J. UZAN M. LIVNEH I.

ISHAI

THICKNESS DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE

PAVEMENTS WITH DIFFERENT LAYER
STRUCTURES

ABSTRACT MMA T - Mean Monthly Air Temperature

This paper deals with a pavement design method (°C)
based on limiting subgrade strain which is computed MMPT Mean Monthly Pavement Tem-
by using a two-layer elastic model. It is shown that perature (°C)
the CBR formula complies with the maximum shear N number of coverages
stress calculated using the Boussinesq theory, where
Ne - total number of coverages
material properties of the pavement courses are dis-
regarded. It is also shown that this formula implies NT/ - number of coverages to failure
preservation of maximum shear strain or compressive under temperature conditions T,
shear strain at the single wheel axis. The derivation is n constant
extended to take account of pavement material pro- P - wheel load (N)
perties by using the two-layer model. The allowable
strain as a function of the number of load coverages p - contact pressure (MPa)
is then evaluated from the basic CBR formula, and is S - shear strength (MPa)
found to be conservative compared with the scanty - Marshall stability (N)
laboratory results available. The design method in-
T - temperature (°C)
cludes: (a) an analysis of temperature distribution; (b)
computation of elastic moduli: (c) conversion of the Te q - equivalent uniform temperature
multilayer structure into a two-layer one; and (d) com- (°C)
putation of the subgrade strain of its corresponding temperature at surface (°C)
number of coverages. Steps (b) to (d) are conducted T
temperature at depth indicated
for the whole range of temperature distribution. The
(°C)
equivalent number of coverages the pavement can
sustain is then derived through implementation of z depth (mm)
Miner's Law A pavement design example is also pre- ratio of maximum shear stresses
- sented in the Appendix. computed in two-layer and
single layer systems
Ez vertical strain
LIST OF SYMBOLS
- Marshall flow (mm)
a = radius of contact area (mm)
Poisson's ratio (p, — Poisson's
cohesion (MPa) ratio in layer i )
CBR = California Bearing Ratio equivalent Poisson's ratio
D = constant (1 stress ((r, — vertical stress)
d, = thickness of layer i (mm) (MPa)
modulus of elasticity (E, — T max - maximum shear stress (MPa)
modulus of elasticity of layer i ) T rz shear stress
(MPa) - frequency of occurrence of a
ET = modulus of elasticity at tem- given temperature distribution j
perature T (°C) (km —modulus of
elasticity at 30°C) (MPa)
Eeq equivalent modulus of elasticity
(MPa)
Eeq „ equivalent modulus of elasticity INTRODUCTION
corresponding to frequency of
occurrence A (MPa)
Advances in road engineering in the last decade have
ES modulus of elasticity of subgrade brought diversity to flexible pavement design, from
(MPa) conventional structures — comprising asphaltic
h pavement thickness (mm) layers, a basecourse, and subgrades —to all-asphalt

8 AUSTRALIAN ROAD RESEARCH, Vol 10, No. 1, March 1980

 UZAN et al — THICKNESS DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS

systems. Naturally, all these materials should be 1957; Wiseman and Zeitlen 1961; Uzan, Ishai and
resistant to both traffic and environmental loads. In Livneh 1976). At a depth of about 0.7a (a = radius of
advanced design methods, the design criteria are contact area), and for a Poisson's ratio of 0.5, the
limiting deformations of the asphalt and the subgrade; maximum shear stress at the axis of symmetry, T m„. is
in conventional methods, stability of the top layers is
ensured through material quality and minimum thick- 0.75 (a/z) 2 .p
(2)
ness requirements for the sub-base, the base, and the max
i(a/z)2 + 1P/2
asphalt mix. The criterion of limiting strain in the
asphalt is thus 'covered' indirectly by these methods; where z = depth (mm), and p = pressure (MPa),
by contrast, only the subgrade strain criterion is uniformly distributed over a circle with radius a (mm).
represented quantitatively in the determination of
pavement thickness. It should be noted that accord- For z > 2a (as in most pavement thicknesses),
ing to the Shell design curves (Dormon and Metcalf eqn (2) approximates to
1965) the determining criterion for pavements with
large asphalt thicknesses (e.g. an all-asphalt system, 0.75 (a/z) 2 . p
max
(3)
or one with an asphaltic basecourse) is the com- (a/z) 2 + 1
pressive strain in the subgrade, while in pavements
with small asphalt thicknesses it is the tensile strain Equating eqns (1) and (3) gives
in the asphalt.

This paper deals with a design method based ex-

clusively on the subgrade load, with the other criteria
(including asphalt strain) taken care of by ensuring
Z=
11 0.75p a 2
D. CBR
—a
2

the quality of the top layers in accordance with

stability requirements (in terms of traffic and environ-
mental loads). The unique feature of this approach is
that it dispenses with computer programs (which are
mandatory in advanced methods, yet unavailable to
most engineers), but adopts the principle of
'sophistication in research, simplification in design'.
In line with this principle, the multilayer structure is
replaced by a single layer, and the compressive
strain in the subgrade is determined on a two-layer
model.
The principles of the concept are presented and
discussed in the next six sections. The thickness
design method is then summarised systematically,
and a numerical example is presented in the Appen-
dix.
CBR EQUATION (U.S. CORPS OF
ENGINEERS)
The underlying approach in the U.S. Corps of
Engineers (USCE) method of pavement thickness
design is mainly the prevention of shear failure in the
subgrade (Wiseman and Zeitlen 1961; Ahlvin, Chou
and Hutchinson 1974). The fundamental CBR formula
stipulates that the ratio between the allowed max-
imum shear stress S in the subgrade and its CBR
value, under conditions of full-thickness design and
5000 load coverages, should be constant. Because
of this, the CBR test is a relative indicator of the shear
strength of the subgrade:
S /CBR = D (1)
where the constant D depends on the number of
coverages N and on the properties of the structural
materials and the subgrade soil. This dependence is
reflected in the interpretation of the stress distribu-
tion.
Eqn (1) has little practical value, inter alia
because it is impossible to extract the relative con-
tributions of the structure and subgrade from experi-
mental data for different pavements. This difficulty is
circumvented in the USCE formula, which is based on
Boussinesq's model with the properties of the struc-
tural materials disregarded (Turnbull and Ahlvin
0.75 1
N/75- (4)
rr.D.CBR 7T p
where P is the applied load (N). The factor 0.75/7.D
was determined empirically as 17.68; hence D =
0.0135 for most materials with design CBR < 12, and
for 5000 coverages.
The following derivation refers to a two-layer
structure consisting of linear elastic materials (see
Fig. 1). it can be shown that for a depth ratio (h /a)
greater than 2, there is a relationship, independent of
h, between the ratio of the maximum shear stresses
determined according to the two-layer model and to
that of Boussinesq on the one hand, and the ratio
E, /E2 on the other, assuming 1 , , = 1 , 2 = 0.5. This rela-
tionship (Livneh, lshai and Uzan 1976) is shown in Fig.
2 Because of this, eqn (3) may be rewritten as
0.75 (a/h ) 2 p
r = a(E i /E 2) • (5)
max
(a/h ) 2 +1
1 0.75 a 1
Hence h= . -\,/T (6)
1Tr..D CBR
with the factor 0.75 (v/7.D = 17.61 as before. Ac-
cording to Fig 2 , << = 0.45 for E, /E, = 4 to 5. (This
range of E, /E2 —as will be shown later, see Table VII
— applies for equivalent structures of conventional
pavements.) Hence, for the two-layer structure D =
0.0061 as against 0.0135 for the single-layer case.
To illustrate the significance of D and of the
design formula (eqn (6) ), the permissible load stress
and the subgrade CBR (as per eqn (1) ) is compared.
S = 0.0061 CBR (7)
According to Wiseman and Zeitlen,(1961), and to
Kassiff, Livneh and Wiseman (1969), the ratio of the
CBR value (per cent) and strength C (MPa) of clay
specimens is on the average 42.9.
Hence S = 0.26 C (8)

AUSTRALIAN ROAD RESEARCH, Vol. 10, No. 1, March 1980 9

 UZAN et al — THICKNESS DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS

subgrade. This, however, is conditional on the pre-

mise that the CBR value is associated with the defor-
mation modulus of the soil rather than with its
strength, as postulated in the preceding section —an
assumption supported by the fact that a penetration
of 2.5 mm in the CBR test does not necessarily lead
to failure.

h In an elastic linear material with I , = 0.5 and for a

state of axisymmetric loading represented by (r,
r Z and T rz =
— 0 (at the axis of symmetry), a simple

relationship between the shear strain and its com-

pressive counterpart is obtained.

U —U
max z r z
' max (9)
E2 ' I/ 3E 6E 6
2
where
Y max maximum shear strain,
(T z , (F r vertical and radial stresses
00
(MPa) respectively, and
Fig. 1 — Scheme of two-layer structure E. = vertical strain.

E and the CBR value are conventionally related as:

1.0
E = 10.5 CBR (10)
0.9 again in MPa and per cent respectively. According to
recent sources, however, this ratio is higher for
0.8
materials with CBR < 12. For example, according to
Barker, Brabston and Chou (1977), it is a function of
z the CBR value, while according to Wiseman et al
0.7 (1977), the ratio changes between 9.8 and 16.1.
stressing
point These values are based on field CBR tests and on the
0.6 determination of the elastic modulus of the subgrade
soil from settlement data obtained with a standard 80
0.5 kN axle. Accordingly, an average figure of 14 is
CD
recommended.
x
0
0.4 Hence, from eqn (9)
E
D = 7 ez (11)
0 0.3 It is thus seen that for conventional pavements
if)
a)
loaded for 5000 coverages (D = 0.0061) the critical
7 0.2 strain is 0.87 x 10-3 — a relatively low figure com-
0
pared with other sources (see Fig 3, reproduced
0.1
from Barker et al (1 977) ). This is partly because of
the choice of E /CBR = 14 rather than of 10.5; in
these circumstances, there is no certainty of failure
0.0
10 100 after 5000 cycles.
Values of E
p /E s In the same context, mention should be made of
the work of Edris and Lytton (1976) (Figs 4to 6), who
Fig. 2 — Ratio of maximum shear stresses in two-layer and
Boussinesq models v. Ep/Es
carried out laboratory tests of dynamic loading on
three types of soils (ML, CL, CH) at three stress
levels. Results showed that repeated strains of the
Accordingly, the soil may be loaded for 5000
order of 1.3 x 10-3 to 1.8 x 10-3 intensified variation of
coverages at a stress equal to 0.26 times its single-
the residual strain as a function of log N, in the inter-
load shear strength. In other words, the CBR formula val N = 1000 to 10 000. Although it could thus be
entails a safety factor of about 4 against local shear
concluded that the value of 0.87 x 10-3 is conserva-
of the subgrade. tive, in the absence of field data, and in view of the
fact that the results were obtained in the laboratory, it
is still more significant than the other data obtained
from the literature and included in Fig. 3.

CRITERION OF COMPRESSIVE The dependence of the critical strain on the num-

ber of cycles is derived in the sequel from the com-
STRAIN IN SUBGRADE, IN THE plete CBR equation of the USCE
LIGHT OF THE CBR EQUATION z = 25.4 (0.144 +

It can be shown that the USCE equation, based (as 1 (12)

17.68
noted earlier) on the constancy of the S /CBR ratio, 0.231 log N)
8.1 CBR Grp
allows also for a constant compressive strain in the

10 AUSTRALIAN ROAD RESEARCH, Vol 10, No. 1, March 1980

 UZAN et al -THICKNESS DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS

50 I [I I 1 1 1 rill I i 1 I n1
CANNOu, PAATCHIPISON. a .CRY
• •
OP.:WAN 4 AACTCALP

0 w‘rczA,
WES CRITERIA
:
COWARDS 4 AQ.AER/MG
ArAr TIE

8RADSTOR, DARKER, 4..ARV

05
-0.14666
= 3. 034 X 1 0.
/1,1.1, NAIR, l wOR/Sw/rAe

000 0 000 .00000 000 COD 0 000 000

REPETITIONS OF SrRA pN

Fig. 3 - Vertical compressive strain at top of subgrade v. number of load cycles, according to
literature sources

Moscow Sod (CM) All•nlorm Soil (ML)

0.7 No, . 0 0909 M115
Co, -0,1 - 0.0959 MP.
Ind,.. Moon. Dry dua. Wood*
Swl Sucl.on S. on Come.. 0.roltyllho'l 50.15 oc 000 Sawn.. Comp,

0 M-37 35.3% 1.34 04 0 A-11 0.196 64.0% 17.6% 1.77

0.406 94.4%
1.38 0 A-12 0.175 64.0% 12.6% 1.77
o M-33 0.560 87.3% 30.9%
• A-17 0.112 73.5% 13.5% 1.81
A M-28 1.414 63.3% 25.7% 1.28 1.55
O A-39 1.554 217% 8.6%
0 M-34 0.770 85.6% 30.5% 1.37 • A-8 0.091 87.3% 15.3% 1.84
05

OA

O5

02
00
OC 000 10 000 100 000

PANDER OF LOAD CYCLES

0.1

Fig. 4 - Residual strain v. number of load cycles

(Edris and Lytton 1976) 00
100 1 000 100000
PLANER OF LOAD CYCLES 10000

Floydada Soil (CLI Fig. 6 - Residual strain v. number of load cycles

di -0 0 0959 MP.
(Edris and Lytton 1976)
.N. St000n Saltdel.o. .....
tolOo
0 FD-14 0.168 92.4% 20.0% 1.70

assumption that E, /E, = 4 to 5 for each design per

o FD-3 0.217 89.3% 18.7% 1.73
FD-15 0.182 89.9% 19.7% 1.69
0 FD-42 1.239 45.3% 12.4% 1.55
• FD-8 0.147 92.9% 20.7% 1.68
cent; in other words, the parameter ,t in eqn (5) is in-
dependent of Nand equals 0.45 throughout. The rela-
tionship in question reads as follows, for the
subgrade CBR range of 2 to 10 and contact pressure
range of 0.7 to 2.1 MPa.

-0 14666
E = 3.034 x 10-3 N (13)
z

This formula is shown graphically in Fig 3 and holds

00
for N > 500; it is also seen that for N < 10 000, the
.00 .00 .0
ROWER OF LOAD CYCLES 080 line lies below all others, while for N > 10 000 it falls
Fig. 5a - Residual strain v. number of load cycles
within their lower levels.
(Edris and Lytton 1976)

Floydada Sod ICU

101 -0,1 - 0 0909 MP4
04
inoN Nomura ON
Sod Socoon Stood.. Content Densdy itrrn3 /
MON
0 FD-29 0.175 89.3% 17.9% 1.75
5 0 FO-8 0.273 81.8% 17.6% 1.70
O FD-12
0 FD-7
• FD-15
0.203
0.350
0.175
89.0%
77.2%
91.2%
19.1%
17.2%
19.8%
1.71
1.68
1.70
ANALYSIS OF EQUIVALENT TWO-
LAYER STRUCTURE
In the equivalent two-layer structure, one layer
represents the pavement with its multiple subdivi-
sions. The conversion procedure is explained in the
literature (see Livneh et al. (1976); Poulos and Davis
(1974) ), and its main points are now summarised.

D0
NO 1000 10 000 Some authors (e.g. Palmer and Barker - see
SOURER OF LOAD CYCLES
Poulos and Davis (1974); Vaswani (1977) ), propose
Fig. 5b -Residual strain v. number of load cycles the following expression for the equivalent modulus,
(Edris and Lytton 1976) Eeq , of a multilayer structure.

Combining eqns (1 2) and (6), a relationship be-

E eq '-VEi /(1 - v cid °
tween N and D is arrived at and it is shown in Table I
This, when combined with eqn (11), yields a relation- (14)
1 -v
ship between the critical strain and N , based on the eq

AUSTRALIAN ROAD RESEARCH, Vol. 10, No. 1, March 1980 11

 UZAN et al — THICKNESS DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS

TABLE I
Number of Coverages on Subgrade v. Parameter D for Different
Subgrade CBR Values
(Contact Pressure Range 0.7 to 2.1 MPa)
CBR 2 5 10
0
0.140 1.1 x106 1.3 x 106 2.4 x 106
0.281 1.2 x 104 1 15 x 104 1.2 x 104
0.563 450 350 200
1.125 —40 ti 25

where E,, 1, , and d, are respectively the elastic
modulus, Poisson's ratio, and thickness of the i th
layer, and n is a constant (= 3 according to Palmer
and Barker; = 1 according to Vaswani)*.
The implications of the choice of n = 3 for a
modular ratio of up to 20 between adjacent layers are
analysed in Fig 7, which shows the calculated points
of Eeq /E, for three-layer structures, and the relation-
ship between E z and E, /E, for two-layer structures
(solid lines). Comparing the results for the two ratios,
it is seen that the choice is reasonable.
INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL
CONDITIONS -THE EQUIVALENT
MODULUS OF THE ASPHALTIC
LAYERS
Environmental conditions are especially reflected in
moisture changes in the subgrade soil and in the gra-
nular materials, and temperature changes in the
asphaltic layers. The moisture factor is allowed for in
determining the design CBR or the elastic modulus,
but not in the critical strain criterion (see Section on•
CBR eqn — U.S. Corps of Engineers). The tem-
perature factor affects the modulus of the asphaltic
In reality, the range of variation is wider, but when we are only
concerned with e z , its infuence is relatively slight.
1.0
layers, and hence the equivalent modulus also, which
is especially important when converting from granu-
lar materials to asphalt. Determination of the design
modulus is related to the quality of the mix, as well as
to the diurnal and monthly temperature patterns over
the year. In the equivalent modulus allowance must
also be made for the diurnal distribution of the traffic
load. (In certain circumstances, night-time traffic may
be disregarded if it is small.)
The approach in determining the equivalent
modulus of the asphaltic layer is along the lines
adopted by the Asphalt Institute (Witczak 1972). The
temperature pattern is a geographical variable, and
the local relationship between the mean monthly tem-
peratures of air and pavement (MMAT and MMPT
respectively) differs from that assumed by the In-
stitute; Figs 8 and 9 are based on observations con-
ducted by the Israel Meteorological Service (Manes
1969) on an all-asphalt structure 140 mm thick. Tem-
perature distribution findings (Burns and Ahlvin 1972;
Federal Aviation Agency 1974) lead to the realistic
assumption that at depths exceeding 300 mm, the
standard deviation of the monthly pattern tends
towards zero, i.e. the temperature of the asphalt is
diurnally and annually constant and equals the annual
average of the MMPT — while between the surface
level and a depth of 300 mm, it varies linearly. The
temperature frequencies so obtained for a given
depth approximate reasonably to those in Figs 8 and
9

h E ecr Veg=0.40
h/a .0.5
E 2 ,v2 =0.45

0.1

z E2

0.01

Three layers structure with

E/E2 . 2 . E 2 /E 3 -2
E i/E.2 . 2 E2 /E 3.2 0
E/E2 =2 0: E,/E 2 - 2
/./2 .1/3 ;:.50 10.0

1 1 1 111 11
0.001
1.0 10 100 1000
E,/E 2

Fig. 7 — Subgrade strain factors v. EJE,

12 AUSTRALIAN ROAD RESEARCH, Vol 10, No. 1, March 1980

 UZAN et al — THICKNESS DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS

40 The elastic modulus of the asphaltic concrete is

determined with the aid of Nijboer's empirical ex-
pression linking it to Marshall data (see Takeshita
1967):
E,;„ = 0.0055 s (16)
LEGEND:
where
— 30 0 -20 mm below pavement surface
the modulus of the asphalt at
0 -40 mm Eli()
U
60°C (MPa);
0 Marshall stability (N); and
I
Marshall flow (mm).
0
Eqn (15) yields for E,i „
in 20
Z=0
E30 = 153.72 S/6 (17)
T:3
and the equivalent modulus for a given temperature
distribution is obtained from eqns (14) and (15),
namely
10 3
10 20 30 40 0.035
(30 —
Values of MMPTI°C)
Fig. 8 — MMAT v. MMPT
E
eq
E30
CI h
10

h3
3
dz

(18)

16 1 1 1 1 1 1 I where T is a function of depth z , and h is the thick-

LEGEND: ness of the asphaltic layer; Poisson's ratio was
0-20 mm below pavement surface assumed constant and temperature independent
6-100 mm -- -"- _,._
14 throughout.
0-140 mm --- _„_ _., _
x According to A.I. at pavement
10.0 I
surface
x 8.0
12
• 6. Wictzack 119721:E n. 1400 MPa
0
Barker 8 Brabston (19751: E 30 =2200 MPa
0.0
Claessen et al 11976) ) E10 =5O0MPa
a_ Z=0
3.0
x Loading frequency- 21-1a
10 60-T
I
2.0 fro- ET ;;; E 100 IN
Er 60
0
• 30°C
c 8 1.0
•_ la & 0.1
0 0.6
>
0.0
6 0
21 00.035(30 -
0.3 ;

0 0.2
0 a
c 4 a
0 I 1 ;

15 20 25 30 35 00 05 50
1°C I

2
Fig. 10 — Variation of ET /E 3,, oc ratio with temperature for
asphalt concrete

0
10 20 30 40 For h > h, (in this case for h > 300 mm), the in-
Values of MMPT(°C) tegration yields (see Fig. 11)

Fig. 9 — Standard deviation of MMPT v. MMPT ( 0.035 0.035

37.225 h (30-T0 ) (30 - T1 )
33
10 10
E x T1 — To
When determining the equivalent modulus for eq [
each distribution, the effect of temperature on the E30 3
(h1 +h,)
modulus of the asphalt must be known. Fig. 10 pre-
sents results, by different authors (Witczak 1972;
Barker and Brabston 1975; Classen, Valkering and 0.035
Ditmarsh 1976), of the modular ratio at a given tem- 3
(30 T1)
perature T and 30°C v. temperature. For practical + 10
hi3
(19)
purposes, the average curve which is closest to the
Witczak one is described by (h1 +h,)3

ET where Tu, T,, h,, h2 are as per Fig. 11 (in °C and mm),
= 10 0.035(30— T)
(15) and Eeq, is the equivalent modulus for the whole layer
E30
at frequency X.

AUSTRALIAN ROAD RESEARCH, Vol. 10, No. 1, March 1980

13
 UZAN et al — THICKNESS DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS
To
T the second 103.5, 157.9, 156.7 and 274.3 MPa, the
h1 For h<h 1
T o -T1
T=
T,
h2
T1
T =Annual Average MMPT
Fig. 11 — Vertical temperature profile (assumed)
For h < h, (in this case for h < 300 mm), eqn (19)
can also be used, but with h2 = 0, h, = h , and T, = Th
(see Fig. 11). This case is typical of most conven-
tional structures.
The equivalent temperature for a uniform dis-
tribution over the whole section is given by
log (Eeci /E3o )
Teci = 30 —
0.035
For the case of all-asphalt structures, the modu-
lar ratio EegJE, should be corrected for the imper-
fect roughness of the interface (Uzan, Livneh and
Eshed 1976; Bonnot, Autret and de Boissoudy 1 977)
which makes for larger strains in the subgrade. The
proposed reduction factor for Eeq,/Es is 0.5 (Wise-
man et al. 1977; Uzan et al. 1977). However, no such
correction is necessary for a conventional structure,
as the realistic behaviour of the granular layers is in-
corporated in eqns (21) and (22), which will be pre-
sented later. As for the interface between the asphalt
and the basecourse, the friction there has a small
effect on the subgrade strains. Hence, for conven-
tional pavements, the friction pattern in the interfaces
can be disregarded.
THE MODULI OF THE GRANULAR
LAYERS
Input data for this purpose include the parameters of
the structural materials. For the asphalt, the
equivalent modulus is used in accordance with the
temperature frequencies (see earlier). With respect
to the granular materials, their modulus depends on
environmental conditions, but the dominant factor in
their behaviour is the loading regime. Here, the pro-
cedure of Barker et al (1977) is adopted, whereby
the sub-base and base are subdivided into layers of
thickness (d,) of 100 to 200 mm, and their moduli
determined according to eqns (21) and (22), for sub-
base and base respectively:
= E +1 (— 4 37 + 3.82 log d. — 1.56 log E i + 1 log di
+ 2.19 log E i + 1. )
= Ei +1 (— 7.42 + 5.99 log di — 2.10 log E + 1 log di
+ 2.98 log E 4 _ 1 )
14
For example, a sub-base 600 mm thick can be
subdivided into three 200 mm layers or four 150 mm
layers. A soil of CBR = 4 and E = 56 MPa, gives for
the first subdivision 111.2, 174.1 and 224.8 MPa, for
equivalent moduli (eqn 14) being 165.6 and 171.2
MPa respectively. This demonstrates the insensitivity
(111 - z)+T 1 of the subdivision procedure.
PRINCIPLES OF THICKNESS
DESIGN
The number of load coverages for a given structure is
governed by the principle of cumulative damage,
namely
X . N e /N = 1 (23)
j
where:
N, total number of coverages for the
pavement;
xi frequency of occurrence of a
given temperature distribution I ;
and
(20)
NT , number of coverages to failure
under these conditions.
Accordingly
1
Ne — (24)
xj/NTi
When determining NTI , the respective moduli of
the granular materials and asphalt are calculated at
frequency xi; next, the modular ratio E,/E., is calcul-
ated for the equivalent structure and the subgrade,
and E z is found for the latter; the corresponding num-
ber of coverages is then read from Fig 6
Finally, the pavement thickness is found by inter-
polation. A set of consecutive pavement structures is
chosen. For each structure Ne is calculated, based
on the design data and temperature conditions. The
specific structure, which corresponds to the desired
number of coverages (Ne ) is then found by interpola-
tion.
A SYSTEMATIC SUMMARY OF THE
THICKNESS DESIGN METHOD
The following list summarises the principles of the
design concept and method presented in this paper.
This outline can be utilised in an actual pavement
design problem.
(a) The design and input data should include the
following information: design wheel load and
contact pressure; subgrade parameters such as
CBR and modulus of elasticity; climatic condition
such as MMAT pattern; parameters of the struc-
( 21)
tural materials in sub-base, base and asphaltic
layers; thicknesses of the different layers in a
given structure.
(b) Analysis of the MMAT pattern is made with the aid
( 22) of Figs 8 and 9 or their equivalent to obtain the
AUSTRALIAN ROAD RESEARCH, Vol 10, No. 1, March 1980
 UZAN et al — THICKNESS DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS

frequency x1 of occurrence of a given tem- A numerical example, which quantitatively illustrates

perature distribution j. The vertical distribution of this pavement design procedure, is given in the Ap-
temperature is determined, for a given frequency, pendix.
with the aid of Fig. 11.

(c) The modular ratios of the granular layers (with
respect to the subgrade) are calculated accord-
ing to eqns (21) and (22).
(d) For a given temperature distribution (corres-
ponding to a frequency xi), the following is
determined.
(i) The equivalent modular ratios of the total
structure using eqns (14) and (19). In the
case of an all-asphaltic structure, these
ratios should be corrected for the imperfect
roughness of the interface.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The two-layer elastic model was used to clarify the
implications of the USCE formula for the CBR, based
on the preservation of the maximum shear stress in
the subgrade. Through the property relationships of
the materials, it was found that the formula implies
also a constant compressive strain in the subgrade.
The ci iterion for the allowable strain, evaluated by
this means as function of the number of load cycles, is
conservative compared with the scanty laboratory
results available in this context.

(ii) The subgrade strain factors, with the aid of
Fig. 7.
(iii) The number of coverages for the structure,
with the aid of eqn (13).
(e) For the total temperature conditions, and for the
given structure, the equivalent number of
coverages is determined using eqn (24).
(f) For each of the different consecutive structures,
the total number of coverages is calculated by
the same procedure (steps (b) to (e) ). The
difference between consecutive structures can
be in the thickness of the sub-base, or in the total
pavement thickness for conventional and all-
asphaltic structures respectively.
(g) By interpolation, the design structure is chosen
for the desired total number of coverages.
A method is also proposed for converting a
multilayer structure into a two-layer one, with a view
to simplifying the analysis and adapting it for every
day practice. The method yields reasonable results
for the maximum shear stress and vertical strain in the
subgrade. The effect of environmental conditions
(especially the temperature pattern) on the pavement
is also discussed.
A numerical example of an all-asphalt structure
yielded reasonable results in the light of an evalua-
tion study four years after the construction of a 500
mm pavement.
It can be said that the proposed method is a
bridge between the empirical CBR formula and the
'rational' approach to pavement design; it should be
improved through adoption of more specific property
relationships, generalisation of interface conditions
in the conversion procedure, and verification of the
results by follow-up in the field.

APPENDIX

NUMERICAL EXAMPLE
DESIGN AND INPUT DATA

Design wheel load: P = 133.4 kN

Design contact pressure: p = 2.1 MPa
Subgrade parameters: CBR = 4, Es = 56 MPa
Climatic conditions: MMA T pattern is given in Table II

TABLE II
MEAN MONTHLY AIR TEMPERATURE PATTERN
Month Jan. Feb Mar. Apr May June July Aug Sep. Oct Nov Dec

MMAT 14.8 14.7 16.1 20.5 23.6 26.4 27.8 27.7 25.9 23.5 16.2 17.4
(°C)

SUGGESTED CONVENTIONAL PAVEMENT STRUCTURE

An overall structure of 860 mm is suggested, with the following subdivision:

asphalt concrete 100 mm, basecourse 150 mm, sub-base 200 + 400 mm.
Marshall test data for the asphalt are: s = 8 kN, 6 = 3.5 mm. Accordingly, from
eqn (17), E., = 1976 MPa.

AUSTRALIAN ROAD RESEARCH, Vol. 10, No. 1, March 1980 15

 UZAN et al - THICKNESS DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS

DESIGN PROBLEM

For these data determine:

(a) the total number of coverages for the pavement (Ale ), and

(b) an alternative all-asphalt structure.

SOLUTION
(a) Based on MMAT data ( Table II), and with the aid of Figs 8 and 9 , values of
MMPT and rr T are determined for each month. They are given in Table Ill.

TABLE III
CALCULATION OF TEMPERATURE AT THE PAVEMENT SURFACE

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

Temperature Ranges (°C)
Month MMAT MMPT 'rT > 15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30-35 35-45 45-55 55-65 65-75

I 14.8 20 9.2 0.29 0.21 0.21 0.16 0.09 0.04 1.00

II 14.7 20 9.2 0.29 0.21 0.21 0.16 0.09 0.04 1.00
III 16.1 22 9.6 0.23 0.18 0.20 0.18 0.12 0.08 0.01 1.00
IV 20.5 29 10.9 0.05 0.15 0.15 0.18 0.18 0.22 0.06 0.01 1.00
V 23.6 34 11.6 0.05 0.06 0.10 0.15 0.17 0.30 0.14 0.03 1.00
VI 26.4 39 12.1 0.02 0..03 0.06 0.11 0.14 0.32 0.22 0.08 0.02 1.00
VII 27.8 41 12.2 0.02 0.03 0.05 0.09 0.12 0.32 0.25 0.10 0.02 1.00
VIII 27.7 41 12.2 0.02 0.03 0.05 0.09 0.12 0.32 0.25 0.10 0.02 1.00
IX 25.9 38 12.0 0.03 0.04 0.07 0.11 0.15 0.32 0.20 0.07 0.01 1.00
X 23.5 34 11.6 0.05 0.06 0.10 0.15 0.17 0.30 0.14 0.03 1.00
XI 16.2 29 10.9 0.05 0.15 0.15 0.18 0.18 0.22 0.06 0.01 1.00
XII 17.4 24 10.0 0.18 0.16 0.19 0.19 0.14 0.12 0.02 1.00

(b) Taking the value of MMPT as the average temperature for each month, and
assuming normal distribution with standard deviations (r T, the monthly fre-
quencies for the temperature ranges are calculated and given in Table Ill
(c) Since most of the traffic occurs during daytime, it is important to find the
equivalent frequencies which will reflect only the daytime traffic distribution.
It is suggested that the temperature distribution be weighted in such a way
that the lower (night) temperature with a probability of 0.4 to 0.5 would not
be reflected. Usually, temperatures of (MMPT = 0.2 ,T T ) occur during night-
time, and their distribution of occurrence is 0.4 to 0.5. The calculated
equivalent frequencies for daytime temperatures are given in Table IV The
annual average frequencies are also given in this Table.
(d) The values of To, , T, and A at the pavement surface, and at a depth of 300 mm
in the asphaltic layer are summarised in Table V (see also Fig. 11).
(e) With the aid of Fig. 11 , the values of Th, are calculated for the conventional
structure. They are given in Table VI , together with the values of To, , taken
from Table V

TABLE IV
EQUIVALENT DAYTIME TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION AT THE PAVEMENT SURFACE

(1) (2) (3) (4)

MMPT 1-01 -Averages of Temperature range (°C)
32 5 40 50 60 70 •
Month (SC) >15 17 5 22 5 27 5

20 0.42 0.32 0.18 0.08 1.0

20 0.42 0.32 0.18 0.08 1 .0
III 22 0.34 0.30 0.20 0.14 0.02 1.0
IV 29 0.38 0.47 0.13 0.02 1.0
V 34 0.64 0.30 0.06 1.0
VI 39 0.33 0.46 0.17 0.04 1.0
VII 41 0.26 0.50 0.20 0.04 1.0
41 0.26 0.50 0.20 0.04 1.0
VIII
38 0.44 0.40 0.14 0.02 1.0
IX
34 0.64 0.30 0.06 1.0
X
29 0.38 0.47 0.13 0.02 1.0
XI
24 0.40 0.30 0.26 0.04 1.0
XII

(Annu. Average) 0.10 0.11 0.14 0.34 0.23 0.07 0.01 1 .0

16 AUSTRALIAN ROAD RESEARCH, Vol 10, No 1, March 1980

 UZAN et al - THICKNESS DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS

TABLE V
VALUES OF - FREQUENCY OF TEMPERATURE T,
Temp T, (°C)
22. 5 30 40 50 60
Depth (mm) (20-25) (25-35) (35-45) (45-55) >55
0 0.10 0.25 0.34 0.23 0.08
300' 1.00

• The annual average MMPT is 30°C

TABLE VI
SUMMARY OF RESULTS FOR CONVENTIONAL STRUCTURES
Frequency 010 0 25 0.34 023 008

Tej (°C) 22.5 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0

Thj (°C) 24.0 30.0 36.7 43.3 50.0
Eeqj /Es 6.00 5.27 4.60 4.11 3.75
Es € zi /p 0.0175 0.019 0.021 0.0215 0.023
NT, 34 200 19 520 9870 8400 5300

(f) With the sub-base subdivided into three 200 mm layers, eqns (21) and (22)
yield moduli of 111.1, 174.1 and 224.8 MPa respectively; the modular ratios
of granular layers for the subgrade in question are 1.985, 3.11 and 4.015
respectively. For the 150 mm basecourse, the modulus is 409.5 MPa and the
modular ratio is 7.31. For the asphaltic layer at 30°C, the modular ratio is
35.08.

(9) For each temperature distribution Ti , the temperature data and modular
ratios yield the equivalent modular ratio of the structure (Eeqi /E,), using
eqns (14) and (19), and consequently, also the subgrade strain factor (E3 E zi
/p) as per Fig. 7, and the number of coverages (NI ) as per eqn (13). Results
are also given in Table VI. For illustration, a calculation of Eeq /E, for a tem-
perature frequency of 0.10 (first column in Table VI), is as follows.

3 3
E.
d.
Ee E
q S
E )3
z d/
where i denotes the layer number and

3 3 ( 0.035 0.035
E. E30 [ 3 hi (30 - (30 - T o ))
3 3
-10
ES E
s 0.035 log 10 •
]

Hence

( 0.035 0.035
37.225 x hi (30 7-1 1 (30 - To)) 3/
10 3 - 10 3 V E30 /E
s
E eq T1 - To
E h1 + h2 + h3 + h4 + h5
s
3

h2 V E2 /E + h3 V E 3 /E + h4 3-\,/ E4 /Es +
s s h5 V E s /E s
h i + h2 + h 3 + h4 + h s

AUSTRALIAN ROAD RESEARCH, Vol. 10, No. 1, March 1980 17

 UZAN et al — THICKNESS DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS

Substituting gives

( 0.035 x 7.5 0.035 x 6)

[ 37.225 x 100 3 3
E 0 — 10 V 35.08
eq 24.0 — 22.5
E (100 + 150 + 200 + 200 + 200)
s

150 V 7.31 + 200 V 4.015 + 200 V3.11 + 200 V1.985 3

100 + 150 + 200 + 200 + 200

E eq
25 (15.70 + 11.64 + 12.72 + 11.68 + 10.05)
= 6.0
Es 25 (34)

This value, in conjunction with z/a = 5.64, yields E E5 /p = 0.0175 and NT,
= 34 200.
(h) The equivalent number of coverages (Ne ) for the given conventional struc-
ture under the given temperature conditions is calculated using eqn (24) as
follows.

0.1 0.25 0.34 0.23 0.08 )

N e = 1/ = 10800 11 000
34 200 19520 9870 8400 5300

It is worth mentioning that this value differs from the design number for the
same structure according to the USCE method (where the temperature dis-
tribution does not figure); the latter equals 20 000, which Table /V shows to
correspond to the equivalent temperature of 30°C. In fact, some of the ex-
periments which resulted in the USCE formula were carried out at this tem-
perature (Burns and Womack 1962). As for the numerical example, the
equivalent temperature for it is 40°C.

(i) In order to find an alternative all-asphalt structure, a set of asphalt structures

400 to 600 mm thick will be checked. Calculation of the equivalent Ne for
each structure is made in the same way as for the conventional structure.
Summary of results for all structures is given in Table VII. The relationship
between the thickness of the all-asphalt pavement and Ne is given in Fig. 12 ,
according to which the thickness corresponding to Ne = 11 000 is 462.5
mm, the corresponding Eeq /E, being 21 (see Figs Sand 7). This result should
be corrected for the imperfect roughness of the interfaces. The corrected
values are shown in the same Figure and in Table VIII ; it is seen that the cor-
rected thickness is now 575 mm.

600 with correction for

interface friction
Pavement thickness (mml

550

500
no correction for
interface friction

450

400

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9103 2 3 4 5 6 8 9104 3 4 5 6 7 8 10' 3 4 5 6 7 8 91(r

10'

Number of coverages, N

Fig. 1 2 — Thickness of all-asphalt pavement v. number of load cycles — numerical example

18 AUSTRALIAN ROAD RESEARCH, Vol 10, No. 1, March 1980

 UZAN et al - THICKNESS DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS

TABLE VII
SUMMARY OF RESULTS FOR ALL-ASPHALT STRUCTURE, UNCORRECTED FOR
INTERFACE CONDITIONS
Frequency 0.10 0.25 0.34 0.23 0.08 Ne

22.5 30 40 50 60
(°C)
T, (°C) 30 30 30 30 30

h = 400 mm Eeq /E, 44.3 35.1 26.2 20.1 15.7

z/a = 2.84 e Z Es /p 0.0175 0.0205 0.026 0.0315 0.037 1080
N T/ 34 200 11 630 2300 620 210

h = 450 mm Eeq /E, 43.2 35.1 27.1 21.5 17.4

z/a = 3.19 E z Es /p 0.014 0.0170 0.020 0.24 0.028 6800
156 500 41 700 13 800 3970 1390
N 7-1

h = 500 mm E eq /E, 42.3 35.1 27.9 22.6 18.8

z/a = 3.55 €,E, /p 0.012 0.0137 0.016 0.019 0.022 33 400
448 000 181 500 63 000 19 500 7200
N Ti

h = 550 mm Eeq /E, 41.6 35.1 28.5 23.6 20.0

z/a = 3.90 E zEs /p 0.010 0.0114 0.0137 0 0158 0.018 117 400
1 550 000 635 000 181 500 68 600 28 200
N Ti

h = 600 mm Eeq /E, 41 1 35.1 29.0 24.5 21.0

z/a = 4.26 z Es /p 0.0087 0.0097 0.0112 0.0127 0.014 527 000
4 000 000 1 910 000 717 000 304 000 157 000
N Ti

TABLE VIII

SUMMARY OF RESULTS FOR ALL-ASPHALT STRUCTURE, CORRECTED FOR INTERFACE

CONDITIONS
Frequency 0.10 0.25 0.34 0.23 0.08 Ne

To (°C) 22.5 30 40 50 60
T, (°C) 30 30 30 30 30

h = 450 mm Eeq /E, 21.6 17.6 13.6 10.8 8.7

z/a = 3.19 €,E, /p 0.024 0.028 0.033 0.029 0.045 250
N T) 3970 1390 452 145 55

h = 500 mm Eeq /E, 21.2 17.6 14.0 11.3 9.4

z/a = 3.55 €,E, /p 0.020 0.023 0.027 0.031 0.036 1100
N T, 13 750 5300 1780 693 250

h = 550 mm Eeq /E, 20.8 17.6 14.3 11.8 10.0

z/a = 3.90 E z Es /p 0.017 0.0195 0.0225 0.026 0.029 4060
N T1 41 660 16 350 6160 2300 1090

h = 600 mm Eeq /E, 20.6 17.6 14.5 12.3 11.5

z/a = 4.26 €,E, /p 0.0145 0.016 0.0185 0.0205 0.022 19 900
N 7-1 123 000 63 000 23 400 11 600 7180

An all-asphalt pavement 500 mm thick has been built on a clay subgrade. The
pavement has been evaluated four years after its construction. Results of the
evaluation showed moduli of the subgrade and of the structures in accor-
dance with those calculated at 28°C (Wiseman et al. 1977).

REFERENCES AHLVIN, R.G., CHOU, Y.T. and HUTCHINSON, R.L. (1974). Structural analysis of flexible air-
field pavements. Proc. ASCE Transp. Eng. J. 100 (TE3), pp. 625-41.
BARKER, W.R. and BRABSTON, W.N. (1975). Development of a structural design procedure
for flexible airport pavements. U.S. Army Eng. Waterways Experiment Station, Final
Rep., Rep. No. FAA-RD-199, p. 261.
and CHOU, Y.T. (1977). A general system for the structural design of flexible pave-
ments. Proc. 4th Int. Conf. Struct. Des. Asphalt Pave., Vol. 1, Ann Arbor, Michigan, pp.
209-48.
BONNOT, J., AUTRET, P., and DE BOISSOUDY, A. (1977). Design of asphalt overlays for
pavements. Proc. 4th Int. Conf. Struct. Des. Asphalt Pave., Vol. 1, Ann Arbor, Michigan,
pp. 557-88.
BURNS, C.D. and AHLVIN, R.G. (1972). Behaviour of full-depth bituminous pavement under
heavy aircraft loadings. Assoc Asphalt Pave. Technol. Vol. 41, pp. 597-625.

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BURNS, C.D. and WOMACK, L.M. (1962). Pavement mix design study for very heavy gear
loads: pilot test section. U.S. Army Eng. Waterways Experiment Station, CE. Vicksburg,
Miss. Tech. Rep. No. 3-594, p. 40.
CLASSEN, A.I.M., VALKERING, C.P., and DITMARSH, R. (1976). Pavement evaluting with the
falling weight deflectometer. Assoc. Asphalt Pave. Technol. Vol. 45, pp. 122-57.
DORMON, G.M. and METCALF, C.T. (1965). Design curves for flexible pavements based on
layered system theory. Highw Res Rec No. 71, pp. 69-84.
EDRIS, E.V. and LYTTON, R.L. (1976). Dynamic properties of subgrade soils, including en-
vironmental effects. Texas Transp. Inst., Texas A&M Univ., Res. Rep. No. 164-3, p. 157.
FAA (1974). Non destructive testing, Bull. No. FAA-74-1.
LIVNEH, M., ISHAI, I. and UZAN, J. (1976). Selected topics in pavement design. Bruner Inst.
Transp., Technion, Israel, Pub. No. 32 (in Hebrew), p. 684.
KASSIFF, G., LIVNEH, M. and WISEMAN, G. (1969). Pavements on Expansive Clays
Jerusalem Academic Press, p. 218.
MANES, A. (1969). Asphalt pavement temperature profiles and their relation to meteorologi-
cal parametry. Central Meteorological Inst., Res. Division, Bet Dagan, Israel.
POULOS, H.G. and DAVIS, E.H. (1974). Elastic Solutions for Soil and Rock Mechanics
(Wiley: Sydney.)
TURNBULL, W.J. and AHLVIN, R.G. (1957). Mathematic expression of the CBR relations.
Proc. 4th ICSMFE, pp. 178-80.
TAKESHITA, H. (1967). Considerations on the structural number. Proc. 2nd Int. Conf. Struct.
Des. Asphalt Pave. Vol. 1, Ann Arbor, Michigan, pp. 407-12.
UZAN, J., LIVNEH, M. and ESHED, Y. (1976). Adhesion properties between asphaltic layers.
Bruner Inst. Transp., Technion, Israel, Res. Rep. No. 20 (in Hebrew), p. 166.
UZAN, J., ISHAI, I. and LIVNEH, M. (1976). Principles of pavement design. Bruner Inst.
Transp., Technion, Israel, No. 30 (in Hebrew), p. 275.
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Transp Eng J 103(TE1), pp. 125-41.
WISEMAN, G. and ZEITLEN, J.G. (1961). A comparison between the CBR and the shear
strength methods in the design of flexible pavements. Proc. 5th ICSMFE, pp. 359-63.
WISEMAN, G., UZAN, J., HOFFMAN, M.S., ISHAI, I. and LIVNEH, M. (1977). Simple elastic
models for pavement evaluation. Proc. 4th Int. Conf. Struct. Des. Asphalt Pave., Vol. 2,
Ann Arbor, Michigan.
WITCZAK, N.W. (1972). Design of full depth asphalt airfield pavements. Proc. 3rd Int. Conf.
Struct. Des. Asphalt Pave., Vol. 1, Ann Arbor, Michigan, pp. 550-67.

Jacob Uzan is a graduate of the Tech-
nion-Israel Institute of Technology.
Haifa. with B Sc and D Sc degrees in
Technical Sciences in Civil Engineer-
ing. awarded in 1968 and 1973 Dr
Uzan is currently Senior Lecturer of
Civil Engineering at the Technion.
teaching graduate and undergraduate
courses in pavement design. He is in-
volved in research on design and
J. UZAN. evaluation of pavements. material
B.Sc.. D.Sc. characterisation. field investigation
and expansive soils Dr Uzan also par-
ticipated as consultant to several
projects related to pavement and
railroad design and e ✓aluation
Ilan lshai is a graduate of the Tech-
nion-lsrael Institute of Technology.
Haifa. with B Sc and M Sc degrees in
Civil Engineering. awarded in 1962
and 1969 His Ph D degree in Civil
Engineering was awarded in 1972 by
the University of Michigan. Ann Arbor
Dr lshai was a Research Associate in
Civil Engineering at the University of
Illinois. Urbana, in 1973. He is cur-
I. ISHAI rently a Senior Lecturer of Civil
B.Sc., M.Sc., Ph.D Engineering at the Technion, teaching
graduate and undergraduate courses
in transportation engineering. Dr lshai
is involved in research on pavement
material characterisation, pavement
design and evaluation, and airport
design. He is also a consultant to
several governmental and private
agencies in projects and research
work in transportation engineering

Moshe Livneh is a graduate of the Technion-Israel Institute of Technology.

Hail a. with B Sc . M Sc . D Sc . and Professional Engineer in Civil Engineering
degrees His DIC was granted at the Imperial College of Science. London. Eng-
land Prior to his appointment as Head of the Department of Civil Engineering in
1977. he acted as Head of the Transportation Research Institute at the Tech-
nion At present. he is teaching graduate and undergraduate courses in
transportation engineering Dr Livneh is also involved as a principal researcher
and consultant in numerous major projects of transportation engineering at the
national level His major fields of interest are the design and evaluation of flexi-
ble pavements. pavements on expansive soils. and pavement material proper-
M. LIVNEH,
ties Dr Livneh is also engaged with geometric design and road safety
B.Sc.. M.Sc.. D.Sc.. problems
DIC

20 AUSTRALIAN ROAD RESEARCH, Vol 10, No. 1, March 1980