PIPING ENGINEERING CELL
DESIGN OF FLOW NETWORKS
Introduction
Flow networks are very common in
industry. The water distribution network,
piped gas network, sewage water
network, steam distribution network,
chilled water distribution network in
industry or District Cooling Systems,
etc. are all flow networks. Such
networks allow the utility to be produced
in a single plant taking into account the
collective requirement of the plant. This
gives advantage of scale. One can use a
large single boiler, rather than a separate
boiler to produce steam for every
equipment. At the same time, it
necessitates a flow network running all
over the plant.
The pressure drop calculation
philosophy remains the same, and still
the network as a whole requires some
special treatment. In a dedicated pipe,
there is no flow splitting, branching off,
or flow mixing.
Individual users drawing from a network
cannot be isolated and their performance
will affect everyone else’s. That means,
if a reactor draws more steam to
maintain its temperature, a downstream
equipment may starve and may not get
its steam requirement. If a heat
exchanger draws more cooling water to
maintain its performance (cooling
another stream to a desired temperature),
someone else in the network will not get
the supply at the flow rate and/or
pressure it expects to get.
Design of flow Networks
Prof. A. S. Moharir
In this chapter, we understand some
basics of network flow design.
Types of Network
Consider flow through a single pipe
route. Let us call it a dedicated pipe as
its job is to transport fluid from one end
to another without branch-off for flow
splitting or mixing in between.
We have seen that equivalent length of
the route is a hypothetical length of the
straight pipe which causes the same
pressure drop as the complex pipe route.
We also know how to account for pipe
routes where the two ends are not at the
same level and also where the two ends
are not of the same diameters. We know
Bernoulli equation.
The performance of a dedicated pipe is
completely defined if we know the
pressure (say P) and flow rate (say F) at
the two ends. There are thus 4
parameters defining a dedicated pipe
route, Pin, Fin , Pout, and Fout. For steady
state flow, the flow rate entering the pipe
is also the flow rate leaving the pipe or
Fin = Fout. We thus have one equation
that must be satisfied. This equation is
simply the steady state mass balance.
We also know that for a given flow,
given medium (density and viscosity
values), given pipe size and pipe surface
roughness, the frictional pressure drop
can be calculated. This can be used in
the Bernoulli’s equation to relate the
inlet pressure to the exit pressure. We
thus have another equation relating the
1
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL
pressures at the two ends of the pipe
route. This is an energy balance
(Bernoulli’s equation is basically an
energy balance equation.).
We thus have 4 unknowns and two
equations (mass balance and energy
balance). There are thus two degrees of
freedom or two parameters that the user
should specify to completely define the
system’s performance. Stated the other
way, if the user specifies any two
quantities out of the four (Pin, Fin, Pout,
and Fout), the other two can be calculated
using the two equations that we can
write. What will not work is if the user
specifies flow at the inlet and the outlet.
We will not be able to get pressures at
the two ends as unique values. To
completely define the performance of a
flow system, it is important that at least
one pressure value be specified. In any
flow system, at least one pressure must
be specified.
We also know how to handle transient
flow, i.e., a situation where the pressure
and/or flow rate change with time. For
the case of a single dedicated pipe, let us
explore the degrees of freedom by
considering our variables and the
equations we can write.
For a dedicated pipe as earlier, but
experiencing transient conditions, the
variables of interest are the flow rates at
the two ends and the pressures at the two
ends. There are thus 4 variables. In this
case, we cannot say that the outlet flow
will be the same as the inlet flow at any
given time.
As seen earlier, that transient flow is
governed by two equations (partial
differential equations) which must be
satisfied at all locations along the pipe
Design of flow Networks
route and at all times. One of these
equations was a mass balance and the
other the energy balance. Only
difference is that these were unsteady
state equations. The equations are
reproduced here for easy reference.
∂P ∂v
+ ρ c2 =0
∂t ∂x
∂v 1 ∂ P f v v
+ + =0
∂t ρ ∂ x 2D
We have pressure in the above equations
(P). Instead of flow rate, we have v, the
linear velocity. Linear velocity is
nothing but volumetric flow rate divided
by pipe cross-sectional area. So, in a
way, it relates to flow rate.
We thus have in principle 4 system
variables and two conservation equations
relating them. There are thus 2 degrees
of freedom in this case also. User must
specify two variables as a function of
time. For example, user may give how
the inlet pressure is changed with time
and how the exit flow rate will change
with time. The solutions of the equations
will then give how inlet flow changes
with time and outlet pressure changes
with time, so that the two conservation
equations are satisfied at any time and at
any location along the pipe route.
Since what we solve are the earlier given
partial differential equations, we will
also get the pressure and flow rate (or
velocity) along different points along the
pipe as functions of time.
The degrees of freedom thus remain the
same irrespective of the nature of
operation, steady state or unsteady state.
2
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL
Also notice that the degrees of freedom
here was 2 and the piping system also
had 2 ends, one inlet and one outlet.
Let us now consider a pipe network
instead of a singe dedicated pipe route.
A simple network is shown in the figure
below. It has one supply point or inlet,
and two end points.
We have 3 flows associated with the
branch off point, one incoming, and two
outgoing. There are thus 3 flow rates
associated with the branch-off location.
We thus have10 system variables: 4
pressures and 6 flow rates.
Let us consider that the network is
operating at the steady state. We can
write 4 independent mass balance
equations which must be satisfied. Three
are easy to write as we did in the case of
a dedicated pipe. What enters any pipe
section must also leave. The equations
are as follows.
F1, in = F1, out
F2, in = F2, out
F3, in = F3, out
At the branch off point or node,
whatever enters must leave. There
cannot be any accumulation at the node
which has no volume as such. In
equation form, therefore.
F1, out = F2, in + F3, in
For each of the three pipe sections or
pipe segments [(1), (2) and (3) in the
network drawing)], pressure drop is
related to the pipe length, diameter and
roughness and also flow rate, density
Design of flow Networks
and viscosity. We thus have three more
equations.
We thus have 10 variables and 7
equations. The difference is the degrees
of freedom for this simple network. The
degrees of freedom of this network is
thus three and the user must specify
three parameter values out of the 10 we
listed earlier on the network itself (P1,
P2, P3, P4, F1,in, F1,out, F2,in, F2,out, F3,in,
F3,out).
One could specify pressure at the inlet
and flows drawn by the two users at the
end of two branches. Which 3 variables
are specified will depend on application.
For example, user at node 2 may demand
a certain flow rate and at certain
pressure. User at node 2 is ready to
accept any flow at a given pressure or a
fixed flow at any pressure etc. We are
free to specify 3 parameter values as we
have three degrees of freedom.
If the flow is transient, the mass balance
equations which we wrote for each
segment are not valid. During unsteady
state, what enters a pipe section or
segment need not be equal to what
leaves it. We still have 10 variables: four
pressures and 6 flow rates (P1, P2, P3, P4,
F1, in, F1,out, F2,in, F2,out, F3,in, F3,out) with
the difference that these are now
changing with time and are not constant.
The fourth mass balance equation we
wrote earlier holds in this case also.
F1, out = F2, in + F3, in
We have two equations (mass and
energy balance) for each segment which
must be satisfied. We thus can write 6
equations for our case (three transient
mass balance equations and three
transient energy balance equations).
3
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL
In all, we thus have 7 equations again
and three degrees of freedom.
Note that we have 3 degrees of freedom
for this network, which is having one
inlet and 2 outlets. If we decide to
designate nodes which are inlets or
outlets of any network as terminal nodes,
the number of terminal nodes in this
network is 3 and so are the degrees of
freedom. This a general rule of any
network.
“THE NUMBER OF DEGREES OF
FREEDOM IN ANY NETWORK IS
THE SAME AS THE NUMBER OF
TERMINAL NODES.”
If the network has a loop as in the
network shown in the following figure,
instead of a tree type network we
considered so far, the above rule for the
degrees of freedom still holds.
For tree networks, the number of
segments is one less than the number of
nodes. For loop networks, the number of
segments could be equal to, or even
more than the number of nodes
depending on the number of loops in the
network. However, the degrees of
freedom in all cases are always equal to
the number of terminal nodes in the
network.
Any network design should preferably
be done using a network simulator.
People use some rules of thumb and
decide diameters of different segments
in a network for desired performance
and hope that the network would
function. Industry knows how steam
networks work and often an equipment
is starved of the steam supply it needs
for its heating duty. There is very little
Design of flow Networks
you can do to rectify a wrongly designed
network. You cannot force pressures and
flows on a network beyond what the
degrees of freedom allow you to do.
In the next section, a computer tool for
network simulation is introduced.
Network Simulation Basics
A network comprises of nodes and
segments. Any network carrying gas or
liquid can be described in terms of two
essential aspects, NODES and
SEGMENTS. We will look at these
formally and also understand how to
completely define their characteristics.
NODES:
Nodes can be of six general types.
START NODE: These are the locations
where fluid enters the network.
Typically, these could be discharge
nozzles of the pumps/compressors which
supply fluid to the network. The network
starts here.
In a network, where fluid supply is from
multiple sources, there could be many
start nodes. For example, in a city-wide
water network, water may be entering
the network from several reservoirs.
Similarly, in a state-wide gas network,
gas may be supplied for distribution by
several gas suppliers.
Operations point of view, start nodes
would normally be pumping liquids or
putting compressed gas at a designated
pressure so that the same can flow
through the network, undergo pressure
4
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL
drop and still reach the distant users at
required flow/pressure specifications.
There is only one segment associated
with a start node which is downstream of
it.
END NODE: This is the other type of
terminal node. It is where a branch of a
network ends. This is the customer for a
network. Each end node is also a
terminal node and contributes one
degree of freedom to the total degrees of
freedom. Generally, one would like to
specify the demand or flow rate at this
type of node.
There is only one segment associated
with an end node which is upstream of
it.
SPLITTER NODE: This is where a
single incoming flow splits into two
flows going through two downstream
segments. The node splits the flow into
two and hence the name SPLITTER
node. Physically, this is a tap-off point
or a branch-off point on a distribution
line. Physically, it could be a TEE on the
header line.
Such types of nodes do not have a
degree of freedom. They have four
variables attached to them. These are
one pressure and three flow rates (one
incoming and two outgoing). None of
these can be specified by the user. These
evolve as per network specifications and
operation.
There are three segments associated with
a splitter node, one upstream segment
and two downstream segments.
MIXER NODE: This is mirror image of
a splitter node. Two incoming flows
Design of flow Networks
merge into one outgoing stream. There
are four variables associated with a
mixer node, three flow rates and one
pressure. There are three segments
associated with a mixer node, two
upstream segments and one downstream
segment.
INTERMEDIATE NODE: These are
nodes, where you just want to know the
pressure or flow and have placed a
pressure gauge or a flow meter
accordingly. No flow split or merger
takes place here. What comes in goes out
at this node with no change in its
specification. It could also be a node
where only the pipe size changes. There
are two segments associated with an
intermediate node; one upstream
segment and one downstream segment.
EQUIPMENT NODE: Equipment node
is similar to an intermediate node, except
that it allows to effect change in the
specification of the fluid flowing across
it in terms of pressure or flow. For
example, it could be a pressure reducing
station, a booster station, a flow control
valve, a surge chamber, a pressure relief
valve, etc. The equipment node has four
variables associated with it, namely the
upstream and downstream pressures and
upstream and downstream flow rates. At
the same time, it will supply its own
characteristic equations, two in number,
linking the upstream and downstream
flows and pressures.
For example, if it is a booster pump, it
will set the downstream pressure to a
value depending on pump characteristic
curve. It will also set the downstream
flow as the same as upstream flow.
SEGMENTS
5
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL
A segment is a pipe route connecting
two nodes, one at its upstream end and
another at its downstream end. While
different segments could have different
diameters, a segment has uniform
diameter across its length. Apart from
diameter, a segment will have a given
length. The pipe for a segment will also
have its wall roughness associated with
it.
We have seen earlier, that for a tree type
network, the number of segments will be
one less than the number of nodes in a
network. For a network which has one or
more loops, the number of segments can
be equal to or even more than the
number of nodes.
The segment will have its specifications
as above Unlike nodes which can have1,
2 or 3 segments associated with them
depending on node type, a segment
always has two nodes associated with it
at its two ends.
A network has its own topology or
structure. This structure is in terms of
nodes and segments. The network
simulator must be conveyed this
topology using some logic. The
simulator must be provided with all
relevant details of each node (type of
node, elevation of node, segments
associated with nodes and user provided
pressure or flows at terminal nodes,
etc.). The simulator must be provided all
details of each segment such as its
internal diameter, surface roughness,
length etc. The simulator should also be
given details of what is flowing through
the network, such as whether it is liquid
or gas, its density, viscosity etc. The
simulator then should be given some
indications as to what numerical solution
method it should use to solve the
Design of flow Networks
equation, what level of discretization
you want to use to break up time (1
second interval, or 5 seconds interval
etc.) and length of each segment. We
have seen earlier that the governing
equations are mass balance and energy
balance equations. These equations
involve time and space (distance along
the pipe segment) as independent
variables and velocity and pressure as
dependent variables. Discretization of
time and space is important for solving
equations. You should therefore suggest
how many divisions each segment be
divided into for solution purposes.
Generally, once these inputs are in, the
simulator will analyze your inputs for
consistency, do degrees of freedom
analysis, generate necessary equations
and solve them. As simulator output, you
will get pressures and flows at each node
as a function of time.
You can then analyze the simulation
result for design or other performance
parameters.
The next section introduces you to the
simulator, which is an IIT Bombay
product.
PAnORaMA
The name stands for Piping Analysis,
Operations Research and Maintenance
Application.
The software can simulate any gas or
liquid network. The preparation to use
the software is simple. You should draw
your own network. Number all the nodes
serially, starting from 1 and without
missing any serial number in between.
Similarly, number all the segments,
6
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL
again starting with 1 and without
missing any serial number in between.
Have data on each segment ready with
you and also data on each node ready
with you. Keep the fluid properties with
you (density, viscosity etc.). Make up
your mind as to what time step you want
to use and what approximate length
interval you want to use to discretize the
segments.
PAnORaMA is a comprehensive
transient simulator for any fluid network
that you can conceive of. Its input is
quite intuitive and once you see few
Design of flow Networks
networks being simulated in a demo
film, you can use PAnORaMA for any
other network.
To understand PAnORaMA, download
a problem sheet with 10 problems. Then
also download a short film which solves
these problems for you on PAnORaMA.
These downloads are available to the
participants of the on-line course on
Piping Engineering on CEPGlobe.com.
That is complete training for you on how
to use PAnORaMA and to view and
analyze results.
7