Running head: EFFECTS OF DESIGN ON SITUATIONAL INTEREST

Effects of Multimedia Design Principles on Situational Interest in

Undergraduate Learners

Tonia A. Dousay

University of Georgia

07 November 2010
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Introduction

A reciprocal relationship exists between research and practice. As studies in

educational psychology continue to adapt to the ever-growing field of instructional

technology, it is important that new studies provide practical application of the research

findings. Applying research recommendations in practice then begin to inform new

studies as technologies advance and learners adapt to the new environment. Take for

example the notion of motivational design. Keller has noted that research that focuses

on learner motivation has the potential to impact course and lesson design (2010).

Online learning is often dominated by multimedia instruction, but multiple studies have

shown that this type of training often runs into challenges with learner motivation and

completion rates (Carr, 2000; Wojciechowski & Palmer, 2005). Further research has

established a positive link between individual student interest and academic

achievement (Shroff & Vogel, 2010). However, in a review of research on web-impacted

student learning, Meyer noted that a number of online learners struggle because of a

lack of motivation or self-confidence (2003). These intersections of theory and practice

represent an opportunity where research into multimedia design can directly inform

practical application.

Conceptual Framework

Examining illustrations and their effects on interest and information gain is not a

new field of interest. More than 20 years ago, newspapers originally tackled the concept

in order to better understand how readers perceived charts and graphs published with

articles. While research showed that readers did not retain any more information from

flashier graphics than from plain images, studies did support that readers saw these

“chartoons” and three-dimensional graphs as more appealing (Tankard, 1988). The

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importance of this latter revelation becomes more apparent when looking at the bigger

picture of literacy and comprehension.

When compared to text alone, images placed in close proximity to text can

positively impact attention and recall of information. Houts, Doak, Doak, & Loscalzo

(2005) used this principle to examine how pictures improved communication between

health practitioners and patients. They noted that even patients with well-developed

language skills found it difficult to process medical information for a variety of reasons,

including unfamiliarity with the terminology and emotional effects (p. 174). Their

review of the literature found a number of studies that support the use of images to

enhance the appeal of medical handouts, specifically in the areas of likelihood to read

and recall the information provided. These studies only indicated a preference for

images and not any predictors of comprehension. It is clear that the relationship

between pictures and comprehension is complex. As such, more research is needed,

especially with an emphasis on how and where to maximize images’ effects.

Traditionally, textbooks have used images and illustrations sparingly and in a

secondary role to conveying content. As learners who are accustomed to multimedia

environments become more prevalent, this method will not be able to gain or hold

readers’ attention for very long (Slough & McTigue, 2010). One approach to help

students better understand is to make the text more interesting through the use of visual

information. In fact, there is an emerging trend to layout textbooks in a way that

mimics websites, including the use of photographs, tables, textboxes, flowcharts,

drawings, etc. This shift has been reported by teachers to be preferred among learners

(p. 210). However, research has indicated a distinct need to stress proper integration of

text and images when studying the subject.

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Looking across the various types of images, current technologies have allowed

for, and even encouraged, an increasing use of animations with respect to learning and

instructional text. Kim, Yoon, Whang, Tversky, & Morrison note that researchers and

educators initially assumed that animations would facilitate learning (2007, p. 260).

While the effects of animated images on learning are still a controversial topic, this style

of graphics continues to grow in popularity largely due to a belief that animations are

more interesting and aesthetically appealing. This perceived effect on motivation has

since been divided into two classifications, emotional interest and cognitive interest. As

such, effects may vary depending upon individual differences, including the need for

cognition (NFC), age, and spatial ability. Specifically, younger learners with a lower

NFC prefer animations over static images and find them to be motivating. This finding

presents several implications for designing learning materials. However, the most

significant of these is that animations should be used carefully, considering all of the

characteristics of the intended audience.

Related to the use of animations in general, it is interesting to note that many

textbooks now include DVDs or links to websites that contain libraries of simulations

and other instructional images. As previously noted, many instructors find it appealing

to make use of these simulations. Yet, Adams et al. point out that little research exists to

determine if simulations improve a student’s understanding of or enthusiasm for the

content and how simulations can be designed and used most effectively (2008). After

conducting a study with college undergraduates, the researchers found that, in general,

students notice animated features first. With this in mind, they also discovered that

students only observing, and not interacting with the simulation, did not make new

connections with the material. Further, user control of various parameters is perceived

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to be valuable by the users. In the case of the former, the researchers suggest using

puzzles to stimulate the learner. As for the latter, the researchers note that limiting the

controls over certain components should be executed carefully to focus attention on

specific learning objectives. With regard to types of simulations used in learning,

students must believe the example. If they are skeptical about the applicability or

realism, any potential benefits will be lost. Further a perceived lack of knowledge about

a concept will increase the likelihood of a student to interact with a simulation. In short,

if designed well and used in the proper context, simulations can provide a powerful

learning environment where students can productively engage with the content.

These studies make it abundantly clear that the use of images to enhance learning

is a complex undertaking with a myriad of pros and cons. Whether the attempt uses

static images, animations, or full simulations, researchers indicate a number of

limitations and considerations. Still, while the field is beginning to close the gap on

examining the use and effects of images on interest, there is still more work to be done.

Theoretical Framework

Cognitive Processing & Multimedia

By its very basic definition, multimedia is the use of multiple types of media. It

can therefore be inferred that multimedia is the presentation of words and pictures

together. Thus, multimedia learning encompasses building mental representations

from words and pictures, and multimedia instruction includes that which presents

words and pictures intended to promote learning. Multiple research studies have

proven that there are separate channels for processing visual and auditory information

and that humans are limited in the amount of information that can be processed by each

channel at one time (Baddeley, 1986; Baddeley 1999; Chandler & Sweller, 1991; Paivio,

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1986). Around the same time, Wittrock (1989) studied cognitive relationships in

reading comprehension to posit that comprehension is a generative process that relies

upon signals, strategies, and plans to relate events to one another. Mayer (2001)

expounded upon these earlier foundations to propose that humans actively engage in

learning by attending to relevant incoming information, organizing selected information

into coherent mental representations, and integrating mental representations with

previous knowledge to be stored in long-term memory. Figure 1 illustrates an overview

of the process that occurs when media are processed by sensory, working, and long-term

memory. This framework aims to maximize optimal learning potential in multimedia

environments (Mayer, 2005).

Figure 1. An overview of the process proposed by the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning

Building upon the CTML process, research has provided design implications that

capitalize on learner abilities in the context of learning with multimedia. Schnotz

(2005) presented an Integrated Model of Text and Picture comprehension (ITPC) that

promotes six key principles for consideration in multimedia design. First, designers

should combine text with content-related images only when learners have low prior

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knowledge and possess sufficient cognitive abilities to process both the text and

pictures. This combination is known as the basic multimedia principle. Second, the

spatial contiguity principle recommends presenting written text in close spatial

proximity to related images. The temporal contiguity principle takes this concept a step

further and suggests presenting spoken text in close temporal proximity to related

images. The modality principle proposes the use of spoken words instead of written

text for animation. Related to this, the specific redundancy principle clearly states that

written text should not duplicate spoken words. Lastly, the coherence principle advises

against the use of extraneous words and pictures or unnecessary sound or music.

Combined, these principles represent an arsenal of tools to be used by instructional and

multimedia designers to capitalize on learners’ cognitive capabilities to receive and

process information.

Learner Interest

Generally speaking, interest can be categorized into one of two subgroups;

individual interest and situational interest. Individual, or personal, interest resides

within a person, associates positive feelings with a topic or activity, and attributes

personal significance to the topic or activity (Rathunde, 1993; Renninger, 2000;

Renninger, Hidi, & Krapp, 1992; Schiefele, 1991). Conversely, situational interest (SI)

emerges as a response to features or effects within an environment (Hidi & Anderson,

1992; Hidi & Baird, 1986; Hidi & Renninger, 2006; Krapp, 2002). Examining

situational interest further, there are attentional and affective reactions that can be

differentiated into triggered-SI and maintained-SI (Hidi & Baird, 1986; Hidi &

Harackiewicz, 2000; Hidi & Renninger, 2006; Krapp, 2002; Mitchell, 1993). Where

triggered-SI is the initiation or arousal of interest (Hidi, 2001; Hidi & Harackiewicz,

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2000; Hidi & Renninger, 2006), maintained-SI is where interest is held and individuals

begin to connect with the content (Hidi 2001; Mitchell, 1993). Learning strategies that

take these foundations of interest into consideration when designing instruction have

the potential to help students be engaged and focused. However, the effects of

triggered-SI can be short-lived if maintained-SI is not adequately considered. As a

result of their validity study on the Situational Interest Survey, Linnenbrink-Garcia et al.

found that triggered-SI reflects a positive affective reaction to the way material is

presented and maintained-SI refers to the reaction secondary and post-secondary

learners have to the material itself (2010). Based upon these findings, it will be

important to continue to examine situational interest across domains to further

investigate what instructional practices can be designed to promote situational interest.

Considering situational interest with the concepts of multimedia design presents an

interesting junction for potential research.

Practical Framework

Diverse audiences, limiting budgets, constraining timelines, and demanding

clients add to the pressure on educational media designers and instructional project

managers. A possible compromise between these factors might be to place emphasis on

specific design. Tobias (2006) has noted that research is beginning to explore the effect

of motivation on metacognition. Specifically, when students attempt to complete a

course within traditional constructs, they are either interested in the content, motivated

to attain a goal of importance, or both. Incorporating motivational variables into

multimedia will become an important task if instruction is to provide learners with

relevant learning experiences (Fletcher & Tobias 2005). Thus, it would be worthwhile to

study the effects of multimedia principles on learner interest.

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Simply stated, a gap exists when there is a difference between the way things are

and the way things should be. The role of motivational design could possibly be the key

for designers to use in bridging the gap between learner interest and content

presentation. In this context, content presented in relation to other media elements

may not have an optimal impact on learners. Keller (2008) suggests that even though

general principles of motivation and learning apply to all learning environments, there

are characteristic problems in a given setting requiring analysis and design to create

motivational and learning practices that exemplify those principles. Keller notes that

the processes of analysis and design should not be overlooked. Employing good design

principles can help mitigate potential user issues, including triggering and maintaining

learner interest. Instructional designers sometimes struggle to meet stakeholder

demands while still attempting to design for the learner. Equipping designers with a set

of best practice guidelines, including techniques that are proven to enhance learner

interest, is likely to benefit both stakeholders and learners.

Research Design

The problem that many learners experience in multimedia learning environments

is that the information is presented in a design that negatively impacts interest, thus

resulting in a decreased intrinsic motivation to continue or complete the lesson. To

address this problem, this researcher proposes a study to survey undergraduate

students enrolled in an online or blended undergraduate course at a university in the

Southeastern United States. Three treatment groups will be established from the

sample. One group will complete an online lesson that fails to incorporate the ITPC

principles of modality and redundancy. The second group will complete an online

lesson that blatantly violates the two principles. The third group will complete an online

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lesson that incorporates the two principles. Upon completion of the lesson, students

will complete an adapted Situational Interest Survey, a self-report questionnaire, to

measure learners’ affective reactions to the presentation as enjoyable and engaging

(triggered-SI). Additional survey questions will measure whether the material itself is

viewed as enjoyable and meaningful (maintained-SI). This initial survey will use

quantitative statistical analysis to analyze variances between factors and across

treatment groups. Based on survey responses, the researcher also proposes to interview

a random sample to ask further investigative questions regarding how or why the

principle(s) had an effect on triggering or maintaining interest.

This study seeks to determine what types of course materials, when designed

using ITPC principles, positively affect learner interest. The following questions will be

used to guide the data collection, summary and framework for organizing the results of

this study:

1. Does the modality principle trigger situational interest?

2. Does the modality principle maintain situational interest?

3. Does the redundancy principle trigger situational interest?

4. Does the redundancy principle maintain situational interest?

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