E 2E
1 2
∴ The total internal energy = U = U 0 dv = σ x dV
V V
2 E
Solid Mechanics
σ x2 P2 P2L
U= AL == 2
.AL =
2E 2 EA 2 EA
P 2L
U=
2 EA
Strain energy in torsion of circular shafts
1 1 τ 1 2
U0 = τ .Y = τ . = τ
2 2 G 2G
1 2 TY
U = U 0 dv = τ dv τ=
2G IP
v v
Tr π
τ= where I p = R4
Ip 2
R
1 T2 2
U= . 2 .r .2π r.dr.L
0
2 G Ip
T 2L
U=
2GI p
σ x2 M2 2 M2
∴ U= dv = 2
y dv = 2
y 2 dA.L
v
2E v
2 EI 2 EI
Solid Mechanics
M 2L
U=
2 EI
Conclusion
P2L
Axially loaded bars U =
2 AE
T 2L
Torsion of shafts U=
2GI P
M 2L
Bending (pure) of beams U=
2 EI
We can use the following equations in case of non-uniform
cases
L L L
P2 T2 M2
U= dx ; U = dx ; U = dx
0
2 AE 0
2 GI P 0
2 EI
Solid Mechanics
Problem:
P ( x ) = Y.A ( L − x )
L
P2
U= dx
0
2 AE
L
Y 2 A2 ( L − x ) 2
= dx
0
2 AE
L
Y 2 A2 2 2 Y2A 2 L3
= L + x − 2 Lx.dx = L L + − L3
2 AE 0 2E 3
Y 2 A2 3 L3 3 Y 2 AL3
= L + −L =
2 AE 3 6E
P2L
U=
2 AE
P ( x ) = Y.A ( L − x ) + P
L
Y 2 A2 ( L − x )2 + P 2 + 2YA ( L − x ) .P
U= dx
0
2 AE
Y 2 AL3 P 2 L2 2YAP 2 L2
U= + + L −
6E 2 AE 2 AE 2
Y 2 AL3 P 2 L2 YP 2
= + +
6E 2 AE 2 E
Since U ∞ P 2 or U∞δ 2 principle of superposition should
not be used.
Solid Mechanics
- BM means
Examples
(1)
Solid Mechanics
The objective is to find the shape of the elastic curve or
deflection curve for given loads i.e., what is the function v(x).
There are two approaches
(1) Differential equations of the deflection curve
(2) Moment-area method
Differential equations of the deflection curve
Consider a cantilever beam: The axis of the beam deforms
into a curve as shown due to load P.
∴ ds ≈ dx
Therefore, in small deflection theory no difference in length
is said to exist between the initial length of the axis and the
arc of the elastic curve.
1 dθ
k= =
ρ dx
Since θ is small tanθ ≈ θ
dv
∴ =θ
dx
1dθ d 2 v
∴k = = = 2
ρ dx dx
d 2ν
k = 2 = ν ′′
dx only insmall deformationtheory
du
θ= = u′
dx
If the material of the beam is linearly elastic and follows
Hooke’s law, the curvature is
1 M
k= =
ρ EI
Solid Mechanics
+ M → leads to +K and so on
d2v M
∴ 2= or
dx EI
d2 v
EI 2 = M
dx
The basic differential equations of the deflection curve.
Sign conventions used in the above equation:
dv
(a) The (b) and θ are
dx
(c) k is + (d) M is +ve if beam bends
Another useful equations can be obtained by noting that
dM
= −V
dx
dV
= −p
dx
Non-prismatic beams
d2v
EI ( x ) 2 = M ( x )
dx
( EI ( x ) v′′ )′ = − v ( x )
( EI ( x ) v′′ )′′ = + P ( x )
Solid Mechanics
For prismatic beams.
(5) (6)
Solid Mechanics
Boundary conditions
(1)Boundary conditions
(2)Continuity conditions
(3)Symmetry conditions
Boundary conditions
Pertain to the deflections and slopes at the supports of a
beam:
(i)Fixed support or clamped support
v ( a) = 0
θ ( a ) = v′ ( a ) = 0
(ii)
v ( a) = 0
M ( a ) = EIv′′ ( a ) = 0 v′′ ( a ) = 0
M ( a ) = EIv′′ ( a ) = 0
(iii)
V ( a ) = −EIv′′ ( a ) = 0
Solid Mechanics
Continuity conditions
All deflection curves are physically
continuous. Therefore
v ( c ) from side AC = v ( c ) from side BC
Similarly at “C”
v′ ( c ) from side AC = v′ ( c ) from side BC
Symmetry conditions
L
v′ = 0 because of loading
2
and beam. This we should load
in advance.
The method for finding deflection using differential
equations is known as “ method of successive integration”.
Application of principle of superposition: Numerous
problems with different loadings have been solved and
readily available. Therefore in practice the deflection of beam
subjected to several or complicated loading conditions are
solved using principle of superposition.
+ +
Solid Mechanics
Problem 1
Determine the equation of the deflection curve for a simple
beam AB supporting a uniform load of intensity of acting
through out the span of the beam. Also determine maximum
deflection δ max at the mid point of the beam and the angles
of rotation Q A and QB at the supports. Beam has constant EI.
Solution
qL
V+ − qx = 0
2
qL
V = qx − (1)
2
qL qx 2
M− x+ =0
2 2
qLx qx 2
M= − (2)
2 2
Differential equation of deflection curve.
EIv′′ = M ( x )
qLx qx 2
EIv′′ = −
2 2
Slope of the beam
Solid Mechanics
qLx 2 qx 3
EIv′ = − + C1
4 6
BC → Symmetry conditions
L
v′ x = =0
2
qLL2 qL3
0= − + C1
16 48
qL3 qL3
0= − + C1
16 48
qL3
C1 = −
24
Slope equation is
qLx 2 qx 3 qL3
EIv′ = − − s
4 6 24
−q
v′ =
24EI
(
L3 − 6L2 + x 3)
Deflection of the beam
qLx 3 qx 4 qL3
EIv = − − x + C2
12 24 24
B.C.
v(x = 0) = 0
0 = 0 − 0 − 0 + C2 C2 = 0
qLx 3 qx 4 qL3
EIv = − − x
12 24 24
Solid Mechanics
−q
∴v =
24EI
(
L3 x − 2 Lx 3 + x 4 )
−q
v=
24EI
(
x 4 + L3 x − 2 Lx 3 )
you can check v = 0 at x = 0 and L = 0
(b) From symmetry maximum deflection occurs at the
L
midpoint x =
2
L −5qL4
v x= =
2 384EI
-ve sign means that deflection is downward as expected.
L 5qL4
δ max = v x= = s
2 384EI
−qL3
Q A = v′ ( 0 ) =
24EI
-ve sign indicates clock wise rotation as expected.
qLx qx 2
EIv′′ = − + C1
2 2
B.C.
M (x = 0) = 0 EIv′′ ( x = 0 ) = 0
C1 = 0
qLx qx 2
EIv′′ = −
2 2
Problem 3
Above problem using fourth order differential equation
P=q
EIv′′′′ = −q
Shear for a equation
EIv′′′ = −qx + C 1
From symmetry conditions
Solid Mechanics
L L
V x= =0 EIv′′′ x = =0
2 2
L qL
0 = −q + C 1 C1 = +
2 2
qL
∴ EIv′′′ = −qx +
2
Problem 4
Determine the equation of the deflection curve for a
cantilever beam AB subjected to a uniform load of intensify
q. Also determine the angle of rotation and deflection at the
free end. Beam has constant EI.
Solution:
V + qL − qx = 0
V = qx − qL
qL2 qx 2 qL2 qx 2
M+ − qLx + M = qLx − −
2 2 2 2
Differential equation of deflection curve
EIv′′ = M ( x )
qL2 qx 2
EIv′′ = − + qLx −
2 2
Solid Mechanics
qL2 x qLx 2 qx 3
Slope equation: EIv′ = − + − + C1
2 2 6
BC: v′ ( x = 0 ) =C01 = 0
qL2 x qLx 2 qx 3
EIv′ = − + −
2 2 6
Deflection equation
qL2 x 2 qLx 3 qx 4
EIv = − + − + C2
4 6 24
v (x = 0) = 0
0 = 0 + 0 − 0 + C2 C2 = 0
qL2 x 2 qLx 3 qx 4
∴ EIv = − + −
4 6 24
−q − +
v= 6L x + 4Lx 3
2 2
x4
24EI
v′ ( x = L )
−qL3 qL3 qL3 −qL3
EIv′ = + − =
2 2 6 6
qL3
∴ v′ = QB = −
6EI
v(x = L)
−q 4 4 4 −3qL4
v= 6 L − 4L + L =
24EI 24EI
−3qL4 qL4 -maximum deflection also.
v(x = L) = v=
24EI 8EI
Solid Mechanics
Problem 5
Above problem using third order equation
EIv′′ = −V ( x )
EIv′′′ = qL − qx
Moment equation
qx 2
EIv′′ = qLx − + C1
2
B.C. M ( x = L ) = 0 EIv′′ ( x = L ) = 0
Pb Pb
+x=P x=P−
L L
Pb
V+ =0
L
Pb
V =−
L
Pb Pbx
M− x=0 H=
L L
Pb
V+ −P=0
L
Pb
V =P−
L
Solid Mechanics
Pbx
M + P ( x − a) −
L
Pbx
M= − P ( x − a)
L
Pbx Pxa
M= − Px + Pa = − + Pa
L L
Differential equation of deflection curve
Pbx
EIv′′ = 0≤x≤a
L
Pxa
EIv′′ = − + Pa a≤x≤L
L
Slope equations:
Pbx 2
EIv′ = + C1 o ≤ x ≤ a
2L
− Px 2 a
EIv′ = + Pax + C 2 a ≤ x ≤ L
2L
B.C. v′ ( x = a ) AP = v′ ( x = a ) PB
P ( L − a ) a2 − Pa3
+ C1 = + Pa2 + C 2
2L 2L
/ 2 Pa
PLa / /3 / /3
Pa
− + C1 = − + Pa2 + C 2
2 L/ 2/ L/ 2/ L/
Pa2
C1 = + C2
2
Solid Mechanics
Deflection curve equations:
Pbx 3
EIv′ = + C 1x + C 3 0≤x≤a
6L
− Px 3 a Pax 2
EIv = + + C2x + C4 a ≤ x ≤ L
6L 2
B.C: v ( x = 0 ) = 0 and v ( x = L ) = 0
0 = 0 + 0 + C3 C3 = 0
PL3 a PaL2
0=− + + C2L + C 4
6L 2
PL2 a PaL2
0=− + + C2L + C 4
6 2
PaL2
= + C2L + C 4
3
PaL2
C4 = − − C2L
3
v ( x = a ) AP = v ( x = a ) PB
P ( L − a ) a3 − Pa 4 Pa 3
+ C1a = + + C2 a + C4
6L 6L 2
PLa 3 Pa
/ /4 / / 4 Pa 3
− Pa
+ + C1 a = + + C2 a + C 4
6L 6/ L/ 6L/ 2
Pa 3 Pa 3
+ C1a = + C2 a + C 4
6 2
Pa 3 PaL2
C1 a = + C2 a − − C2L
3 3
Solid Mechanics
Pa 3 Pa 3 PaL2
+ C/ 2 a = + C/ 2 a − − C2L
2 3 3
Pa 3 PaL2 PaL2 Pa 3
=− − C2L C2L = − −
6 3 3 6
PaL Pa 3
C2 = − −
3 6
Some important formulae to remember
(1)
qL4 qL3
δB = ,QB =
8EI 6EI
PL3 PL2
δB = , QB =
(2) 3EI 2 EI
M0 L2 M L
(3) δB = , QB = 0
2 EI EI
(4)
5qL4 qL3
δ c = δ max = ; Q A = QB =
384EI 24EI
Problem 8
A simple beam AB supports a concentrated load P acting at
the center as shown. Determine the equations of the
deflection curve, the angles of rotation Q A and QB at the
supports, the maximum deflection δ max of the beam.
Solid Mechanics
Solution
Px
M=
2
P
V =−
2
P
M− x=0
2
Px
M= Px
2 M=
2
P
V+ −P=0
2
V=P/2
Px L
M− +P x− =0
2 2
Px L Px PL PL Px
M= −P x− = − Px + = −
2 2 2 2 2 2
PL Px
M= −
2 2
Solid Mechanics
Differential equation deflection curve
Px
EIv′′ = 0≤x≤L/ 2
2
PL Px L
EIv′′ = − ≤x≤L
2 2 2
Slope equations
Px 2
EIv′ = + C1 0≤x≤L/ 2
4
PLx Px 2 L
EIv′ = − + C2 ≤x≤L
2 4 2
L L
v′ x = = v′ x =
2 AP 2 PB
Deflection equations:
Px 3
EIv = + C 1x + C 3 0≤x≤L/ 2
12
PLx 2 Px 3
EIv = − + C2x + C4 L / 2 ≤ x ≤ L
4 12
B.C: v ( x = 0 ) = 0 and v ( x = L ) = 0
Solid Mechanics
0 = 0 + 0 + C3 C3 = 0
PL3 PL3
0= − + C2L + C 4
4 12
PL3
= + C2L + C 4
6
PL3
C4 = − − C2L
6
L L
v′ x = = v′ x =
2 AP 2 PB
PL3 C1L PL3 PL3 L
+ = − + C2 + C 4
96 2 16 96 2
L PL3 PL3 L
C1 = − + C2 + C 4
2 16 48 2
L PL3 L
C1 = + C2 + C 4
2 24 2
3 PL2
C2 = −
16
Solid Mechanics
PL3 −3 PL2
∴ C4 = − −L
6 16
− PL3 3 PL3 ( −8 + 9 ) PL3
= + =
6 16 48
PL3
C4 = −
48
Deflection curves
Px 3 PL2 L
EIv = − x + C3 0≤x≤
12 16 2
PLx 2 Px 3 3 PL2 PL3 L
EIv = −+ − x+ ≤x≤L
4 12 16 48 2
PL3 PL3 − PL3
EIv x = L = − =
2 96 32 48
PL3
∴ v x= L =−
2 48EI
v = − PL3 / 48EI
Slope equations:
Px 2 PL2 L
EIv′ = − 0≤x≤
4 16 2
PLx Px 2 3PL2 L
EIv′ = − − ≤x≤L
2 4 16 2
PL2 PL2
EIv′ ( x = 0 ) = 0 − =−
16 16
PL2
∴ v′ ( x = 0 ) = QA = − ( − ) Clock wise
16EI
PL2 PL2 3 PL2 ( 8 − 4 − 3 ) PL2 PL2
EIv′ ( x = L ) = − − = =
2 4 16 16 16
PL2
∴ v′ ( x = L ) = QB = (+ ve, CCW from x-axis )
16EI
Problem 9
A cantilever beam AB supports load of intensity of acting
over part of the span and a concentrated load P acting at the
free end. Determine the deflections δ B and angle of rotation
QB at end B of the beam. Beam has constant EI. Use principle
of superposition.
Solution
qa 3 qL3
δ B1 = ( 4L − a ) , QB1 =
24EI 6EI
PL3 PL2
δ B2 = , QB2 =
3EI 2 EI
Solid Mechanics
qa3 PL3
δ B = δ B1 + δ B2 = ( 4L − a ) +
24EI 3EI
qa3 PL2
QB = QB1 + QB1 = +
6EI 2 EI
Solid Mechanics
d 2θ M
2
= can be written as
dx EI
d 2θ dθ M
2
= =
dx dx EI
M
dθ = dx
EI
M
The quantity dx corresponds to an infinitesimal area of
EI
M
the diagram. According to the above equation the area is
EI
equal to the arrange in angle between two adjacent point m1
and m2 . Integrating the above equation between any two
points A & B gives.
B B
M
dθ = θ B − θ A = ∆θ BA = dx
A A
EI
Solid Mechanics
This states that the arrange in angle measured in radius
between the two tangents at any two points A and B on the
M
elastic curve is equal to the area of diagram between A &
EI
B , If θ A is known then
θ B = θ A + ∆θ BA
In performing above integration, areas corresponding to the
+ M are taken + ve, area corresponding to the – ve M are
taken –ve
B
M
If dx is +ve- tangent B rotates c.c.w from A or θ B is
A
EI
algebraically larger than A.
If – ve – tangent B rotates c.w from A.
Second moment-area theorem
This is related to the deflection curve between A and B.
Solid Mechanics
We see that dt is a small contribution to tBA . Since the angles
between the tangents and x-axis are very small we can take
M
dt = x1dθ = x1 dx
EI
M
The expression x1 dx = first moment of infinitesimal area
EI
M
dx w.r.t. a vertical line through B.
EI
Integrating between the point A & B
B B′
M M
tBA = dt = x1 dx = First moment of the area of the
A A
EI EI
diagram between points A & B, evaluated w.r.t. B.
tBA = φ x1
t AB = φ x
B
M
where φ = dx
A
EI
if M is +ve φ = +ve
if M is -ve φ = -ve
x and x1 are always taken +ve quantities.
∴ Sign of tangential deviation depends on sign of M.
Solid Mechanics
A positive value of tangential deviation- point B is above A
and vice versa – ve value means point B is below the point A.
In applying the moment area method a carefully prepared
sketch of the elastic curve is always necessary.
Problem:1
Consider an aluminum cantilever beam 1600 mm long with a
10 –kN for a applied 400 mm from the free end for a distance
of 600 mm from the fixed end, the beam is of greater depth
than it is beyond, having I 1 = 50 × 106 mm4 . For the
remaining 1000 mm of the beam I 2 = 10 × 106 mm4 . Find the
deflection and angular rotation of the free end. Neglect
weight of the beam and E = 70GPa
Solution:
EI = 3.5 × 10 24
70 × 109 × 10 −6 N/mm2
= 70 × 10 3 N/mm2
Solid Mechanics
1 1 −0.12 36
A1 = bh = × 600 × =−
2 2 E E
129.6
A2 = bh = −
E
1 1 −0.48 115.2
A3 = bh = × 480 × =−
2 2 E E
1 1 −0.12 7. 2
A4 = bh = × 120 × =−
2 2 E E
B
M
∆QBA = QB − Q A = dx = A1 + A2 + A3 + A4
A
EI
M
Since EI is constant
EI
diagram is same as M
diagram.
vc = c′′c′ − tCB
1
c′′c′ = t AB
2
1 1 3 Pa 3 Pa2
A1 = bh = × a × = s
2 2 4EI 8EI
1 1 3Pa 9 Pa2
A2 = bh = × 3 a × =
2 2 4EI 8EI
2
x1 = a ; x 2 = 2 a
3
3 Pa2 2 9 Pa2
t AB = A1x1 + A2 x2 = a+ 2a
8EI 3 8EI
Pa3 9 Pa3 10 Pa3 5 Pa3
= + = = ( + ve )
4EI 4EI 4EI 2 EI
Solid Mechanics
1 Pa 2a Pa 3
tCB = × 2 a × × = s
2 2 EI 3 3EI
5 Pa 3
c′′c′ = t AB / 2 =
4EI
5 Pa 3 Pa 3 ( 15 − 4 ) Pa 3 11Pa 3
∴ vc = − = =
4EI 3EI 4EI 12 EI
11Pa 3
vc =
12 EI
The +ve sign of t AB & tCA indicate points A & C above the
tangent through B.
(a) The slope of the elastic curve at C can be found from the
slope of one of the ends as:
∆QBC = QB − QC QC = QB − ∆QBC
B
M 1 Pa Pa2
∆QBC = QB − QC dx = × 2 a × = s
C
EI 2 2 EI 2 EI
5 Pa 3 1 Pa 2 5Pa 2 Pa 2
QB ≈ t AB /L= − = −
2 EI 4 a 2 EI 8EI 2 EI
Pa2
Qc =
8EI
1 1 − Pa Pa 2
A1 = bh = × a × =−
2 2 EI 2 EI
1 a Pa Pa 2
A2 = × × − =−
2 2 EI 4EI
Pa 2 Pa 2
A3 = and A4 =
4EI 2 EI
a 7a 2a a 11a
x1 = + 2 a = ; x 2 = + +a=
3 3 33 2 6
1a 2a
x3 = + a = 7 a / 6 ; x4 =
32 3
tCB = A2 x2 + A3 x3 + A4 x 4
Pa2 11a Pa 2 7 a Pa2 2 a
=− × + × + ×
4EI 6 4EI 6 2 EI 3
11Pa3 7 Pa 3 Pa3 ( −11 + 7 + 8 ) Pa3
=− + + =
24EI 24EI 3EI 24EI
4 Pa 3 Pa 3
tCB = =
24EI 6EI
The + sign of tCB indicates that the point C is above the
tangent through B. Hence corrected sketch of the elastic
curve is made.
Solid Mechanics
Pa 2 2 Pa 3
t AB = − × a=−
2 EI 3 3EI
∴ v A = t AB − A′′A′
Pa3 Pa3 Pa3
= − =
3EI 12 EI 4EI
Pa 3
vA =
4EI