Furthermore, the quotient of the functions f and g is a function with domain Df ∩ Dg∗ , where

Dg∗ = {x ∈ Dg : g(x) �= 0}.

� �
f f (x)
(x) = (The quotient of functions is a function.)
g g(x)
We note that the symbol ∩ is referred to as the “set intersection” symbol. Put in layman’s terms,
the set intersection A ∩ B denotes everything that is in both of the sets A and B.
√
Creating New Functions from Old. Let f (x) = x + 1 and g(x) = 2x + 1. Find the sum,
difference, product, and quotient of these functions, and state each new function’s domain.

2.2.2 Composition of Functions

Other than the above operations, there is one other important operation for combining two old
functions into one new function. Consider first placing a value x into one function and taking
that output as the input of another function. We refer to this as composition of functions.
Definition. Let f and g be functions. We define the composition of f and g to be the function
(g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)), read “g of f of x.” Observe that the domain of g ◦ f is the set of all x in the
domain of f such that f (x) lies in the domain of g, i.e., Dg ◦f = {x : x ∈ Df and f (x) ∈ Dg }.
√
Composing Functions. Let f (x) = x + 1 and g(x) = x2 − 3. Find the composition of functions
f ◦ g and g ◦ f, and state the domain of each of the new functions.

2.3 Functions and Mathematical Models

2.3.1 Polynomial Functions
Our main thrust in this course is to demonstrate how mathematics — particularly calculus — can
be applied to solve real-world problems. Before we are able to use mathematics to solve a real-
life example, however, we must first develop a mathematical model. Often, a mathematical model
can be constructed from “nice” functions known as polynomials.
Definition. We say that a function f (x) is a polynomial of degree n if we can write

f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 ,

where n is a non-negative whole number, the a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . , an−1 , an are real numbers called coeffi-
cients, and the leading coefficient an �= 0.
We have tacitly dealt with polynomials already. For instance, on this page alone, we have seen
2
polynomials f (x) = 2x + 1 and g(x) = x√ + 3. Even some of the craziest functions that we can
1 3
imagine — say h(x) = 2x − 3x + 2 x + 2x2 − π — are polynomials. Lower-degree polynomials
5 4

are so common that we have given them special names.

• Polynomials of degree n = 0 and n = 1 are called linear functions (or lines), e.g., f (x) =
mx + b. If m = 0, then f (x) = b is the horizontal line at b.

• Polynomials of degree n = 2 are called quadratic functions (or parabolas), e.g., f (x) =
ax2 + bx + c, a �= 0. Recall that the parabola opens upward if a > 0 and downward if a < 0.

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 • Polynomials of degree n = 3 are called cubic functions, e.g. f (x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, a �= 0.
Recall that a cubic function has end behavior (1.) f (x) → −∞ as x → −∞ and f (x) → ∞
as x → ∞ if a > 0 and (2.) f (x) → ∞ as x → −∞ and f (x) → −∞ as x → ∞ if a < 0.
We note that these three cases can be generalized to give the end behavior of all odd- and even-
degree polynomials. Particularly, any even-degree polynomial will behave similarly to |x| as x ap-
proaches ±∞, and any odd-degree polynomial will behave similarly to x as x approaches ±∞.
Bounced-Check Charges. Consider the function f (t) = 2.19t + 27.12 with domain Df = [0, 6]
that models bank revenue from overdraft fees in billions of dollars from 2011 to 2017.
(a.) Determine whether f is a polynomial. Give the degree of f if f is a polynomial; otherwise,
explain why f is not a polynomial.
(b.) Give the slope of f. Describe the meaning of the slope.
(c.) Give the y-intercept of f. Describe the meaning of the y-intercept.
(d.) Predict the bank revenue from overdraft fees in 2018. (Hint: calculate f (t) when t = 7.)

2.3.2 Rational and Power Functions

Other than polynomials, there are two other important classes of functions that are worth noting.
Definition. Let f and g be polynomials. We define a rational function r to be the quotient of
f and g, i.e., a rational function is any function of the form r(x) = fg(x)
(x)
. Recall from our earlier
discussion that the domain of a rational function r(x) is given by Dr = {x ∈ R : g(x) �= 0}.
Definition. We say that a function f (x) = xr such that r is any real number is a power func-
tion. We note that the domain of f could be restricted to only the non-negative real numbers if
1
r = 2n for some positive whole number n since we can only take even roots of non-negative num-
bers. We omit other restrictions but note that they may found by similar case analyses on r.
Composing Rational and Power Functions. Find the domain of the following functions.
1 − x2
(a.) f (x) =
1 + x2
(b.) g(x) = x1/2
(c.) h(x) = (g ◦ f )(x)

2.3.3 Some Economic Models

Excluding the subtle nuances of the science, economics is applied mathematics in the sense that
economists employ mathematical models to explain real-life phenomena. For instance, when mod-
eling supply and demand, economists consider the supply equation S(x) (respectively, the de-
mand equation D in terms of x), which describes the relationship between the unit price x of a
good and the quantity supplied S(x) (demanded D in terms of x) by firms (consumers). Both
the firms and the consumers in a market are assumed to be rational, so the supply curve — i.e.,
the graph of the supply equation S(x) — is increasing, and the demand curve — i.e., the graph
of the demand equation D(x) — is decreasing. We say that a market reaches equilibrium when
D(e) = S(e), where D(e) = S(e) is the equilibrium price and e is the equilibrium quantity.

14
A Bluetooth Wireless Headset Market. Consider the demand function for a certain brand
of Bluetooth wireless headsets D(x) = −0.025x2 −0.5x+60 and the corresponding supply function
S(x) = 0.02x2 + 0.6x + 20, where the price functions D(x) and S(x) are expressed in dollars and
the quantity x is measured in units of one-thousand. Find the equilibrium quantity and price.

Solution. We note that D(x) = S(x) if and only if 9x2 + 220x − 8000 = 0. By factoring this
polynomial, we find that (9x + 400)(x − 20) = 0. By the zero factor property, we conclude that
x = 20 or x = −400/9. Because x cannot be negative, we conclude that the equilibrium quantity
is given by e = 20, from which it follows that the equilibrium price is given by S(e) = 40. �

2.3.4 Constructing Mathematical Models

Given a word problem, we may use the following algorithm to construct a mathematical model.

1.) Begin by assigning a letter to each variable mentioned in the problem. Draw and label a
figure when appropriate.

2.) Find an expression for the quantity sought. Often, this is referred to as the “unknown;”
therefore, it is usually the quantity about which the problem gives the least information.

3.) Use the conditions given in the problem to write the quantity sought as a function f of one
variable. Be sure to note any restrictions to be placed on the domain of f, which are given
by the physical considerations of the problem.

Building a Fence. Consider enclosing a rectangular piece of land along the straight portion of
a river using 3000 feet of fencing. Give a function f that yields the area of the land enclosed if all
fencing is used. (Hint: Use our algorithm, and note that no fence is needed along the river.)

2.4 Limits
2.4.1 Why Do We Care About Calculus?
Calculus is perhaps the most ubiquitous subject area of mathematics in the technical world. Of
the many problems for which calculus supplies an answer are

• finding the velocity of an object;

• finding the rate of change of a bacteria population with respect to time;

• finding the rate of change of a company’s profit with respect to time;

• finding the rate of change of a travel agency’s revenue with respect to the agency’s expendi-
ture for advertising;

• finding the area of irregularly-shaped regions; and

• finding the volume of irregularly-shaped objects.

Our answers to these problems come in the form of derivatives and integrals.

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