Enhancing Carbonate Reservoir

Characterization
Issue 9 2009

38
Middle East & Asia Reservoir Review

Defining a field strategy

One of the key challenges in any oil and gas reservoir is to establish how hydrocarbon fluids will move
through the structure during production. Once the engineers have established the routes that fluids will take
through the rock and identified where hydrocarbons might be left behind, they can develop strategies to
maintain production levels and boost total recovery.

In carbonate reservoirs, the assessment of flow paths is complicated by features such as natural fractures,
uncertainty over the connectivity between the various parts of the reservoir, and variations in wettability that
will influence the effectiveness of recovery methods such as water injection.

In this article, Bernard Montaron, Michael Stundner, and Georg Zangl examine methods that characterize
fracture pathways, establish the degree of fluid exchange between reservoir compartments, and enable
petrophysicists to define wettability variations across the field.
 04

39

Middle East & Asia Reservoir Review Issue 9 2009

 Carbonate experts are developing ways to apply both old and new technology to
better effect in reservoir characterization. R&D programs conducted by Schlumberger
have helped the industry to enhance the characterization of fractured reservoirs, to
establish the connectivity between the compartments of complex reservoirs, and to
determine how wettability variations influence recovery factors.

Reservoir characterization is the act of building a model of a Figure 4.2

Issue 9 2009

reservoir based on its characteristics with respect to fluid flow. To Fractures

achieve an accurate picture of a reservoir and how it will behave Reservoir compartments
during its productive life, reservoir engineers must be able to identify
the main flow pathways and define the connections between the
40
various parts of the reservoir. Once the engineers have established
the routes that the fluids take through the rock and identified where
Middle East & Asia Reservoir Review

hydrocarbons might be left behind, they can develop strategies to

maintain production levels and boost total recovery.

Fractures, connectivity, and wettability

The natural fracture networks found in carbonate rocks often
have a controlling influence on fluid movement. Fractures can
be responsible for water breakthrough, gas coning, and drilling
problems such as mud losses and stuck pipe (Fig. 4.1). Most
carbonate reservoirs contain fractures that can range from isolated
4.2: A detailed understanding of the interactions between reservoir
microscopic fissures to kilometer-long structures containing many compartments will guide field development planning and may help to locate
individual fractures. bypassed hydrocarbon zones.

In oil and gas reservoirs, the natural fractures may serve as conduits
that enable or enhance the flow of hydrocarbons, or they may act
as barriers preventing or slowing the movement of liquids and
gases and dividing the reservoir into compartments with different
pressure regimes and oil/water contacts (OWC). In some fields,
a set of fractures may perform both roles at different times or at
different pressures.
Figure 4.1
Where fractures split the reservoir into distinct hydrocarbon
volumes, geologists and engineers need to establish the volume
and the extent of each compartment using a range of geochemical
and production tests. Identifying the individual reservoir
compartments and the degree of fluid connectivity between them
is a key aspect of reservoir engineering in carbonate reservoirs.
This becomes particularly important during the later stages of
production when bypassed compartments may contain large and
untapped hydrocarbon volumes (Fig. 4.2).

Wettability has always been recognized as an important parameter

A
to be considered in oil reservoirs. However, accounting for the
distribution of wettability in carbonate reservoirs is a concept that
has emerged only recently in the industry. Wettability has a strong
influence on reservoir performance and on the proportion of oil that
can be recovered. Failure to characterize the wettability regime can
B
lead engineers to implement development plans that can damage
the reservoir. New logging techniques combining measurements
from multiple LWD and wireline tools can now be used to help
characterize wettability in open hole. Key measurements include
NMR, resistivity, and any other measurement sensitive to saturation,
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 including dielectric, sigma neutron capture cross section and
carbon/oxygen.
Oil saturation

4.1: Fracture corridors can control the movement of injected water and sweep
efficiency. A central injector well is sweeping oil to four producers located in
the corners of a homogeneous reservoir block (A) and a reservoir with large
fracture corridors (B). Recovery is reduced in the fractured reservoir.
Understanding the fracture network
Faults and fractures develop through a range of geological
mechanisms (Fig. 4.3). Faced with this complexity, engineers must
work to identify fracture types, origins, scales, and connectivity,
and the physical controls on their behavior.
Fractures do not always present high-permeability pathways for
fluids. In many fields, some or all of the fractures may be cemented,
which effectively compartmentalizes the reservoir and makes
production more difficult. Only when earth scientists and engineers
achieve a thorough understanding of the fault and fracture networks,
can they decide whether the fractures in the reservoir will help or
hinder hydrocarbon production and then select the most effective
plan for field development.
The oil and gas industry has understood the potential importance
of fractures for decades. However, clear understanding of the
range and diversity of fracture structures and the roles they play
in determining reservoir storage capacity and productivity has
only been achieved in recent years. The total porosity contribution
from fractures is typically 0.1% or less, even in heavily fractured
reservoirs. In reservoirs composed of porous rocks, that is all
reservoirs other than fractured basement, the fracture porosity
is a very small fraction of total porosity. Most of the hydrocarbon
reserves are in the matrix, but the hydrocarbons in the fractures are
much more mobile and easy to produce.
Figure 4.3
Fracture types
Joint Stylolite compaction band Fault
Mode 1 (opening) Antimode 1 (volume loss) Mode 2 (sliding)
4.3: The main development mechanisms for natural fractures.
Fractured reservoirs often deliver high initial flow rates from discovery
Issue 9 2009
and early development wells. This may lead engineers to overestimate
a reservoir’s potential production because producible hydrocarbons
can quickly be depleted once the oil contained in the fracture network
has been produced. Fractured reservoirs often appear to have thick
41
reservoir zones, but the OWC can be hard to define and, when this
is the case, engineers may have difficulty in accurately estimating
Middle East & Asia Reservoir Review
reserves. Indeed, within the same zone of a producing reservoir, the
OWC in the fractures may be very different to the OWC in the matrix.
This difference is due to the large permeability contrast between the
two reservoir elements.
Fracture distributions and reservoir flow
In carbonate reservoirs, the volume of oil and the rate at which
it can be produced are usually influenced by a fracture network
that extends throughout the field. However, the analytical tools
developed to examine fractures in clastic reservoirs can only
measure fracture properties in the reservoir close to the well. This
leaves the geoscientists attempting to predict the reservoir-wide
distribution of fractures using indirect observations or assumptions.
In naturally fractured carbonate reservoirs, these methods provide
insufficient data to define the reservoir framework.
Recognizing the need for a more detailed picture of fracture
distributions and reservoir flow structure, Schlumberger has a
broad, cross-discipline commitment to continuously improving
fracture modeling in carbonates.
Mode 3 (tearing)
Issue 9 2009
Jacques Pion
Jacques Pion is currently geosciences manager at the Total
representative office in Abu Dhabi. He has held various positions
with Total worldwide, including head of geophysical R&D
42
until 1996, geosciences manager on several Iranian buy-back
contracts until 2001, and geosciences manager for Total Angola
Middle East & Asia Reservoir Review
until 2004.
Q: What is specific/unique about characterizing geological
structures in carbonates?
Carbonate rocks present a special challenge in terms of rock
physics: the Poisson’s ratio in carbonates is 0.28 for calcite, 0.2
for dolomite (compared with 0.1 for clastic rocks) and this makes
reservoir characterization much more difficult at least through
a classical acoustic inversion. When hydrocarbon is present
in a carbonate unit it often preserves the rock’s petrophysical
properties; but where the rock matrix is exposed to water,
diagenetic effects will create different rock properties. Fluid
substitution algorithms need to take diagenesis into account.
In clastic rocks, lateral seal considerations are very important and
fault structures are usually assessed to determine connectivity
between adjacent reservoirs. In contrast, vertical communication
is dominant in carbonate rocks and stacked carbonate reservoirs
are often found to communicate through vertical “channels”
created by porous facies and/or fractures. Faults also play an
important role defining fluid flow in carbonates, but subtle faults
with very small throws are often ignored even though they may
have calcite cementation that creates an effective barrier.
Q: How are you addressing these challenges in Total?
We’ve been pioneers in AVO-AZ (azimuthal variation of the
AVO response) since the early 1990s. For example, in 1991 we
published a study about positive AVO-AZ effects in a carbonate
reservoir in the Paris basin. However, we recognize that AVO
methods, and AVO-AZ in particular, are very difficult to apply in
carbonates. Therefore, our emphasis is on using the interpretation
software SISMAGE for subtle fault tracking with a combination
of attributes and the superposition on vertical sections of what
is tracked on slices.
In Total we investigate the rock physics model and the present-
day stress field as these are key for characterizing particular
directions for sealing or nonsealing effects. We also have a
precise calibration for seismic near the wells: we can check for
subtle faults using cores interpretation, image logs, wireline logs,
pressure data, and well test interpretation. We take this approach
because structural attributes drive the distribution of fracture
properties in the model.
Q: What are the most common challenges you see in the Middle
East region with regards to carbonates?
There are two main challenges. The first is to define the scale
of heterogeneities that is meaningful for reservoir development
and the second is to establish which faults are sealing and which
nonsealing. An additional challenge is to find and study relevant
geological analogs, and we are very fortunate to have in the South
of France well-studied rock outcrops that provide a valid analog to
the carbonate reservoirs in the Middle East.
Q: How important is accurate structural geology in defining a
field development plan for carbonate reservoirs?
Accurate structural geology is essential for the long-term life
of the reservoir. A clear understanding of heterogeneities helps
with decisions on water management and on the type of injection
required; and guides our plans for tertiary recovery. With low
permeability carbonate oil reservoirs we have to deal with a
paradox: the tighter the rocks are, the more prone to fracturing
they will be, and that creates a major challenge!
Today we’re working with the Abu Dhabi operating companies
ADCO and ADMA in order to develop more complex and thinner
carbonate reservoirs for which improved oil recovery methods
(such as artificial lift, complex wells) will be required to start much
sooner. Total has a special role to play in this because the Abu
Al Bukhoosh field operated by Total in Abu Dhabi is much more
mature than the operating companies’ larger fields and has
already been the subject of numerous experimental improved
oil recovery (IOR) techniques designed to push the recovery
factor beyond initial expectations. On the Abu Al Bukhoosh field,
structural geology studies have proved very important for guiding
IOR actions, and the experience gained on this field can be
considered as a pilot for further improved recovery projects.
Fracture corridors Figure 4.4

Issue 9 2009
Diffuse fractures are spread through the reservoir, and their density
and orientation can be measured with high-definition seismic surveys
that uniformly sample the offset–azimuth continuum. However,
some carbonate reservoirs contain large-scale heterogeneities
43
known as fracture corridors. These structures consist of numerous
fractures that share the same orientation and are contained in a

Middle East & Asia Reservoir Review

relatively small volume within the reservoir, typically a few meters
wide, a few tens of meters high, and several hundred meters long
(Fig. 4.4). A major fracture corridor might contain 100,000 individual
fractures and provide a permeability of more than 50 D.

The high permeabilities found in fracture corridors mean that they

provide direct conduits for injected or produced water. This can
result in high water cuts, early water breakthrough, and reduced
total oil recovery (Fig. 4.5). However, fracture corridors also
provide opportunities. If the reservoir engineer has information
about the presence and positions of fracture corridors before
production begins, it should be possible to incorporate them into
the field development plan and to drill injectors and producers that
complement the reservoir’s natural flow patterns and so stimulate
hydrocarbon production. 4.4: High-permeability fracture corridors consist of numerous fractures that
share the same orientation and are contained in a relatively small volume within
the reservoir.
Fracture corridors can control production and recovery. Field
development plans are often devised and implemented without
Figure 4.5
prior knowledge of the fracture corridors in the reservoir (Fig. 4.6A).
Early water breakthrough might result in many wells being watered
out within a few years of production (Fig. 4.6B), while half the total
oil production for the field comes from a few wells, in this example
only three wells are producing oil (Fig. 4.6C). Faced with this kind
of situation, the only way that field operators can be sure that they
will improve field and well performance is by characterizing the
fracture network so that any remediation programs and additional
Phase resistivity Rm = 0.024 ohm.m
wells can achieve their goals.
100
When reservoir engineers know the locations of fracture corridors
Rps, ohm.m

before they develop a field, they can optimize production by placing 10

shorter horizontal injection wells and production wells in the best
1
locations (Figs. 4.6D and 4.6E). The latest seismic technology and
advanced processing methods enable the presence and location of X590 X610 X630 X650 X670
fracture corridors within reservoirs to be determined. This information Depth, m
is vital for effective well placement and reservoir simulations.
4.5: In this Abu Dhabi well, all the produced water (160 m3/d) came from a single,
9-m wide fracture corridor.
 Borehole imaging can be used to locate and describe fractures that intersect a well, but
characterizing the wider fracture network requires a different approach. Seismic surveys, with
their broad areal coverage and ongoing improvements in image resolution, are ideal for detailed
definition of reservoir-scale heterogeneities.

Figure 4.6
Issue 9 2009

A B C D E

44
Middle East & Asia Reservoir Review

Water Oil Gas

4.6: A typical field development plan might involve vertical producers and horizontal injector wells around the edge of the field (A). After 5 years, 10 of the wells
might have watered out (B and C) and half of the oil production could be coming from just three wells. Through knowing the location of fracture corridors (D), the
development team could have optimized the field by drilling shorter horizontal injectors and positioning them away from the fracture corridors. Deviated producers
could have been used to intersect the fracture corridors and to drain compartments (E).

Mapping fractures Fracture cluster mapping in Kuwait

Borehole imaging can be used to locate and describe fractures
that intersect a well, but characterizing the wider fracture network
requires a different approach. Seismic surveys, with their broad
areal coverage and ongoing improvements in image resolution, are
ideal for detailed definition of reservoir-scale heterogeneities.
Data from Q-Technology* single-sensor seismic hardware and
software combined with new seismic processing methods enables
earth scientists to detect and evaluate fracture properties between
wells. The analysis of azimuthal anisotropy parameters (the
variations in the velocity and amplitude of seismic waves traveling
in different directions) can reveal the intensity and orientation of
subseismic fractures between wells.
Seismic attribute processing reveals subtle structural details in
the reservoir, and interpreters can use curvature attributes to infer
stress regimes that correspond to fracture density.
The FCM workflow, which Schlumberger launched in 2007, is
based on the assumption that when natural fractures form large
clusters (with extents of 10–30 m or more) they should be visible in
3D seismic data. The FCM workflow integrates borehole data with
the 3D seismic data to optimize the extraction process achieved
through discontinuity extraction software (DES) processing.
Seismic attributes that are sensitive to fracture clusters are
identified and input to the DES. The 3D seismic data must have
optimal spatial/temporal bandwidth and signal-to-noise ratio to
ensure that the attributes input to the DES processing contain
meaningful information for fracture cluster mapping. This may
require special acquisition design and data processing workflows
using single-sensor data. The designs of the directional (azimuthal)
and inclination (dip) filters used in the DES processing are based on
the analysis of cores, borehole images, sonic logs, VSP surveys and
other information on the geology or geomechanics of the field.

Locating fracture corridors

The FCM* fracture cluster mapping workflow, developed by
geoscientists in the Data & Consulting Services (DCS) with the
support of the Schlumberger Stavanger Research (SSR) team in
Norway, combines high-resolution seismic data with log data and
uses the automated structural interpretation capabilities in the
Petrel* seismic-to-simulation software to locate fracture corridors
within the reservoir.
Figure 4.7

Issue 9 2009
D
A Time sliced from a 3D cube showing
fracture clusters output by DES using
azimuth filter opened to all directions
45
B Fracture sensitive seismic attribute

Middle East & Asia Reservoir Review

C Azimuth filter 330–030 and 150–210
Model 1 Model 2
A B C F D Time sliced from a 3D cube showing
fracture clusters output by DES
using azimuth filter opened to
030–090 and 210–270

E Time sliced from a 3D cube showing

fracture clusters output by DES
using azimuth filter opened to
E 090–150 and 270–330

F Time sliced from 3D cube obtained

by merging the 3D volumes of
fracture clusters output by three runs
of DES using three different ranges
of azimuth filters

4.7: FCM workflow and ant tracking.

Fine-tuning for cluster detection Figure 4.8A

The structural and tectonic history of the study area is also used to
optimize parameters and assess results. The general DES processing
often overlooks some fracture clusters when the directional filter
is kept open to all 360˚ of azimuth with a fixed range of features
inclination. In this situation, the DES processing tends to follow the
strongest lateral discontinuities in the vertical plane, those caused X-3

by larger fracture clusters, and to miss the weaker signatures Strike rosettes of
X-2 open fractures from
of smaller fracture clusters. To capture such discontinuities, the borehole images
directional filter can be divided into windows or ranges and the
inclination filter can be set at several dip inclination ranges. X-3

DES processing is run separately for each set of directional and X-5
X-1 X-4
inclination filters. Each run of DES provides a 3D volume cube of
fracture cluster lineaments. These cubes are then merged into a
single 3D volume cube that gives a much more realistic picture of
the fracture clusters that are present (Fig. 4.7).

Filters: Search azimuth:

X-4 All 360°
Dip Angle: Dip >70°

4.8A: North-northeast–south-southwest trending fracture clusters at a

horizon within the Middle Marrat carbonate reservoir, extracted from the
seismic volume using the DES.
 Figure 4.8B
Issue 9 2009

4.8B: The FCM workflow enables

Largely north-northeast– Northeast–southwest;
south-southwest east-northeast– operators to create 3D maps for all
striking fracture clusters west-southwest; the major fracture corridors in a
detected by ant northwest–southeast; carbonate field.
46 tracking when the and west-northwest–
X-2 azimuth filter was X-2 east-southeast striking
opened to 315–045 fracture clusters detected
Middle East & Asia Reservoir Review

and 225–135 when the azimuth filter

X-3 was opened to 315–045
X-3
and 225–135
X-5 X-5
X-1
Filters: Search azimuth: X-1
Filters: Search azimuth:
315–045 and 135–225 045–135 and 225–315
Dip angle: >70° Dip angle: >70°

X-4 X-4

Riedel shears caused by north-northeast–

Fold-related longitudinal fracture clusters following the south-southwest striking right-lateral.
north-northeast–south-southwest trending fold Strike–slip faults bounding the Sabriyah anticline
axis of Sabriyah anticline

Fold-related longitudinal
fracture clusters
following the fold axis
of Sabriyah anticline

FCM in Kuwait
The FCM workflow was applied to the sequence of Jurassic
carbonates in five fields (northwest Raudhatain, Raudhatain, Umm
Niqqa, Sabriyah, and Bahra) in the northern part of Kuwait. The
Sabriyah field was selected as the key area for the study because
four wells were being drilled there at the time and it offered a
challenging structural setting (a pop-up structure caused by
transpression along the east and west bounding strike–slip faults).
Fracture evidence at the existing wells and data from the newly
drilled wells were used to validate the fracture clusters located
using the DES on the seismic volume. Figure 4.8A shows mainly
north-northeast–south-southwest trending fracture clusters at a
horizon within the Middle Marrat carbonate reservoir extracted
from the seismic volume using the DES. Fracture clusters of exactly
the same orientation and inclination were observed in the 3D cube
throughout the Marrat section.
However, borehole data from one of the existing wells showed a
dominance of east-northeast–west-southwest striking fractures
(more than 400 open fractures) within Marrat. When the DES
process was applied to the same seismic attribute volume, but
with two different azimuthal filters (315–045 and 135–225; and
045–135 and 225–315), fracture clusters with north-northeast–south-
southwest, east-northeast–west-southwest, northeast–southwest,
northwest–southeast, and west-northwest–east-southeast strikes
were highlighted (Fig. 4.8B). The north-northeast–south-southwest
striking fracture clusters are probably fold-related, as they are
parallel to the axis of the Sabriyah anticline, and the east-northeast–
west-southwest and west-northwest–east-southeast striking
fracture clusters, which are more concentrated within the Sabriyah
anticline, are possibly Riedel shears. The results were validated at
the locations of existing wells and at the new wells.
The FCM workflow enables operators to create 3D maps for all Figure 4.9

Issue 9 2009
the major fracture corridors in a carbonate field, as demonstrated
by its successful application at five fields in Kuwait. Experience
shows that the best results were obtained when using high-
resolution seismic technology.
47
The presence of fracture corridors has often been proposed as an

Middle East & Asia Reservoir Review

explanation for early water breakthrough. With 3D maps of fracture
corridors becoming available, these important structural features
can now be integrated into reservoir models to determine optimum
well locations by using more realistic simulations. This methodology
will help operators to avoid water breakthrough surprises and assist
their efforts to increase hydrocarbon recovery factors in carbonate
reservoirs and other naturally fractured formations.

A unified model of the fracture network

In the past, carbonate reservoirs were developed with little or
no information about the fracture network between wells. Today,
however, reservoir engineers can examine an entire reservoir 4.9: Reservoir engineers can establish the controls on reservoir- and well-scale
to obtain a clear understanding of the fracture corridor network, noncontinuous flow behavior using the DFN workflow and then model the
fracture networks and perform dual-porosity and dual-permeability simulations
its impact on fluid flow, and how the dynamic stress regime (the using ECLIPSE* reservoir simulation software.
geostress) within the reservoir affects permeability. This is achieved
using an integrated approach that combines advanced seismic
processing and discrete fracture network (DFN) modeling.

Exploiting fracture connectivity

Advanced seismic processing can reveal fracture distribution, “Reservoir engineers can create a realistic
but does not provide information about the geomechanical
and hydraulic properties of a fracture network. These are the model for the dynamic behavior of fractures
properties that define the dynamic behavior of the fracture and establish the controls on reservoir- and
network and influence reservoir performance.
well-scale discontinuous flow behavior using
Reservoir engineers can create a realistic model for the dynamic the DFN workflow.”
behavior of fractures and establish the controls on reservoir- and
well-scale discontinuous flow behavior using the DFN workflow
(Fig.  4.9). Within the workflow, each fracture is described by its
physical properties, such as surface area and shape, and each
has defined fluid flow properties for permeability, compressibility,
and aperture.
 Figure 4.10
Issue 9 2009

Petrel software ECLIPSE software

48
Middle East & Asia Reservoir Review

Combination of input sources Well tests

Interference tests

4.10: The key to accurate characterization of fractured reservoirs involves integrating measurements from different disciplines; building accurate geological models
that incorporate fractures; and performing simulations using dual-porosity, dual-permeability simulators that correctly predict production history.

Using Petrel seismic-to-simulation software, engineers can integrate
information from numerous sources, including 2D and 3D seismic
surveys, maps, outcrops, reservoir geomechanical studies, well
logs and tests, flow logs, and structural or depositional conceptual
models, to create a unified representation of the reservoir.
The combination of the FCM workflow and DFN modeling in the
hands of experienced geoscientists provides the most effective
method for modeling fractured reservoirs and optimizing the
vital production decisions that are taken at the start of the field
development process.

A DFN model typically combines deterministic and stochastic
discrete fractures. The deterministic fractures are those seen on
FMI* fullbore formation microimager borehole image logs and the
fracture corridors that are directly imaged through high-resolution
seismic acquisition using Q-Technology services. Other, usually
smaller-scale, fractures that form diffuse fracture networks are
generated stochastically to match their collective properties
(density and orientation), as observed in the seismic data. The
reservoir model combines the DFN workflow and the fracture
corridors that are directly imaged through seismic imaging using
ant tracking.
Establishing reservoir connectivity
A reservoir compartment is a productive segment of an oil or gas
field that is not in direct fluid communication with the remainder of
the field. Productive compartments may be isolated at the time of
sediment accumulation by depositional processes or may become
isolated after deposition and burial as a result of diagenesis or
structural changes in the rock sequence. Reservoirs that have
become compartmentalized require different approaches to
interpretation and production than continuous reservoirs, and
engineers must be aware that the degree of compartmentalization
may change as a result of hydrocarbon production.

A typical DFN model may contain several million fractures, and this Compartmentalized fields may be complex, with different OWCs
information is fed into the ECLIPSE reservoir simulation software or gas/water contacts in each compartment. As the reservoir is
through an upscaling process. Engineers then generate a 3D depleted, some of the fractures between the compartments may stop
simulation grid that contains the fracture porosity, the permeability, acting as complete lateral seals and enable some communication,
and the sigma factor required for a dual-porosity or dual-permeability which further complicates fluid distribution and movement.
simulation (Fig. 4.10). This model can then be run in the ECLIPSE
software to provide an accurate picture of fluid flow in the reservoir
and enable the engineers to compare the effectiveness of various
production strategies.
Figure 4.11 Figure 4.12

Issue 9 2009
Negative Current Positive Measured
Reservoir 1

30
49
Pressure, MPa

25 Reservoir 9 Reservoir 5 Reservoir 6

Middle East & Asia Reservoir Review

20
No interference
Reservoir 3 Reservoir 2 Reservoir 7
15

1970 1980 1990

Time Reservoir 4 Reservoir 8
4.11: A pressure match using several years of production data enables
engineers to establish the extent of interference between various reservoir
Thickness of connection indicates interference strength
compartments. In this example, the data indicates that there is an exchange of
fluids between two compartments.
Res. 1 Res. 2 Res. 3 Res. 4 Res. 5 Res. 6 Res. 7 Res. 8 Res. 9

Res. 1 0 0 0 7.73 7.04 0 0 6.22

Measuring and predicting the affects of reservoir
connectivity Res. 2 0 0 0 –3.15 0.62 0 0 0

Effective reservoir decisions require access to historical and real- Res. 3 0 0 0.01 0 0 0 0 –2.75
time production data. Reservoir and production engineers can use
Res. 4 0 0 –0.01 –1.51 0.40 0 0 0
the DECIDE!* data mining based production optimization software to
generate readily usable information from large volumes of field data. Res. 5 –7.73 3.15 0 1.51 0 0 0 0.03
The system’s analytical data mining capabilities make it possible to
Res. 6 –7.04 –0.62 0 –0.40 0 –0.74 –0.11 0
diagnose reservoir conditions and to conduct predictive modeling.
This can guide reservoir management decisions, reveal production Res. 7 0 0 0 0 0 0.74 0 0
opportunities, and prioritize operational decisions, including Res. 8 0 0 0 0 0 0.11 0 0
tasks such as optimizing the field injection/production ratio (IPR),
Res. 9 –6.22 0 2.75 0 –0.03 0 0 0
enhancing artificial lift performance, and smart well control.

4.12: The extent of the interference between nine different

Using the material balance with interference (MBI) method reservoir compartments.
within the DECIDE! software, engineers can analyze production
data to establish the degree of connectivity between reservoir
compartments. A large carbonate reservoir may contain dozens of
compartments with varying degrees of connectivity.

Engineers can pressure match the various reservoir compartments

over a period of production (Fig. 4.11) and create an interference
matrix (Fig. 4.12) that defines the connectivity. The MBI approach
is more effective than simple material balance models, is easier to
apply than numerical simulation models, and enables production
teams to manage their reservoirs interactively.
 Applying MBI in the Middle East
Issue 9 2009
In a major Middle East field, the MBI method was used to
investigate production sustainability; to assess whether there had
been overinjection of water; to predict future water production
for establishing the necessary water handling capacity; and to
50
ascertain the most effective injection allocation to optimize field
performance.
Middle East & Asia Reservoir Review
The MBI approach was also used to optimize the IPR, to evaluate
new workflows for injection management, and to select a new
injection scheme that would maintain production.
Using the MBI method and artificial intelligence tools (neural network
proxy models), Schlumberger worked with the field operator to identify
the oil and water interference between the reservoir segments and to
optimize the injection profile according to the production needs.
The project had three phases: data preparation and analysis; modeling;
and forecasting and optimization. The MBI model integrated a range
of data types, including produced volumes of oil, water, and gas;
injected water volumes; wellhead pressures; test data for oil, water,
and gross production rates; water cut; GOR; and PVT.
Based on the matched MBI model, the team established the optimum
injection profile for three different production scenarios and plotted
the performance for each option to 2030. The project optimized the
IPR from 1.18 to 1.06; refined the segmentation model for the main
parts of the field; and identified the oil and water fluxes between the
peripheral segments and the central area of the reservoir.
Wettability, productivity, and oil recovery
In many oilfield applications, rocks are described as being either
water-wet or oil-wet. This is an extreme simplification that
masks the complexity of wetting physics in reservoir rocks. In a
homogeneous, porous material saturated with oil and water, there
are many degrees of wetting between strongly water-wet and
strongly oil-wet. Solids that do not display a marked preference for
one fluid over the other are intermediate- or neutral-wet.
Detailed characterizations of formation wettability are crucial for
production teams seeking to optimize oil recovery. The wetting
preference of reservoir rocks influences many aspects of field
performance, particularly when operating companies apply
waterflooding or enhanced oil recovery techniques. Treating a
reservoir as though it were water-wet when it is oil-wet or has
mixed wettability may cause irreversible damage.
During primary recovery, wettability influences productivity and
oil recovery. The original wettability of a formation and the altered
wettability during and after hydrocarbon migration influence
the profile of the initial water saturation, Swi, and the production
characteristics of the formation.
Wettability affects the amount of oil that can be produced at the pore
level, as measured after waterflooding by the residual oil saturation,
Sor. In a water-wet formation, for example, oil can be in the larger
pores disconnected from the continuous body of oil and therefore
remain trapped. In an oil- or mixed-wet formation, oil adheres to the
rock, thereby increasing the probability of a continuous path to a
producing well and resulting in a lower Sor.
Measuring wettability
Wettability can change during and as a result of oil production. For
example, asphaltene precipitation in depleting carbonate reservoirs
may change their wettability. To appreciate the pore-level changes
that control oil production, engineers must understand past and
present wettability distributions.
Reservoir wettability is one of many parameters that can be derived
from analysis of carbonate core samples (Fig. 4.13). However, core
wettability can be modified in several ways before the sample
reaches the laboratory. Even when efforts are made to preserve
the core sample’s original wetting state, drilling mud from the well
may contaminate it. As the core is brought to surface, temperature
and pressure changes may change the composition of the fluids it
contains, sometimes causing asphaltenes and waxes to precipitate
and cover the pore surfaces. Once the core has reached the
surface, exposure to oxygen may alter the chemical composition
of the crude oil it contains and generate surfactants that affect its
properties.
The challenges of preserving core samples in pristine condition
have led to a method for restoring the original reservoir condition of
the core. The first step to restoring cores is a cleaning process that
makes the sample water-wet. The core is then saturated in simulated
formation brine and aged. Finally, it is flooded with crude oil and
aged for several weeks at reservoir temperature and pressure. The
aim of this procedure is to recreate the wetting state of the formation
rock. However, variations in brine or oil composition between the
formation and the laboratory can affect the resultant wetting state.
Figure 4.13

Issue 9 2009
Carbonate Core Data 5-in whole core
5-in whole core
51
Slabbed core description Geomechanical analyses
Texture Compressive properties
Fauna, flora Elastic moduli

Middle East & Asia Reservoir Review

Sedimentology Acoustic properties
Sequence stratigraphy Electrical properties
Structures (fractures, etc.) Fracture/stress field analyses 1-in core plug
Mini permeameter measurements
Biostratigraphic dating Special core analyses
Relative permeability
Mineralogy Capillary pressure
X-ray diffraction, fluorescence Whole core porosity, permeability
Scanning electron microscopy analyses Saturations
Microprobe elemental analyses CT scan
Isotopic analyses Restored state

Seismic/logs
Calibration of log data Thin section
Calibration of seismic response

1-in whole core

Core plugs
Porosity, permeability
Grain density
Fluid saturations
Mercury injection for pore size, capillary pressure

Thin section

Thin-section petrography
Porosity types
Micro fauna, flora
Diagenesis
Cathodoluminescence
Grain size, sorting, etc.
Cement analyses

4.13: Core samples present geologists and reservoir engineers with a wealth of
information about the reservoir in the immediate vicinity of the well, including
wettability.

“Reservoir wettability is one of many parameters that can be derived from

analysis of carbonate core samples. However, core wettability can be modified
in several ways before the sample reaches the laboratory.”
 Wettability can be inferred from other measurements. For Figure 4.14
Issue 9 2009

example, strongly water-wet and strongly oil-wet materials display

characteristic relative-permeability curves, but the intermediate
and mixed wetting states are not a simple extrapolation between
the wettability extremes.
52
At present, there is no method for measuring wettability that can
Middle East & Asia Reservoir Review

deliver an accurate result. The lack of a definitive test for this vital
reservoir characteristic is the driving force behind many ongoing
research projects.

Waterflooding and enhanced oil recovery

Oil- and water-wet zones can be found within the same reservoir. Gravity-dominated flow in water-wet reservoir
The challenges for geoscientists and engineers are to define
the distribution of these layers and track the changes that occur
throughout production.

Wettability affects the performance of waterflooding, which

can involve significant up-front spending. Imbibition forces, the
tendency of a formation to draw in the wetting phase, determine
how easily water can be injected and how it moves through a
water-wet formation. Water breakthrough occurs later during
waterflooding, and more oil is produced before the water breaks
through in a water-wet reservoir than in an oil-wet reservoir. Gravity-dominated flow in a reservoir with layered wettability

Waterflooding in reservoirs that contain both water-wet and oil-
wet layers can be difficult to control. Simulations conducted at the
Abu Dhabi regional technology center have shown that only limited
amounts of oil can be recovered from oil-wet layers because,
although injected water can displace oil from water-wet layers,
it displaces very little from oil-wet layers (Fig. 4.14). The recovery
factors for layered reservoirs can be less than 10%.
Because the impact of wettability extends from pore through to
reservoir scale, wettability can affect project economics. Wettability
influences oil recovery, which is one of the most important quantities
in the E&P business, through the parameters Swi and Sor. In addition,
the relative permeabilities of oil and water vary with formation
wettability. In projects with huge up-front capital expenditure for
facilities, such as those in deepwater areas, failure to understand
wettability and its ramifications can be costly.
4.14: Waterflooding recovers only a small proportion of the oil in the oil-wet
layers of a mixed wettability reservoir.
Sustained efforts in reservoir characterization
Naturally fractured reservoirs present many challenges. The
uncertainties relating to the physical structure and the fluid content
of the reservoir make fluid flow appear unpredictable. Schlumberger
has researched and developed a unique combination of modeling and
visualization techniques to simulate fracture properties and provide
a more complete understanding of reservoir connectivity issues and
fluid flow mechanisms. This research effort will continue across a
broad spectrum of technical disciplines and geographical locations.

Understanding wettability during enhanced oil recovery, when

many different fluids are present and moving through the
reservoir, will be crucial to ensuring the success of enhanced oil
recovery operations.

Hisham Khalil Zubari
Hisham Khalil Zubari is petroleum engineering manager for
the Bahrain Petroleum Company (Bapco). In 1998, he received
the Distinguished Engineer award from the Bahrain Ministry of
Labour and Social Affairs. Hisham’s technical interests focus on
the management of mature fields, and he is chairman of the Well
Testing Committee and the Sponsor of the Corporate Geographical
Information System Implementation Project in Bapco.
Q: The Bahrain field contains many stacked reservoirs, most
of which are carbonate rocks but all quite different. How have
field development plans changed over time and what can the
experience tell us about other Middle East reservoirs?
The Bahrain field was discovered in 1932 and is considered the
oldest in the area. Over the years the field’s production has been
maintained at a reasonable level with the help of gas injection
and advanced lifting mechanisms. Exploring different and more
advanced techniques will be crucial for prolonging the life of the
reservoir. Two years ago, the Bahrain Government, through the
National Oil and Gas Authority, invited international oil companies
(IOC) to participate in the development of the field. Several IOCs
have studied the field and shown confidence in revitalizing the
maturing assets. We have conducted detailed assessment and
evaluation of several possible development programs to select the
one that was most closely aligned with our objectives in targeting
difficult reservoirs. This year we are hoping to form a joint venture
with an IOC that will address and resolve the challenges.
The maturing carbonate reservoirs in the Bahrain field provide
a valuable opportunity for the industry to explore technologies
that can increase reserves and production. The Bahrain field is
an archetype for fields in the area. Finding appropriate solutions
for the complex carbonate reservoirs in the Bahrain field will help
provide a clearer insight on how to plan secondary and tertiary
stage operations for surrounding giant fields. In that sense the
Bahrain field is valuable for the petroleum industry in the Middle
East carbonates.
Q: The main oil producing horizon in Bahrain, the Bahrain
group, is oil-wet. What technical challenges and opportunities
does this create?
The oil-wet Mauddud carbonate reservoir is the main reservoir
in the Bahrain group. In theory its residual oil content, which is
estimated at 50­–60% of OOIP, could be stripped by chemical
Issue 9 2009
flooding, steam flooding, and microbial treatments. The challenge
is to translate the technical successes we have enjoyed in
laboratory studies to our field-scale operations in a cost-effective
53
and economically feasible way. This will require large-scale
investment and commitment by the government. We plan to test a
Middle East & Asia Reservoir Review
steamflooding method on the residual oil in the Mauddud reservoir,
and we hope this will provide valuable results to build on.
Q: Is there a significant potential for heavy oil production
in Bahrain, and what technologies do you think should be
evaluated for this application?
The Bahrain field contains more than 1 billion barrels of heavy
oil and tar in carbonate reservoirs. Unfortunately, the industry
has not yet matured when it comes to extracting heavy oil
from heterogeneous and tight heavy-oil reservoirs. Bapco,
in collaboration with an international oil company, is in the
process of setting an aggressive plan to tackle this challenge.
We are confident that we will find an effective combination of
technologies to help us upgrade these resources into the proven
category, and this will require collaboration with IOCs, service
companies, and research institutes.
Q: How important is research on carbonates for Bapco, and
what research directions would you recommend as priorities?
Research is the key that will unlock the potential of carbonate
reservoirs. The highest priority in my view is to resolve the issue
of wettability in carbonates. Ideas such as steamflooding, and
microbial and chemical flooding are worth investigation, but the
main challenge is to devise a cost-effective method for stripping
residual oil from the rock surface, and with higher oil prices this
will be achievable.
Another challenge is to develop a numerical simulation of carbonate
reservoirs so that field operators can track bypassed oil left in
pockets during the secondary and tertiary phases of development.
This will require intensive research into the characteristics of
carbonate rocks. My third priority for carbonate research would
be to optimize the production of heavy oil so that we attain the high
levels of recovery that can be achieved in clastic rocks.