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ÔV The Earth͛s crust (which is thin ʹ 20 km) is continental (thicker and less dense) and oceanic (thinner
and more dense).
ÔV The plates move because of convection currents in the mantle.
ÔV —lates meet at plate boundaries:
ÔV 0    
„V Two plates are moving towards each other, eg. Nazca and S. American plate boundary.
„V The oceanic crust subducts under the continental crust into the mantle. It melts in the
mantle due to friction and heat.
„V    (—opacatypetal or Cotopaxi) are formed as the continental crust
is pushed up, and   magma rises to the surface. Deep ocean trenches also
occur where the oceanic plate goes down.
ÔV     
„V Constructive margins are where two plates are moving away from each other, eg. Mid-
Atlantic ridge.
„V ÿ   magma from the mantle rises and forms 
 . If high enough,
these can become volcanic islands, eg. Iceland.
„V `idges are built up from the sea b ed, as so much magma is poured.
ÔV    
„V here the plates are sliding past each other. They are moving in a similar direction but
different angles and speeds, eg. San Andreas Fault.
„V The —acific plate is faster than the N. American plate.
„V —ressure builds along the fault, and a plate jerks past the other, causing a shallow focus
earthquake.
- - 
ÔV At a destructive plate boundary that has two continental crusts (Collisional plate margin) the crust
goes vertically to make ë  , eg. Himalayas (Mt. Everest, K2).
ÔV -   are formed when rivers carry sediment, and it accumulates on the sea bed in huge
depressions called . Over millions of years, the sediments are compressed into
sedimentary rocks. The sedimentary rocks were forced upwards into a series of folds by the movement
of the tectonic plates.   may occur.
ÔV ·    also occur as the sediment is crumpled into unilateral fold mountains (eg.
Andes) in deep sea trenches. The compression in the trenches squeezes the sedimentary slab or rock
onto the continent ʹ ͞ ͟ formation.
-  
 ! 
"
ÔV üocation: Central Europe; Formation: 30 million years ago by the collision between the African and
European plates; —opulation : A  people.
ÔV - ʹ The steep upland areas are used to farm goats, which provide milk, cheese and meat. On
the # slope, it is warmer and vineyards are grown. In summer, you grow fruit, and the cows are
taken to the top of the mountain, where milk is sent to the bottom by cable car (
). The
bottom of the fold mountain is fertile (rivers) and there is protection against the wind.
ÔV r ʹ The fast flowing water turns turbines in HE— stations. There are steep slopes, high precipitation
and summer melting. The cheap HE— can be used to power sawmills, fertilizer manufacture, etc.
ÔV  ʹ Salt, iron ore, gold, silver and copper were mined in the Alps, but the mining has de clines
drastically due to cheaper foreign sources.
ÔV  ʹ (See Chamonix) Good communication (near Geneva and Zurich airports, motorways). Good
snowfall and crisp clear days. Beautiful scenery, A

  tourists visit the Alps. There is a large
amount of summer and winter sports available.
ÔV     
  : Goats are farmed on      because they͛re well adapted at
living there. Trees and man-made defences are used to protect against avalanches and rock slides.
Animals are grazed in most high areas, as the $  there. `oads have been built throughout
the Alps as there are   . Tunnels have been cut through the mountains.
%
ÔV 0   %
„ V    volcanoes (Mt. St. Helens) are formed at destructive margins. They͛re made up of
ash and lava that͛s erupted, cooled, and hardened into layers. The   lava is  and
flows slowly. The volcano has steep -side and is usually destructive.
„ V

 volcanoes (Mauna üoa, Hawaii) are formed at hotspots or constructive margins. The
ë  lava is  and flows quickly. The sides are gentle, and it is made up of layers o f lava.
ÔV 0     : The oceanic plate is subducted under the continental crust, and is melted
and destroyed in the mantle. A pool of magma forms, and rises through cracks in the crust (vents).
ÔV      : The magma rises up from the mantle into the gap created by the plates
moving apart.
ÔV r   : Some volcanoes also form over parts of the mantle that are really hot.
ÔV
     volcanic eruptions by observing certain signs. Tilt-meters can be used for seeing if
magma underground is being built-up. Seismographs can measure earthquakes. Gases are also
emitted, by using robots to monitor them.
%  ! 0 "! 
"
ÔV : The Caribbean plate collided with the two American plates on each side. They sub ducted under
the Caribbean plate. The lava was erupted from the volcano on the Caribbean plate in June 1997
(small eruptions started in July 1995). 
ÔV

  : 5,000 people moved to the north. 23 died. Ash destroyed over 20 villages and two
thirds of homes on the island were destroyed. Trees also by pyroclastic flows, and three quarters of
the infrastructure was gone.