Overview of resistance spot welding control
P. Podržaj*, I. Polajnar, J. Diaci and Z. Kariž
This paper presents an overview of resistance spot welding control. The presentation of the
physical background of the resistance welding process is followed by the description of the main
problems concerning the appurtenant control theory. Solutions to these problems are presented
primarily according to the measured signals used and to the type of control strategies.
Keywords: Resistance spot welding, Control, Measurement
Introduction
Resistance welding (RW) can be defined as a group of
welding processes that produce coalescence of the faying
surfaces using the heat obtained from the resistance of
the workpieces to the flow of electrical current in the
circuit of which the workpieces are a part, and by the
application of pressure.1 There are several different
versions of RW. The most widely used is resistance spot
welding (RSW).
At the beginning of the welding process, the upper
electrode moves toward the lower one so that the
workpieces are pressed together with a certain welding
force. The amount of welding force can be controlled with
the air pressure in the pneumatic cylinder. After the
workpieces are pressed together for a certain time, the
power source is connected to the secondary electrical
circuit consisting of the welding transformer, the welding
machine arms, the electrodes and the workpieces, as
shown schematically in Fig. 1.
The most common type of power source utilises two
silicon controlled rectifiers (SCRs) that are connected in
parallel: one to pass the current during the positive half
cycle and the other during the negative half cycle.2 The
primary current iP conduction is started with a pulse on
one of the gate electrodes (G1 or G2 in Fig. 1) of each of
the SCRs, as shown in Fig. 2. The primary current is
started with pulses on the gates and continues until the
end of each half cycle. The firing angle a determines the
effective value of the primary current and can, therefore,
together with the transformer setting, be used to control
the effective welding current iW.
The main drawback of SCR power source from the
control theory point of view is the fact that its output
can only be changed twice during each period of the net
frequency. Advanced middle frequency DC sources use
higher frequencies (up to 20 kHz 4) and are, therefore,
along with other advantages, more applicable for
advanced control algorithms.5
As a consequence of the changing primary current,
there is a certain amount of welding voltage UW on the
secondary part of the welding transformer that causes
the electrical current to flow in the secondary circuit.
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana,
Slovenia
*Corresponding author, email primoz.podrzaj@fs.uni-lj.si
ß 2008 Institute of Materials, Minerals and Mining
Published by Maney on behalf of the Institute
Received 17 August 2007; accepted 24 January 2008
DOI 10.1179/174329308X283893
This electrical current is called the welding current iW. The
welding current depends on the resistances of the elements
that make up the electrical circuit. Approximate values of
the resistances for a typical pedestal welder that is welding
steel are given in Fig. 3. Resistances may vary greatly, if
other materials (aluminium, for example) are used.
The consequence of a welding current flowing through
the resistances is the generation of heat QG, which
depends on the welding time TW, the welding current iW
and the total resistance RT, according to the equation
TðW
X
8
QG ~ 2
iW ðtÞRT ðtÞdt; RT ~ Ri (1)
i~8
0
In addition to the amount of heat generated, its spatial
distribution is also important for the welding process.
The maximum amount of heat is generated at the point
of maximum resistance, which in this case is the contact
resistance between the surfaces R4, as shown in Fig. 3.
The contact resistances between the electrodes and the
workpieces (R2 and R6) are large as well, so there is also
intense heat generation at these spots. This indicates that
the electrodes need to be cooled, as shown in Fig. 2.
The result of the heat generation at the workpiece/
workpiece interface is the temperature increase beyond the
welding temperature, as shown in the temperature profile
in Fig. 2. As a result, a volume of material (the so called
welding nugget) is formed between the workpieces
(Fig. 2). The size (diameter) of the welding nugget is
important, because after cooling down, it defines the
strength of the weld. If other parameters remain constant,
the size of the welding nugget increases with the welding
time, as shown in Fig. 4.
The size of the nugget, however, cannot be increased
indefinitely. It is, of course, limited by the thickness of the
workpieces. In fact, even before the welding nugget
expands to the outer surfaces of the workpieces, the weld
would collapse because of the decreasing amount of solid
material around the welding nugget, which is not able to
withstand the pressure of the electrodes anymore. The
result is an expulsion of the molten material and although
the expulsion does not necessarily imply a decreased weld
strength,6–8 it is generally considered undesirable due to a
higher electrode wear, a higher energy consumption, an
unsatisfactory visual appearance of the weld and a
reduced corrosion resistance of coated materials.
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 Podržaj et al. Overview of resistance spot welding control

1 Schematic representation of resistance spot welding1

There are two extremes in terms of the amount

of generated heat during resistance spot welding: if
the amount of generated heat is too high, expulsion
occurs; if the amount of generated heat is too low,
the welding nugget does not form at all (cold weld).
The amount of generated heat must be between that
required for a cold weld and that required for expulsion
(Fig. 5).
Welds closer to the expulsion point are preferred
because of the larger welding nugget and the resulting
higher strength. The basic parameters that affect the
amount of generated heat are:
(i) the welding voltage (higher welding voltages
imply higher welding currents and therefore
more heat generation)
(ii) the welding time (if the heat generation is
constant, the amount of heat generated is
proportional to the welding time)
3 Approximate values of resistances for 1 mm thick steel
sheets and copper electrode of 5 mm diameter: resis-
tances R1, R7 and R8 are small and are therefore
usually neglected

2 Schematic representation of SCR’s primary current

conduction3 4 Growth of welding nugget versus welding time

Science and Technology of Welding and Joining 2008 VOL 13 NO 3 216


5 Zone of suitable combinations for welding current and
welding time for welding uncoated steel9–11
(iii) the welding force (a higher welding force implies
lower contact resistances, which under normal
conditions reduces the amount of heat generated).
If an appropriate combination of parameters is chosen,
and there are no disturbances, an acceptable weld is
produced.
Resistance spot welding control without
feedback
The main task of a RSW control system is to control the
RSW process in such a way that a weld with optimum
weld strength is formed. The early developments in
RSW control focused on ensuring the correct values for
the welding parameters. The first RSW machines were
simple. The welding force was applied by the operator,
and so it was very difficult to control exactly. A
mechanical contactor was used to apply the welding
voltage, and the amount of generated heat was
controlled by the operator. He observed the weld region
and decided when to stop the welding process, based on
the colour of the weld and his experience.12 Owing to the
fact that the RSW process typically lasts for several
tenths of a second only, good quality welds were difficult
to achieve.
The first RSW control systems were used in order to
ensure a higher degree of accuracy for the parameter
settings than could be achieved by human welding
operators. Pneumatic systems are widely used to
generate a welding force with a high degree of accuracy.
The welding time was first controlled with diodes, which
were later substituted with synchronous counters that
counted the number of half cycles of the net frequency
and ended the welding after a predetermined number of
counts. With the invention of middle frequency DC
welding sources, constant welding voltage, constant
welding current and constant heat control algorithms
were made possible. Owing to their common usage, they
are presented in the section on ‘Constant current,
constant voltage and constant power algorithms’.
This type of RSW control enabled the production of
welding schedules. These are procedures that are
designed to help choose the welding parameters for
achieving a good weld. One such welding schedule is
shown in Fig. 6.13 The starting point is the nugget
diameter, which should correspond to the sheet thick-
ness. Depending on the welding time (long, medium or
short), the authors can obtain the welding current and
the welding force. The minimum weld strength can be
obtained as well.
Science and Technology of Welding and Joining
Podržaj et al. Overview of resistance spot welding control
This kind of welding schedule, with its constant welding
parameters, has since been improved. The welding force
and the welding voltage (current) can now be varied
during the welding process.14,15 The whole process can be
divided in prewelding, welding and post-welding phase as
shown in Fig. 4.3
Although there are a lot of researches to improve
welding schedules, this type of approach to welding will
always encounter the following problems:
(i) there is an ever increasing number of different
materials being used in RSW. These materials can
be combined (one sheet of one material and one
sheet of another). If different materials and the
varying geometry of the electrodes, different
welding machine types, etc., are added, an
enormous number of welding schedules are
needed to cover all the possible combinations
(ii) the welding schedule type of approach supposes
that there are no disturbances during the welding
process. Such a supposition is never exactly true.
The level of disturbances can be limited (by
cleaning the surface, for example), but this is time
consuming and expensive.
The main disturbances that occur during resistance
welding are:
(i) variable contact area between the electrodes and
the workpieces (electrodes degrade during their
lifetime, and the contact area increases as a
consequence; the industry typically deals with
this problem with current stepping and elec-
trode tip dressing)
(ii) variable surface conditions (the surface can be
greasy, thereby affecting the contact resistance)
(iii) variable sheet and coating thicknesses
(iv) poor fit-up of the workpieces
(v) shunting (other spot welds in proximity) and
small edge distances
(vi) disturbances in the power supply.
Because the welding schedule approach fails when there
are disturbances present, another type of approach is
needed. In such an approach, it should be possible to
adjust the parameters online, reflecting the development
of the welding nugget, which can be monitored using
online measurements.
Measurement based feedback control
systems
The main task during resistance welding is to control the
process in such a way that a weld with optimum strength
is formed. It is important that the performance of the
control system does not deteriorate if disturbances are
present, and for this reason, a control system that can
control the quality of the weld online is needed.
The basic block diagram of a control system is shown
in Fig. 7.16 The main idea of the feedback control system
is that the controlled variable (via feedback) is compared
with the reference input. The control elements can then
control the system on the basis of the actuating signal.
Two conclusions follow if it is applied to the resistance
welding:
(i) the weld strength is the controlled variable
(ii) the value of the welding current, the time of its
flow and the electrode diameter are the reference
inputs.
2008 VOL 13 NO 3 217

6 Welding schedule for low carbon steel sheets13
The problems associated with the implementation of this
basic block diagram for RSW are as follows:
(i) the weld strength (the controlled variable) would
have to be measured in real time, which is
impossible because the weld strength is only
known after the weld has cooled down. In fact
the cooling process itself can affect the welding
strength
Science and Technology of Welding and Joining
Podržaj et al. Overview of resistance spot welding control
(ii) the model of the controlled system (the depen-
dence of the weld strength on the actuating
signal) is not known exactly
(iii) there are many different combinations of reference
inputs that result in an appropriate weld strength
(a lower welding current can, for example, be
compensated by a longer welding time, and vice
versa, within certain limits, as shown in Fig. 5).
2008 VOL 13 NO 3 218

7 Block diagram of feedback system14
For the time being, therefore, it is impossible to design a
control system capable of controlling the weld strength
directly. As a result, the focus has turned to other
variables (signals) that are correlated with the weld
strength and can also be measured. The following
signals, as found in literature, are of importance:
(i) welding voltage, welding current and dynamic
resistance
(ii) welding force
(iii) electrode displacement
(iv) ultrasound transmission
(v) acoustic and sonic emission
(vi) infrared light emission and thermoelectric
voltage.
Measurement based control systems can be divided into
three groups:
(i) feedback control system (FCS): an FCS adjusts
the parameters during the welding process, as
suggested in Fig. 7. The welding parameters are,
therefore, changed during the welding process
(ii) weld to weld control system (WWCS): a WWCS
adjusts the parameters from one weld to another.
An example of such a system would be current
stepping. The amount and the instant of welding
current increase must however be determined
from signal measurement. Classical current
stepping, where welding current is increased
after a predetermined number of spot welds
8 Schematic representation of measurements
Science and Technology of Welding and Joining
Podržaj et al. Overview of resistance spot welding control
had been made, is therefore not a feedback
control system
(iii) monitoring system (MS): an MS only detects
whether the weld has an appropriate weld
strength (weld diameter). An example of such a
system is non-destructive evaluation procedure,
which estimates the weld strength. If the weld
strength is not sufficient, another spot weld can
be made in the vicinity in order to ensure the
strength of the joint assembly.
Only the FCS is a feedback control system in the sense
known from control system theory. The WWCS and MS
are in fact systems with constant welding parameters,
but they differ from the previously mentioned constant
welding current control systems due to a corrective
action on the basis of measured signal(s) from the
current weld. The corrective action is then applied to the
subsequent welds or additional welds can be added.
The authors have a closer look at the measured signals
(variables) and control strategies used.
Measurement of related variables
Measurement set-up
A possible basic measurement set-up is shown in Fig. 8.
Different sensors are used for different variables. All the
signals are read with the PC and the data acquisition
system.
The welding voltage can be measured directly on the
electrodes. The welding current can be obtained from
the induced voltage measured with a Rogowsky coil.
The ratio of the welding voltage to the welding current
varies during the welding process. For this reason, it is
called the dynamic resistance. The electrode displace-
ment is the distance between the electrode tips, and can
be measured in various ways. The welding force is
measured with a piezoelectric sensor. The ultrasound
(US) transmission is the ratio of the signals obtained
from the US receiver and the US emitter. The acoustic
and sonic emission measurements detect the sounds
2008 VOL 13 NO 3 219

9 Theoretical dynamic resistance curve10,14
emitted during the welding process. If the sensor is
mounted on the workpiece or the electrode, the term
acoustic emission is used. If, however, a common
microphone is used, the term is sonic emission. The
emitted infrared light and the thermal voltage are used
to measure the temperature on the surface of the weld.
Electrical variables
The electrical variables (welding voltage, welding
current and dynamic resistance) are commonly used
because no expensive sensory equipment is needed.
From a certain point of view, constant current control
could be included here as well. It has been included in
the previous section, although feedback is used to make
the current constant. The value of the current itself is
namely used according to welding schedules and not
with a feedback signal that is related to the growth of the
welding nugget. Of course, it is better to use signals that
are closely related to the growth of the welding nugget.
The dynamic resistance is particularly important
because it can be used to identify changes in the
workpieces. A theoretical dynamic resistance curve for
steel welding is shown in Fig. 9.11,17
The dynamic resistance tends to drop at the beginning
of the welding due to an improved contact between the
electrode and the workpiece. After its minimum value, it
starts to increase due to the increasing temperature and
consequently higher specific resistivity. After reaching its
(local) maximum value, the dynamic resistance starts to
decrease again due to the softening of the workpiece and
the consequently smaller electrode displacement. There
is an instantaneous drop in the dynamic resistance if
expulsion occurs. The exact shape of the curve depends
on the material of the workpieces,18 their coatings19 and
the condition of the surfaces.20
The dynamic resistance curves can be used for welding
process identification. The appropriate weld for
uncoated steel sheets should, for example, show a (local)
maximum, but expulsion should not occur.11 The
controller (FCS) based on these facts is presented in
Ref. 21. It determines the moment of current termina-
tion based on the minimum and maximum values of the
dynamic resistance.
The MS type of controllers that are based on dynamic
resistance curves is presented in Refs. 22–24. They are
used either to classify the weld as a good or bad one22,24
or to predict the weld’s strength.23 There are many
control systems that use electrical variables as just one of
the control system’s input signals.25–28
Electrode displacement
Electrode displacement is one of the most commonly
used input signals in resistance spot welding control
Science and Technology of Welding and Joining
Podržaj et al. Overview of resistance spot welding control
10 Theoretical electrode displacement curve
systems. A theoretical electrode displacement curve is
shown in Fig. 10.
The initial drop of the electrode displacement curve is
due to the welding force bringing the workpieces into
contact. The curve rises thereafter as a result of the
thermal expansion. After it reaches its maximum value,
it drops due to the softening of the material. If an
expulsion occurs, there is a further significant drop in
the electrode displacement. The exact shape of the
electrode displacement curve depends on the material
used for the workpieces and their coatings.19 The first
controllers based on electrode displacement curves were
designed to shut off the welding current at a predeter-
mined value of electrode displacement29,30 or electrode
displacement rate.31 These types of controllers were
followed by controllers designed to track a predeter-
mined electrode displacement curve, which was obtained
from measurements.
P,32 PI33 and PID34 control algorithms were used for
this purpose. Finite element analysis has also been used
to determine the electrode displacement curve to be
tracked.35 Electrode displacement can also be used to
estimate weld strength.36
Ultrasound transmission
The transmissivity of an ultrasonic signal can be used to
estimate the size of the weld. The first systems used the
ultrasonic signal to detect the austenite–perlite transfor-
mation during the cooling of the weld.37 For this reason,
they were not appropriate for FCS. The major drawback
of these systems was that the sensors were mounted on
the workpieces. However, a major breakthrough was
achieved when the sensors were successfully mounted on
the electrode holders. A control system based on
transmissivity curve tracking is described in Ref. 38.
The cost and the complexity of the necessary equipment
limit the use of ultrasound as a control signal.
Acoustic and sonic emission
There are many sources of sound emission during
resistance welding.39 The magnitude of the acoustic and
sonic emission during the conduction of the welding
current depends on the amount of heat being generated,
and is therefore correlated with the weld strength.40–42
Controllers based on acoustic and sonic emission shut off
the current at a predetermined number of emission
counts.43,44 The major drawback of acoustic emission is
the need to attach the sensor either on the workpiece,
which must be carried out for each workpiece, and is
therefore extremely time consuming, or on the electrodes,
which results in a high level of noise due to the flow of
cooling water. Sonic emission is very easy to use. It has
been successfully used for weld strength estimation.42 The
2008 VOL 13 NO 3 220

11 Schematic representation of on–off type of control
system
main problem for its widespread application is its
sensitivity to the surrounding noise that is present in a
production environment.
Infrared light emission and thermoelectric voltage
The surface temperature of a spot weld can be measured
using light emission and thermoelectric voltage [the
temperature (voltage) measured by a thermocouple].
The light emission signal is related to the weld strength45
and can therefore be used as a control system input.
However, it is not suitable for a production environment
because special attention is needed to ensure constant
surface emissivity, and even when this is ensured, the dirt
and fumes produced during welding can corrupt the
signal.
Thermoelectric voltage is also not suitable for a
production environment because of the difficulties asso-
ciated with thermocouple attachment. It is mainly limited
to use during the cooling of the weld region. The rate
of cooling depends on the nugget size.46 Thermoelectric
voltage is, therefore, more appropriate for WWCS and
MS than for FCS.
Control strategies
On–off type controller
The first type of measurement based feedback controller
was the on–off type of controller shown in Fig. 11.
Such a controller stops the welding at a predetermined
value of one or more measured variables (dynamic
resistance,21 electrode displacement29,30 or electrode
displacement rate,31 and acoustic emission43,44). The
major drawback of this system is the need to determine
the value of the variable at which the welding should be
stopped. This needs to be carried out using experiments.
Some types of disturbances can, however, be avoided
with this type of controller (shunting, for example).
Tracking controller
The on–off type of controller was followed by the
tracking type of controller shown in Fig. 12. In this case,
the system adjusts the welding current in order to track a
reference signal.
This type of controller is designed to track a
predetermined curve of different measured variables
(electrode displacement32–34 and ultrasound transmis-
sion38). It is capable of producing better welds than the
on–off type of controller when there are a lot of
disturbances. Reference curves for different materials
and workpiece thicknesses must still be obtained by
experiment.
Constant current, constant voltage and
constant power algorithms
These three algorithms are currently the most commonly
used ones. Even artificial intelligence (AI) systems might
Science and Technology of Welding and Joining
Podržaj et al. Overview of resistance spot welding control
12 Schematic representation of tracking type control sys-
tem with PID control algorithm
incorporate them. The constant current algorithm might
for example be used in connection with AI based
WWCS or MS systems. All three of them will be
introduced briefly.47–50
Constant current algorithm
The algorithm is based on equation (1). It supposes
constant heat input and therefore the total energy
should be controlled by the welding time. The problem
is, however, that the power given by iW2RT varies a lot
because of the varying dynamic resistance. The algo-
rithm therefore does not take into account changing
factors such as contact and bulk resistances. It is,
however, an ideal algorithm for a welding schedule
approach, which gives suggestions about the welding
time and welding current for different material/thickness
combinations. As the welding current is measured very
easily, this algorithm is very common.
Constant voltage algorithm
The algorithm is based on equation (2)
TðW
UW ðtÞ2
QG ~ dt (2)
RT
0
It also supposes constant heat input and has the same
drawback as the constant current algorithm. In this case
the power is given by UW2/RT and also varies a lot
because of the varying dynamic resistance. Besides that,
it is more difficult to measure voltage than current. The
current is namely the same throughout the secondary
circuit, but the voltage is not constant. It has to be
measured close to the electrode tips, which might be
difficult in practice.
Constant power algorithm
The algorithm is based on equation (3)
TðW
UW ðtÞ2
QG ~ dt (3)
RT
0
The main advantage compared to the constant current
and constant voltage algorithms is that there is no
resistance in equation (3). That indicates that the power
given by UWiW can really be kept constant throughout
the welding cycle, which makes the constant power
algorithm the preferred choice among algorithms
mentioned in this section. The possibility of overheating
and hence expulsion is reduced due to the constant
power input. The only drawback compared to the
constant current algorithm is the necessity of voltage
measurement.
The problem is, however, that more than 80% of the
total generated heat is lost.3 So it is very difficult to
estimate the net heat used for welding nugget formation.
2008 VOL 13 NO 3 221
 Podržaj et al. Overview of resistance spot welding control

13 Dynamic resistance signature and graphical representation of 6610 element bipolarized matrix used as input for
Hopfield neural network

For that reason, it is better to use signals that are closely related square is white. The pattern matrix for the first
related to the growth of the welding nugget. example in Fig. 13 would therefore be equal to
2 3
{1 {1 {1 {1 {1 {1 {1 {1 {1 {1
Artificial intelligence 6 {1
6 {1 z1 z1 z1 {1 {1 {1 {1 {1 7
7
6 7
6 {1 z1 {1 {1 {1 z1 z1 z1 {1 {1 7
The latest development in RSW control is the applica- R~6
6 {1
7 (4)
6 {1 {1 {1 {1 {1 {1 {1 z1 z1 7
7
tion of AI. Neural networks, fuzzy logic and expert 6 7
4 {1 {1 {1 {1 {1 {1 {1 {1 {1 {1 5
systems are the AI techniques that can be found in RSW
z1 {1 {1 {1 {1 {1 {1 {1 {1 {1
applications.
Expert systems are currently only used to select the The pattern matrix R is input to the Hopfield neural
correct welding parameters.51 Fuzzy logic based control network which classifies the pattern matrices (and
systems are usually used for tracking type controllers. therefore the resistance curves) from different measure-
Dynamic resistance52 or electrode displacement53,54 are ments into one of the five different classes based on
used as a reference. Neural networks are by far the most the similarity between the pattern matrix R and the
commonly used AI technique in RSW. They are used for prototype matrices for each of the five classes. The
weld nugget diameter or weld strength prediction55–58 or strength of the weld can be estimated based on its
for weld classification.59 The most commonly used classification into one of the five classes. These applica-
network is a multilayer perceptron in connection with tions can only be used for WWCS or MS. A FCS neural
a backpropagation learning algorithm which can be network application is also possible.62 A set of input
used to get a function approximation.60 Besides this vectors is obtained from the measured signals (dynamic
most common type of neural network, which is used in a resistance, electrode displacement and welding force) at
wide variety of scientific applications, other types of different instants of time (Fig. 14). The vector index
neural networks have also been tested in RSW control. therefore corresponds to the welding time. It can be seen
Hopfield neural network is used for pattern recognition, in Fig. 14 that all the signals change during the
for example.61 The dynamic resistance curve is sampled expulsion. The learning vector quantisation (LVQ)
at 10 different moments of time. The values of dynamic neural network can be used to detect this event. An
resistances at these moments are then quantised into six input to the network is the difference between the
different levels as shown in Fig. 13. As a result, a 6610 current input vector (vector index k) and the preceding
element pattern matrix can be formed. The value of the input vector (vector index k21). The network is then
element is z1 if the related square is black and 21, if the trained to detect expulsion in different materials of

Science and Technology of Welding and Joining 2008 VOL 13 NO 3 222


14 Input vectors obtained from mild steel used for neural network training56
different thickness. The detection is being stated by
classifying the differences into the expulsion or non-
expulsion class. The LVQ based control system is
consequently able to stop welding, when the expulsion
occurs. Control systems based on this approach, which
should be able to predict expulsion (if inverter based
welding sources are used), are currently being developed.
Conclusion
In this article, the authors described the basic character-
istics of RSW with the emphasis on its control. The main
problems and goals of RSW control are presented
together with several approaches to solving the pro-
blems. The authors also demonstrated how signals can
be used in a feedback control system and how these
signals correlate with the size of the welding nugget and
the weld strength. Different control systems, incorpor-
ating on–off controllers, tracking controllers and AI
based controllers, used in RSW control, are also
described. Research into RSW control is currently
focused on using different input signals in order to
control the resistance welding of an ever increasing
range of materials. The future will see the development
of more AI based techniques that will lead to better
control of the resistance welding process.
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