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CSWIP 3.

1 Welding Inspection The Course

TWI Training & Examination


Services The CSWIP 3.1 Welding Inspector course provides an
introduction to a wide range of topics related to
Welding Inspection and Quality.

What does it contains?

Introduction
Course Reference WIS 5

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Course Contents Course Assessment

Exam after completion No continuous


• Roles and duties of a • Heat treatments. assessment
Welding Inspector. of course
• Weldability of steels.
• Welding defects. • Joint design.
• Mechanical testing. • Welding procedures.
• Main welding • Welder qualification.
processes. • Stress and distortion.
• Welding symbols. • Macro examination.
• Non-destructive testing. • Codes and standards.
• Inspection reporting. • Welding consumables.
• Welding terminology. • Thermal cutting.
• Welding safety.

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CSWIP 3.1 Examination CSWIP 3.1 Examination


Before attempting the examination, you MUST provide the
following Multiple Choice Examination

• Two passport size photographs, with your name and


signature on reverse side of both.
30 x General Multiple Choice Questions 45 Min
• Eye test certificate, the certificate must show near vision
and colour tests (N4.5 or Times Roman numerals 60 x Technology Questions 90 Min
standard) and verified enrolment .
20 x Macroscopic Questions 45 Min
• Completed examination form, you can print from the
website www.twitraining.com. 20 x Plate Butt Questions 75 Min

It is the sole responsibility of the candidate to provide the 20 x Pipe Butt Questions 105 Min
above. Failure to do so will delay results and certification
being issued.
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CSWIP 3.1 Examination Notification of Examination Results

70% pass
mark
Any standard/code required for
the examinations will be provided
on the examination day

For every section to be


awarded the certificate
Closed book exam 2 copies of certificates and an
identity card sent to delegates sponsor.
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CSWIP 3.1 - 5 Year Prolongation CSWIP 3.1 - 10 Year Renewals

It is a mandatory requirement to 10 years


keep an up to date log book as Renewal examination.
documentary evidence of your
activities. This will be required to 30 General multiple
be presented to CSWIP after 5 choice questions.
years to prolong your
qualification. Assessment of a welded
sample.

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CSWIP Certification Scheme CSWIP Certificate Scheme

• Level 1: 3.0 Visual Welding Inspector. Certificate Scheme for Personnel


• Level 2: 3.1 Welding Inspector.
• Level 3: 3.2 Senior Welding Inspector.
• Welding Quality Control Coordinator.

For further information please


see website
www.cswip.com

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TWI Certification Ltd

CSWIP Secretariat
TWI Certification Ltd
Granta Park
Great Abington
Cambridge CB21 6AL
United Kingdom

Tel: + 44 (0) 1223 891162


Fax: + 44 (0) 1223 894219
E-mail: twicertification@twi.co.uk
Web : www.cswip.com

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CSWIP 3.1 Welding Inspection Main Responsibilities

• Code compliance.
Typical Duties Of Welding Inspectors
• Workmanship control.

TWI Training & Examination


Services • Documentation control.

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Standard for Visual Inspection Basic


Personal Attributes
Requirements
Important qualities that good Inspectors are
expected to have are: BS EN ISO 17637 - Non-destructive examination of
fusion welds - Visual examination.
• Honesty.
Welding Inspection Personnel should:
• Integrity. • Be familiar with relevant standards, rules and
specifications applicable to the fabrication work to be
• Knowledge. undertaken.
• Be informed about the welding procedures to be used.
• Good communicator.
• Have good vision (which should be checked every 12
months).

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Welding Inspection Welding Inspection


Conditions for Visual Inspection (to BS EN ISO 17637)
Aids to Visual Inspection (to BS EN ISO 17637)
Illumination:
• 350 lux minimum required. When access is restricted may use:
• (recommends 500 lux - normal shop or office lighting). • A mirrored boroscope.
• A fibre optic viewing system. } usually by agreement

Vision Access: Other aids:


• Eye should be within 600mm of the surface. • Welding gauges (for checking bevel angles, weld profile, fillet
sizing, undercut depth).
• Viewing angle (line from eye to surface) to be not less than 30°.
• Dedicated weld-gap gauges and linear misalignment (high-low)
600mm gauges.
• Straight edges and measuring tapes.
30° • Magnifying lens (if magnification lens used it should have
magnification between X2 to X5).

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Welding Inspectors Equipment Welding Inspectors Gauges
1

Measuring devices: 3

• Flexible tape, steel rule. 5


6

• Temperature indicating crayons.


• Welding gauges.

HI-LO Single Purpose Welding Gauge


• Voltmeter. 0
IN
1/4 1/2 3/4

• Ammeter.
• Magnifying glass
• Torch/flash light.
• Gas flowmeter.

TWI Multi-purpose Welding Gauge Misalignment Gauges

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Welding Inspectors Equipment Welding Inspection

Stages of Visual Inspection (to BS EN ISO 17637)


Extent of examination and when required should be defined in
the application standard or by agreement between the
Multi-meter capable of contracting parties.
measuring amperage and
For high integrity fabrications inspection required throughout
voltage. the fabrication process:

• Before welding.
• During welding.
• After welding.

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Duties of a Welding Inspector Typical Duties of a Welding Inspector

Before Welding Before Welding


Preparation:
(before assembly) Familiarisation with relevant documents…

(after assembly) • Application standard/code - for visual acceptance requirements.


• Drawings - item details and positions/tolerances etc.

During welding • Quality Control Procedures - for activities such as material


handling, documentation control, storage and issue of welding
consumables.
After welding • Quality Plan/Inspection and Test Plan/Inspection Checklist -
details of inspection requirements, inspection procedures and
records required.

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Typical Duties of a Welding Inspector Typical Duties of a Welding Inspector

Before Welding
Before Welding
Equipment:
Welding Procedures:
• All inspection equipment is in good condition and
• Are applicable to joints to be welded and approved. calibrated as necessary.
• Are available to welders and inspectors. • All safety requirements are understood and necessary
equipment available.
Welder Qualifications:
• List of available qualified welders related to WPS’s. Materials:
• Certificates are valid and in-date. • Can be identified and related to test certificates.
• Are of correct dimensions.
• Are in suitable condition (no damage/contamination).

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Typical Duties of a Welding Inspector Typical Duties of a Welding Inspector

Before Welding
Before Welding
Consumables:
• In accordance with WPS’s. Fit-up
• Are being controlled in accordance with procedure. • Complies with WPS.
• Number/size of tack welds to code/good workmanship.
Weld Preparations:
• Comply with WPS/drawing.
• Free from defects and contamination. Pre-heat
• If specified.
Welding Equipment: • Minimum temperature complies with WPS.

• In good order and calibrated as required by procedure.

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Typical Duties of a Welding Inspector Typical Duties of a Welding Inspector

During Welding
During Welding
Weather conditions Welding consumables
• Suitable if site/field welding. • In accordance with WPS.
• In suitable condition.
• Controlled issue and handling.
Welding Process(es)
• In accordance with WPS.
Welding Parameters
Welder • Current, voltage and travel speed – as WPS.
• Is approved to weld the joint.
Pre-heat (if required) Root runs
• Minimum temperature as specified by WPS. • If possible, visually inspect root before single-sided welds
• maximum interpass temperature as WPS are filled up.

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Typical Duties of a Welding Inspector Typical Duties of a Welding Inspector

After Welding
During Welding
Weld Identification
Inter-run dressing • Identified/numbered as required.
• Is marked with welder’s identity.
• In accordance with an approved method (and back
gouging) to good workmanship standard.
Visual Inspection
Distortion control • Ensure weld is suitable for all NDT.
• Visually inspect and sentence to code requirements.
• Welding is balanced and over-welding is avoided.
Dimensional Survey
• Ensure dimensions comply with code/drawing.

Other NDT
• Ensure all NDT is completed and reports available.

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Typical Duties of a Welding Inspector Typical Duties of a Welding Inspector

After Welding After Welding


Repairs Documentation
• Monitor repairs to ensure compliance with procedure • Ensure any modifications are on as-built drawings.
PWHT.
• Ensure all required documents are available.
• Monitor for compliance with procedure. • Collate/file documents for manufacturing records.
• Check chart records confirm procedure compliance. • Sign all documentation and forward it to QC department.

Pressure/Load Test
• Ensure test equipment is suitably calibrated.
• Monitor to ensure compliance with procedure.
• Ensure all records are available.

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WI Duties Before Welding WI Duties During Welding

Resume: Resume:
• Check all documentation.
• Check amperage, voltage, polarity.
• Check all consumables.
• Check materials, dimensions and condition. • Ensure the correct technique, run sequence.
• Preheating, method and temperature. • Check run out lengths, time lapses.
• Check fit and set-up. • Cleaning between passes.
• Ensure no undue stress is applied to the joint. • Interpass temperatures.
• Check welding equipment. • Consumable control.
• Maintenance of records and reports.

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WI Duties After Welding Summary of Duties

Resume: It is the duty of a Welding Inspector to ensure all the welding and
associated actions are carried out in accordance with the
• Post cleaning.
specification and any applicable procedures.
• Visual inspection of completed welded joint.
• Check weld contour and width.
• PWHT. A Welding Inspector must:
• Dimensional accuracy. Observe
• Weld reports. To observe all relevant actions related to weld quality throughout
• Tie up with NDT. production.
• Monitor any repairs. Record
To record, or log all production inspection points relevant to quality,
including a final report showing all identified imperfections.
Compare
To compare all recorded information with the acceptance criteria and any
other relevant clauses in the applied application standard.

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Welding Inspector Duties

Any Questions

?
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1-5
CSWIP 3.1 Welding Inspection Welding Terminology and Definitions

What is a Weld?

Welding Terminology and Definitions • A localised coalescence of metals or non-metals


produced either by heating the materials to the
welding temperature, with or without the
application of pressure, or by the application of
pressure alone (AWS).
TWI Training & Examination
• A permanent union between materials caused by
Services heat, and or pressure BS EN.

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Welding Terminology and Definitions Joint Terminology

What is a Joint? Tee Edge Cruciform

• The junction of members or the edges of


members that are to be joined or have been
joined (AWS).

• A configuration of members (BS EN).

Butt Lap Corner

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Butt Preparations Single Sided Butt Preparations

Single sided preparations are normally made on thinner


materials, or when access form both sides is restricted.
Single-J Single-U

Square Edge Square Edge


Closed Butt Open Butt

Single Bevel Single Vee


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Double Sided Butt Preparations Joint Preparation Terminology
Double sided preparations are normally made on thicker materials,
Included angle Included angle
or when access form both sides is unrestricted.
Angle
Double - J Double - U Angle of
of
bevel
bevel

Land

Root Gap Root Radius Root Face


Root Face
Root Gap

Double - Bevel Double Vee Single-V Butt Single-U Butt


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Joint Preparation Terminology Weld Terminology

Angle of bevel Angle of bevel Fillet weld Edge weld Compound weld

Root
Radius
Root Gap Root Gap Root Face
Root Face
Land
Butt weld Plug weld Spot weld
Single - J Butt Single Bevel Butt

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Welded Butt Joints Welded Tee Joints

A Butt Welded butt joint


A Fillet Welded T joint

A Fillet Welded butt joint


A Butt Welded T joint

A Compound Welded butt joint


A Compound Welded T joint

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Welded Lap Joints Welded Closed Corner Joints

A Fillet Welded lap joint


A Fillet Welded closed corner joint

A Spot Welded lap joint A Butt Welded closed corner joint

A Compound Welded lap joint A Compound Welded closed corner joint

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Weld Zone Terminology Weld Zone Terminology


Face
A B Excess
Cap height

Weld
metal

Heat
Affected Weld
Zone Boundary

Excess Root
C D A, B, C & D = Weld Toes Penetration
Root
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Weld Zone Terminology Heat Affected Zone (HAZ)

Weld Width
Maximum Solid Solid-liquid Boundary
Temperature weld
Grain growth zone
metal
Recrystallised zone
Partially transformed zone
Tempered zone
Unaffected base material

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2-3
Toe Blend Features to Consider

• Most codes quote the weld Fillet welds - Toe blend


toes shall blend smoothly.
80° 6mm
• This statement is not
quantitative and therefore
open to individual
Poor Weld Toe Blend Angle interpretation.
• The higher the toe blend angle
20° 3mm
the greater the amount of
stress concentration.
• The toe blend angle ideally
Improved Weld Toe Blend Angle should be between 20o-30o.

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Fillet Weld Profiles Fillet Weld Leg Length

Mitre fillet

Concave fillet a
A concave profile is preferred for
joints subjected to fatigue loading
b
a = Vertical leg length
Convex fillet b = Horizontal leg length
Note: The leg length should be approximately equal to the material thickness.

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Fillet Weld Features Deep Penetration Fillet Weld Features

Excess Weld Metal


Vertical
Leg
Length
Design
Throat
a

Horizontal a = Design Throat Thickness


Leg Length
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Deep Penetration Fillet Weld Features Deep Penetration Fillet Weld Features

a
b b
a = Design Throat Thickness
b = Actual Throat Thickness b = Actual Throat Thickness
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Fillet Weld Sizes Fillet Weld Sizes

Calculating throat thickness from a known leg length: Calculating leg length from a known design throat
thickness:

Design throat thickness = leg length x 0.7


Leg length = design throat thickness x 1.4

Question: The leg length is 14mm.


What is the design throat? Question: The design throat is 10mm.
What is the leg length?

Answer: 14mm x 0.7 = 10mm throat thickness


Answer: 10mm x 1.4 = 14mm leg length
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Features to Consider Features to Consider


The design throat thickness of a flat or convex fillet weld
Throat Throat connecting parts with the fusion faces which form an angle
thickness thickness between 600 and 1200 may be calculated by multiplying the leg
length by the appropriate factors as given below:
is larger is smaller
Angle between fusion
Factor
600 1200 faces in degrees
60 to 90 0.7
91 to 100 0.65
101 to 106 0.6
Fillet welds connecting parts with fusion faces with an angle 107 to 113 0.55
more than 1200 or less than 600 should not use the previous 114 to 120 0.5
calculations.
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Features to Consider Fillet Weld Sizes
Importance of fillet weld leg length size Importance of fillet weld leg length Size

(a) (b)

4mm 6mm
4mm 8mm (b)
(a)
4mm 2mm 4mm 6mm

Approximately the same weld volume in both Fillet Welds, but the Cross Sectional Area
effective throat thickness has been altered, reducing considerably
the strength of weld B. Question: How much larger is the csa (b) comparable to (a)?
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Fillet Weld Sizes Features to Consider


Importance of fillet weld leg length Size Effective Throat Thickness
a = Nominal throat thickness s = Effective throat thickness

4mm (a) 6mm (b)

4mm 6mm

Area = 4 x 4 = 8mm2 Area = 6 x 6 = 18mm2


a s
2 2
The csa of (b) is over double the area of (a) without the extra
excess weld metal being added. Deep throat fillet welds from FCAW and SAW etc.
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Joint Design and Weld Preparation Joint Design and Weld Preparation

Bevel Angle Root Face


Root Face Size set to:
• Allow controlled root fusion.
• Reduce the risk of burn-
through.

Bevel angle must allow:


• Good access to the root.
• Manipulation of electrode to ensure sidewall fusion.
Too small = burn-through Too large = lack of root penetration

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Joint Design and Weld Preparation Weld Preparation

Root Gap Terminology and Typical Dimensions: V Joints


Root Gap set to: included angle
• Allow controlled root fusion. bevel angle
• Reduce the risk of burn-
through.

root face
root gap

Typical Dimensions
Bevel angle 30 to 35°
Root face ~1.5 to ~2.5mm
Too large = burn-through Too small = lack of root penetration
Root gap ~2 to ~4mm
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Weld Preparation Weld Preparation

Joint design/weld preparation to reduce weld volumes Welding process impacts upon weld preparation

12 to 15°

35°

for MMA welding of pipe joints


Arc welding EBW
> ~20mm (compound bevel)
55°
~5°
~6mm

for mechanised GMAW of


for double-Vee joint for SAW of
pipework
thicker sections

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Weld Preparation Weld Preparation


Welding process impacts upon weld preparation Preparation method impacts upon weld preparation

MMA MAG
High heat input process allow a larger root face, less weld metal
required, less distortions, higher productivity. Requires machining slow Can be flame/plasma cut fast
and expensive. and cheap.
If the gap is too big risk of possible burn-through, if gap is too Large tolerance set-up can be
small risk of lack of penetration. Tight tolerance easier set-up.
difficult.
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2-7
Weld Preparations Weld Preparations
Access impacts upon weld preparation Access impacts upon weld preparation

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Weld Preparations Weld Preparations

Access impacts upon weld preparation Type of joint impacts upon weld preparation
Pipe weld preparation - one side access only! Corner joints require offset

offset
for wall thickness up to 3 mm
for wall thickness 3 to 20 mm
for wall thickness over 20 mm Danger of burn-through Easy set-up no risk of
difficult to set-up burn-through
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Weld Preparations Weld preparations

Type of joint impacts upon weld preparation. Type of parent material impacts upon weld preparation

Lap and square edge butt joints do not require To reduce distortions on stainless steels welds, reduce
preparation. included angle and increase root face.
To avoid lack of side wall fusion problems aluminium
require larger included angles than steel.
60º 70-90º

30º 35-45º

Bevel angle = 30º Included angle = Bevel


Included angle = 60º angle = 50º Steel Aluminium
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2-8
Weld preparations Weld Preparations
Thickness of parent material impacts upon weld Thickness of parent material impacts upon weld
preparation preparation.
A single bevel groove requires a volume of weld metal Reduce weld volume by:
proportional to the square of plate thickness
Reduced included angle
Its lack of symmetry lead to distortions

Reduce shrinkage by:


• Reducing weld volume. Reduced root gap
• Using single pass welding.

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Weld Preparations Weld Preparations

Thickness of parent material impacts upon weld Thickness of parent material impacts upon weld
preparation. preparation
Reduce weld volume by:
Reduce weld volume by:
Use U prep instead V prep
Increase root face

Use double bevel weld prep U prep better than V prep

V prep better than U prep

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Weld Preparations Weld Preparation


Thickness of parent material impacts upon weld Welding position impacts upon weld preparation
preparation.
Reduce distortions by using an asymmetric V prep 60º
instead of a symmetric V prep. 60º
30º
t/3 15º
t

PF symmetric PC asymmetric
Weld first into the deeper side after welding to half of preparation preparation
the depth, back gouge the root. complete welding on If symmetric preparation is used in the PC position the
the shallow side first. weld may spill out of the groove
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2-9
Weld Preparation Weld Preparation

Type of loading impacts upon weld preparation. Type of loading impacts upon weld preparation.

Static loads - equal throat T joints


Static loads - prohibited application of one sided fillet
weld. 13 mm 13 mm

60º

weld area = 160 mm2 weld area = 90 mm2


• No preparation required. • Preparation required.
• Danger of lamellar tearing. • Reduced distortions.

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Weld Preparation Weld Preparation


Type of loading impacts upon weld preparation. Type of loading impacts upon weld preparation
Static loads - equal throat T beams in bending Dynamic loads - full vs. partial penetration welds
neutral neutral
axis axis Cyclic load

Normal fillet welds Deep penetration


fillet welds
Fillet welds Double bevel weld
Lower neutral axis is more advantageous (also helps to
reduce residual distortions!) Lack of penetration promotes cracking!
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Welding Terminology

Any Questions

?
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2-10
CSWIP 3.1 Welding Inspection Features to Consider

Butt welds - Size


Welding Imperfections
Weld cap width
and Excess weld
metal height
Materials Inspection

Root
TWI Training & Examination
penetration
Services
Root bead width

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Features to Consider Welding Defects

Butt welds - Toe Blend Incomplete root penetration

x Causes
• Too small a root gap.

x x
• Arc too long.
• Wrong polarity.
• Electrode too large for joint preparation.
• Incorrect electrode angle.
• Too fast a speed of travel for current.

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Welding Defects Welding Defects

a Excessively thick root face

d Power input too low

b Too small a root gap

c Misplaced welds e Arc (heat) input too low

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3-1
Welding Defects Welding Defects
Incomplete root Fusion
Too large diameter
electrode.

Smaller (correct) Causes


diameter electrode. • Too small a root gap.
• Arc too long.
• Wrong polarity.
Lack of sidewall fusion • Electrode too large for joint
Parallel
Deflection
magnetic
due to arc deflection. preparation.
field
of arc
• Incorrect electrode angle.
• Too fast a speed of travel for current.
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Welding Defects Welding Defects

Root concavity Excess Root Penetration

Causes
Causes • Excessive amperage during
• Root gap too large. welding of root.
• Insufficient arc energy. • Excessive root gap.
• Excessive back purge TIG. • Poor fit up.
• Excessive root grinding.
• Improper welding technique.

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Welding Defects Welding Defects

Root undercut Cap Undercut

Causes Causes
• Root gap too large. • Excessive welding current.
• Excessive arc energy. • Welding speed too high.
• Small or no root face. • Incorrect electrode angle.
• Excessive weave.
• Electrode too large.

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3-2
Welding Defects Welding Defects

Lack of fusion

Overlap

Causes
• Contaminated weld
preparation.
• Amperage too low.
• Amperage too high
Excess weld (welder increases speed of
metal travel).

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Welding Defects Welding Defects


Incompletely filled groove Inter run incompletely filled groove.
and lack of side wall fusion

Causes
• Insufficient weld metal Causes
deposited. • Insufficient weld metal deposited.
• Improper welding technique. • Improper welding technique.
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Welding Defects Welding Defects

Incompletely Filled Groove Gas pores/porosity

Causes
• Excessive moisture in flux or preparation.
• Contaminated preparation.
• Low welding current.
• Arc length too long.
• Damaged electrode flux.
• Removal of gas shield.
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3-3
Welding Defects Welding Defects
Gas pores/porosity Inclusions - Slag

Causes
• Insufficient cleaning between passes.
• Contaminated weld preparation.
• Welding over irregular profile.
• Incorrect welding speed.
• Arc length too long.
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Welding Defects Welding Defects


Inclusions - Slag Inclusions - Tungsten

Causes
• Insufficient cleaning between passes. Causes
• Contaminated weld preparation.
• Welding over irregular profile. Contamination of weld caused by excessive current
• Incorrect welding speed. through electrode, tungsten touching weld metal or parent
• Arc length too long. metal during welding using the TIG welding process.
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Welding Defects Welding Defects

Burn Through Spatter

Causes
• Excessive arc energy.
Causes
• Excessive arc length.
• Excessive amperage during welding of root.
• Damp electrodes.
• Excessive root grinding.
• Arc blow.
• Improper welding technique.
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3-4
Welding Defects Welding Defects

Arc Strikes Mechanical Damage

Chisel
Chisel Marks
Marks Grinding Marks

Causes

• Electrode straying onto


parent metal.
• Electrode holder with poor
insulation.
• Poor contact of earth clamp.
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Welding Defects Welding Defects

Non-alignment of two abutting edges.

50mm

3mm

2mm
Angular distortion
Measure the distance to the edge of the plate (50mm).
Use a straight edge (rule) to find the amount of distortion
Also Known as: Hi Low, mismatch or misalignment. then measure the space (3mm).
This reported as Angular distortion 3mm in 50mm.
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Welding Defects

Excess weld metal height Linear


Lowest plate to highest point
Any Questions

?
3 mm

Excess penetration Lowest plate


to highest point
Angular

3mm

Angular misalignment measured in mm


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3-5
CSWIP 3.1 Welding Inspection Destructive Testing Definitions

What is Destructive Testing ?


The destruction of a welded
unit or by cutting out selected
specimens from the weld is
Destructive Testing carried out to check the
mechanical properties of the
joint materials. They can be
produced to:
TWI Training & Examination
Services
• Approve welding procedures (BS EN 15614).
• Approve welders (BS EN 287).
• Production quality control.
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Destructive Tests Qualitative and Quantitative Tests

3 x Toughness The following mechanical tests have units and are termed
Destructive tests include: (Charpy V quantitative tests to measure mechanical properties of the
notch)
• Bend test. joint.
• Tensile tests (transverse welded joint, all weld metal).
• Impact test. 2 x Ductile (Bend • Toughness testing (Charpy, Izod, CTOD).
test)
• Tensile test. • Hardness tests (Brinell, Rockwell, Vickers).
• Hardness test.
• Macro/micro examination. 2 x Strength The following mechanical tests have no units and are
(transverse termed qualitative tests for assessing weld quality.
tensile)
• Macro testing.
• Bend testing.
• Fillet weld fracture testing.
• Butt weld nick-break testing.

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Definitions Mechanical Test Samples


Mechanical properties of metals are related to the amount Tensile Specimens
of deformation which metals can withstand under different CTOD Specimen
circumstances of force application.

• Malleability.
• Ductility. Ability of a material to
withstand deformation
• Toughness.
under static Bend Test
• Hardness. compressive loading Specimen
• Tensile Strength. without rupture.
Charpy Specimen

Fracture Fillet
Specimen
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4-1
Destructive Testing Mechanical Testing
Welding Procedure Qualification Testing
Top of fixed pipe
2 Typical positions for test pieces
Specimen type position
Hardness Testing
• Macro + hardness. 5
3
• Transverse tensile. 2, 4
• Bend tests. 2, 4
• Charpy impact tests. 3
• Additional tests. 3
4
5
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Hardness Testing Hardness Testing

Definition
• Measurement of resistance of a material against Objectives:
penetration of an indenter under a constant load. • Measuring hardness in different areas of a welded joint.
• There is a direct correlation between UTS and hardness. • Assessing resistance toward brittle fracture, cold
cracking and corrosion sensitivity.

Hardness tests: Information to be supplied on the test report:


• Material type.
• Brinell.
• Location of indentation.
• Vickers.
• Type of hardness test and load applied on the indenter.
• Rockwell.
• Hardness value.

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Hardness Testing Vickers Hardness Test

Usually the hardest Typical location of the indentations


region 1.5 to 3mm
Fusion
line or
HAZ
fusion
boundary
Butt weld from one side only

Hardness test methods Typical designations


• Vickers 240 HV10
• Rockwell Rc 22
Butt weld from both side
• Brinell 200 BHN-W

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4-2
Vickers Hardness Test Vickers Hardness Test Machine
Vickers hardness tests:
• Indentation body is a square based diamond pyramid (136º
included angle).
• The average diagonal (d) of the impression is converted to a
hardness number from a table.
• It is measured in HV5, HV10 or HV025.
Adjustable
Diamond Indentation shutters
indentor

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Brinell Hardness Test Rockwell Hardness Test


• Hardened steel ball of given diameter is subjected for a
given time to a given load.
• Load divided by area of indentation gives Brinell
hardness in kg/mm2. Rockwell B Rockwell C
• More suitable for on site hardness testing.
1KN
30KN 1.5KN

Ø=1.6mm 120°Diamond
Ø=10mm steel ball Cone
steel ball

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Portable Hardness Test Mechanical Testing

Impact Testing

• Dynamic and very portable hardness test.


• Accuracy depends on the the condition of the test/support
surfaces and the support of the test piece during the test.
• For more details, see ASTM E448.

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4-3
Charpy V-Notch Impact Test Charpy V-Notch Impact Test

Pendulum
Specimen (striker)
Weld metal Fusion Line (FL) FL+2mm FL+5mm Parent material

Objectives:
• Measuring impact strength in different weld joint areas.
• Assessing resistance toward brittle fracture.
Information to be supplied on the test report:
• Material type.
• Notch type.
• Specimen size.
• Test temperature.
• Notch location. Anvil (support)
• Impact Strength Value.
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Charpy V-Notch Impact Test Specimen Charpy Impact Test


10 mm
Specimen dimensions according ASTM E23 22.5° 100% Brittle
2 mm

Machined notch.

Fracture surface
8 mm

100% bright
crystalline brittle
fracture.

100% Ductile
Machined notch.

Large reduction in
area, shear lips.
Randomly torn,
dull gray fracture
ASTM: American Society of Testing Materials. surface.

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Ductile/Brittle Transition Curve Comparison Charpy Impact Test Results


Temperature range
Mn < 1.6 % increases Ductile fracture Impact Energy Joules
toughness in steels,
and lower energy 47 Joules Room Temperature -20oC Temperature
input used.
1. 197 Joules 1. 49 Joules
Transition range Ductile/Brittle
transition point 2. 191 Joules 2. 53 Joules
3. 186 Joules 3. 51 Joules
28 Joules

Brittle fracture Energy absorbed Average = 191 Joules Average = 51 Joules


- 50 - 40 - 30 - 20 - 10 0
Testing temperature - Degrees Centigrade The test results show the specimens carried out at room
temperature absorb more energy than the specimens carried out
Three specimens are normally tested at each temperature at -20oC.
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4-4
Charpy Impact Test Mechanical Testing

Reporting results
• Location and orientation of notch.
• Testing temperature.
• Energy absorbed in joules. Tensile Testing
• Description of fracture (brittle or ductile).
• Location of any defects present.
• Dimensions of specimen.

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Tensile Testing UTS Tensile test

Rm

ReH
ReL

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Tensile Tests Tensile Test


Rp 0.2% - Proof stress. Refers to materials which
do not have a defined yielding such as aluminium
and some steels.

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4-5
Tensile Tests Tensile Test

Different tensile tests:


All-Weld Metal Tensile
• Transverse tensile. Specimen
• All-weld metal tensile test.
• Cruciform tensile test.
• Short tensile test (through thickness test).

Transverse Tensile
Specimen

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Transverse Joint Tensile Test Transverse Joint Tensile Test

Objective: Weld on plate


Measuring the overall strength of the weld joint.
Information to be supplied on the test report:
• Material type.
• Specimen type
• Specimen size (see QW-462.1).
• UTS. Multiple cross joint specimens
• Location of final rupture. Weld on pipe
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Transverse Tensile Test Transverse Tensile Test

Maximum load applied = 220 kN


Reporting results:
Least cross sectional area = 25 mm X 12 mm

Maximum load applied • Type of specimen eg reduced section.


UTS = Least csa • Whether weld reinforcement is removed.
• Dimensions of test specimen.
• The ultimate tensile strength in N/mm2, psi or Mpa.
220 000
UTS = • Location of fracture.
25mm X 12mm
• Location and type of any flaws present if any.

UTS = 733.33 N/mm2

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4-6
All Weld Metal Tensile Test All-Weld Metal Tensile Test

BS 709 / BS EN 10002
Original gauge length = 50mm
All Weld Metal Tensile Testing Increased gauge length = 64
Direction of the test *
Elongation % = Increase of gauge length X 100
Original gauge length

Elongation % = 14 X 100
50

Elongation = 28%
Tensile test piece cut along weld specimen.
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All-Weld Metal Tensile Test All-Weld Metal Tensile Test


2 marks are made
Gauge length
Gauge length 50mm
Object of test:
• Ultimate tensile strength.
During the test, yield and tensile strength are recorded
• Yield strength.
The specimen is joined and the marks are re-measured
• Elongation %(ductility).
Force Applied

Increased gauge length 75mm


Increased gauge length
A measurement of 75mm will give Elongation of 50%.
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All-Weld Metal Tensile Test All Weld Metal Tensile Test

2 marks are made


Gauge length 50mm Reporting results:
• Type of specimen eg reduced section.
• Dimensions of test specimen.
During the test, Yield & Tensile strength are recorded • The uts, yield strength in N/mm2, psi or Mpa.
The specimen is joined and the marks are re-measured • Elongation %.
• Location and type of any flaws present if any.

Increased gauge length 75mm


A measurement of 75mm will give Elongation of 50%.
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4-7
STRA (Short Transverse Reduction Area) STRA Test

Original CSA

Reduced CSA

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UTS Calculation STRA Test


A welded sample has undergone a transverse tensile test. The
specimen before testing 120mm long, and after testing had a length Probable freedom from
150 mm the maximum load applied was 140 Kn. The cross tearing in any joint type
sectional area before testing was10 mm in depth and 40 mm in
width.
Some risk in highly restrained
Please calculate the elongation % and UTS. 20 joints eg node joint, joints
between sub-fabs
Change in STRA %
Some risk in moderately
length (150 – 120) = 30 Reduction 15 restrained joints eg box
= 0.25 x 100 = 25%
Original length 120 of CSA columns

Some risk in lightly restrained


10 joints T-joints eg I-beams
Load 140 Kn 14,000 n
= 350 n/mm²
CSA 10 x 40 400
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Mechanical Testing Macro Preparation

Purpose
To examine the weld cross-section to give assurance that:
• The weld has been made in accordance with the WPS.
• The weld is free from defects.

Specimen Preparation
Macro/Micro Examination • Full thickness slice taken from the weld (typically ~10mm thick).
• Width of slice sufficient to show all the weld and HAZ on both
sides plus some unaffected base material.
• One face ground to a progressively fine finish (grit sizes 120 to ~
400).
• Prepared face heavily etched to show all weld runs & all HAZ.
• Prepared face examined at up to x10 (& usually photographed for
records).
• Prepared face may also be used for a hardness survey.
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4-8
Macro Preparation Macro/Micro Examination
Purpose
To examine a particular region of the weld or HAZ in order to: Object:
• To examine the microstructure.
• Macro/microscopic examinations are used to give a
• Identify the nature of a crack or other imperfection.
visual evaluation of a cross-section of a welded joint.
Specimen Preparation • Carried out on full thickness specimens.
• A small piece is cut from the region of interest (typically up to ~
20mm x 20mm). • The width of the specimen should include HAZ, weld
• The piece is mounted in plastic mould and the surface of interest and parent plate.
prepared by progressive grinding (to grit size 600 or 800).
• Surface polished on diamond impregnated cloths to a mirror finish • They maybe cut from a stop/start area on a welders
• Prepared face may be examined in as-polished condition and then approval test.
lightly etched.
• Prepared face examined under the microscope at up to ~ 100 –
1000X.

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Macro/Micro Examination Macro Micro

• Visual examination for • Visual examination for defects


Will Reveal: defects. and grain structure.
• Weld soundness. • Cut transverse from the weld. • Cut transverse from a weld.
• Distribution of inclusions.
• Number of weld passes. • Ground and polished P400 • Ground and polished P1200
grit paper. grit paper, 1µm paste.
• Metallurgical structure of weld, fusion zone and HAZ.
• Location and depth of penetration of weld. • Acid etch using 5-10% nitric • Acid etch using 1-5% nitric
• Fillet weld leg and throat dimensions. acid solution. acid solution.
• Wash and dry. • Wash and dry.
• Visual evaluation under 5x • Visual evaluation under 100-
magnification. 1000x magnification.
• Report on results. • Report on results.

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Metallographic Examination Metallographic Examination

Objectives:
• Detecting weld defects (macro).
• Measuring grain size (micro).
• Detecting brittle structures, precipitates, etc.
• Assessing resistance toward brittle fracture, cold cracking and
corrosion sensitivity.
Information to be supplied on the test report:
• Material type.
• Etching solution.
• Magnification.
• Grain size.
• Location of examined area.
• Weld imperfections (macro).
Macro examination Micro examination • Phase, constituents, precipitates (micro).

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4-9
Mechanical Testing Bend Tests

Object of test:
• To determine the soundness of the weld zone. Bend testing can
also be used to give an assessment of weld zone ductility.
There are three ways to perform a bend test:
Bend Testing

Root bend Face bend Side bend

Side bend tests are normally carried out on welds over 12mm in thickness.

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Bending Test Bending Test Methods


Types of bend test for welds
(acc BS EN 910):

Root/face
t up to 12 mm
bend

Thickness of material - t

t over 12 mm Side bend

Guided bend test Wrap around bend test


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Bend Testing Bend Tests

Face bend Side bend Root bend


Reporting results:
• Thickness and dimensions of specimen.
• Direction of bend (root, face or side).
• Angle of bend (90o, 120o, 180o).
• Diameter of former (typical 4T).
• Appearance of joint after bending eg type and
location of any flaws.
Defect indication Acceptance for
Generally this minor ruptures on
specimen would tension surface
be unacceptable. depends upon code
requirements.
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4-10
Bend Testing Mechanical Testing

Fillet Weld Fracture Testing

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Fillet Weld Fracture Tests Fillet Weld Fracture Tests

Hammer
Object of test:
• To break open the joint through the weld to permit
examination of the fracture surfaces.
• Specimens are cut to the required length.
• A saw cut approximately 2mm in depth is applied along
the fillet welds length. 2mm
• Fracture is usually made by striking the specimen with a Notch
single hammer blow.
• Visual inspection for defects.

Fracture should break weld saw cut to root


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Fillet Weld Fracture Tests

Hammer

2mm
Notch
This fracture indicates This fracture has
lack of fusion occurred saw cut to root

Lack of penetration Fracture should break weld saw cut to root


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4-11
Fillet Weld Fracture Tests
Hammer
Reporting results:
• Thickness of parent material.
• Throat thickness and leg lengths.
• Location of fracture.
• Appearance of joint after fracture.
• Depth of penetration.
• Defects present on fracture surfaces.

This fracture indicates


lack of fusion
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Mechanical Testing Nick-Break Test

Object of test:
• To permit evaluation of any weld defects across the
fracture surface of a butt weld.
• Specimens are cut transverse to the weld.
Nick-Break Testing • A saw cut approximately 2mm in depth is applied along
the welds root and cap.
• Fracture is usually made by striking the specimen with
a single hammer blow.
• Visual inspection for defects.

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Nick-Break Test Nick Break Test

Notch cut by hacksaw


3 mm
19 mm Alternative nick-break test
3 mm specimen, notch applied all
way around the specimen
Approximately 230 mm

Weld reinforcement
may or may not be
removed Lack of root Inclusions on fracture
penetration or fusion line
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4-12
Nick-Break Test Summary of Mechanical Testing

We test welds to establish minimum levels of mechanical


Reporting results:
properties, and soundness of the welded joint
• Thickness of parent material.
• Width of specimen. We divide tests into qualitative and quantitative methods:
• Location of fracture.
• Appearance of joint after fracture. Quantitative: (Have units) Qualitative: (Have no units)
• Depth of penetration.
Hardness (VPN & BHN) Macro tests
• Defects present on fracture surfaces.
Toughness (Joules & ft.lbs) Bend tests
Strength (N/mm2 & PSI, MPa) Fillet weld fracture tests
Ductility/Elongation (E%) Butt Nick break tests

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Hydrostatic Test Hydrostatic Test

Test procedure:
Under pressure leakage proof test
• Blank off all openings with solid flanges.
Vessel configuration: • Use correct nuts and bolts, NOT G clamps.
• The test should be done after any stress relief. • Two pressure gauges on independent tapping points
should be used.
• Components that will not stand the pressure test (eg
• For safety purposes bleed all the air out.
flexible pipes, diaphragms) must be removed.
• pumping should be done slowly (no dynamic pressure
• The ambient temperature MUST be above 0°C stresses).
(preferably 15-20°C). • Test pressure - see relevant standards (PD 5500, ASME
VIII). Usually 150% design pressure.
• Hold the pressure for minimum 30 minutes.

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Hydrostatic Test Mechanical Testing

What to look for:


Any Questions
• Leaks (check particularly around seams and nozzle

?
welds)!
• Dry off any condensation.
• Watch the gauges for pressure drop.
• Check for distortion of flange faces, etc.

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4-13
CSWIP 3.1 Welding Inspection Non-Destructive Testing

A welding inspector should have a working knowledge of


NDT methods and their applications, advantages and
disadvantages.
Non-Destructive Testing Four basic NDT methods
• Magnetic particle inspection (MT).
TWI Training & Examination • Dye penetrant inspection (PT).
Services • Radiographic inspection (RT).
• Ultrasonic inspection (UT).

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Non-Destructive Testing
Surface crack detection
• Liquid penetrant (PT or dye-Penetrant).
• Magnetic particle inspection (MT or MPI).

Volumetric inspection
• Ultrasonics (UT).
• Radiography (RT). Penetrant Testing (PT)
Each technique has advantages and disadvantages with
respect to:
• Technical capability and cost.
Note: The choice of NDT techniques is based on consideration of
these advantages and disadvantages
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Penetrant Testing Penetrant Testing

Step 1 Pre-Cleaning
Main features:
Ensure surface is very Clean normally with the use of a solvent.
• Detection of surface breaking defects only.
• This test method uses the forces of capillary action.
• Applicable on any material type, as long they are non porous.
• Penetrants are available in many different types:
• Water washable contrast.
• Solvent removable contrast.
• Water washable fluorescent.
• Solvent removable fluorescent.
• Post-emulsifiable fluorescent.

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5-1
Penetrant Testing Penetrant Testing
Step 2 Apply penetrant Step 3 Clean off penetrant
After the application, the penetrant is normally left on the The penetrant is removed after sufficient penetration time (dwell
components surface for approximately 15-20 minutes (dwell time). time).

The penetrant enters any defects that may be present by capillary Care must be taken not to wash any penetrant out off any defects
action. present.

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Penetrant Testing Penetrant Testing


Step 3 Apply developer Step 4 Inspection/development time
After the penetrant has be cleaned sufficiently, a thin layer of developer Inspection should take place immediately after the developer has
is applied. been applied.
any defects present will show as a bleed out during development
The developer acts as a contrast against the penetrant and allows for
time.
reverse capillary action to take place.
After full inspection has been carried out post cleaning is generally
required.

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Penetrant Testing Penetrant Testing

Fluorescent Penetrant Bleed out viewed Advantages Disadvantages


under a UV-A light
source • Simple to use. • Surface breaking defect only.
• Inexpensive. • Little indication of depths.
• Penetrant may contaminate
• Quick results. component.
• Can be used on any • Surface preparation critical.
non-porous material. • Post cleaning required.
• Portability. • Potentially hazardous
• Low operator skill chemicals.
required. • Can not test unlimited times.
• Temperature dependant.
Bleed out viewed under
white light Colour contrast Penetrant
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5-2
Penetrant Testing Penetrant Testing

Comparison with Magnetic Particle Inspection


Advantages Any Questions
• Easy to interpret results.
• No power requirements.

?
• Relatively little training required.
• Can use on all materials.

Disadvantages
• Good surface finish needed.
• Relatively slow.
• Chemicals - health and safety issue.

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Magnetic Particle Testing

Main features:
• Surface and slight sub-surface detection.
• Relies on magnetization of component being tested.
• Only Ferro-magnetic materials can be tested.

Magnetic Particle testing (MT) • A magnetic field is introduced into a specimen being tested.
• Methods of applying a magnetic field, yoke, permanent magnet,
prods and flexible cables.
• Fine particles of iron powder are applied to the test area.
• Any defect which interrupts the magnetic field, will create a
leakage field, which attracts the particles.
• Any defect will show up as either a dark indication or in the case
of fluorescent particles under UV-A light a green/yellow indication.

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Magnetic Particle Testing Magnetic Particle Testing

Collection of ink
particles due to
leakage field

A crack like
indication
Electro-magnet (yoke) DC or AC

Prods DC or AC

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5-3
Magnetic Particle Testing Magnetic Particle Testing

Typical sequence of operations to inspect a weld


• Clean area to be tested.
• Apply contrast paint.
• Apply magnetisism to the component.
• Apply ferro-magnetic ink to the component during magnatising.
• Iterpret the test area.
• Post clean and de-magnatise if required.

Alternatively to contrast inks, fluorescent inks may be used for


greater sensitivity. These inks require a UV-A light source and a
darkened viewing area to inspect the component.
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Magnetic Particle Testing Magnetic Particle Testing

Comparison with penetrant testing


Advantages Disadvantages Advantages
• Simple to use. • Surface or slight sub-surface • Much quicker than PT.
• Inexpensive. detection only. • Instant results.
• Can detect near-surface imperfections (by current flow
• Rapid results. • Magnetic materials only technique).
• Little surface preparation • Less surface preparation needed.
required. • No indication of defects
depths. Disadvantages
• Possible to inspect through • Only suitable for ferromagnetic materials.
thin coatings. • Only suitable for linear • Electrical power for most techniques.
defects. • May need to de-magnetise (machine components).
• Detection is required in two
directions.

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Magnetic Particle Testing

Any Questions
Ultrasonic Testing (UT)

? Copyright © TWI Ltd 2013 Copyright © TWI Ltd 2013

5-4
Ultrasonic Testing Ultrasonic Testing

Main Features: Digital


Pulse echo
• Surface and sub-surface detection. UT Set,
signals A
• This detection method uses high frequency sound waves, scan display
typically above 2MHz to pass through a material.
• A probe is used which contains a piezo electric crystal to
transmit and receive ultrasonic pulses and display the signals
on a cathode ray tube or digital display.
• The actual display relates to the time taken for the ultrasonic
pulses to travel the distance to the interface and back.
• An interface could be the back of a plate material or a defect.
• For ultrasound to enter a material a couplant must be
introduced between the probe and specimen. Compression probe Checking the material Thickness

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Ultrasonic Testing Ultrasonic Testing

UT set
Defect Back wall
A scan
Initial pulse echo echo display

Material Thk
defect

0 10 20 30 40 50

Compression Probe CRT Display Angle probe


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Ultrasonic Testing Ultrasonic Testing

Advantages Disadvantages
Initial pulse • Rapid results. • Trained and skilled operator
Defect echo • Both surface and sub-surface required.
defect 0 10 20 30 40 50
detection.
• Requires high operator skill.
½ Skip CRT Display • Safe.
• Capable of measuring the • Good surface finish required.
depth of defects. • Defect identification.
• May be battery powered.
• Couplant may contaminate.
• Portable.
initial pulse • No permanent record.
defect echo • Calibration required.
defect 0 10 20 30 40 50

Full Skip • Ferritic Material (mostly).


CRT Display
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5-5
Ultrasonic Testing Ultrasonic Testing

Comparison with radiography Comparison with radiography


Advantages Disadvantages
• Good for planar defects. • No permanent record (with standard equipment).
• Good for thick sections. • Not suitable for very thin joints <8mm.
• Instant results. • Reliant on operator interpretation.
• Can use on complex joints. • Not good for sizing Porosity.
• Can automate. • Good/smooth surface profile needed.
• Very portable. • Not suitable for coarse grain materials (eg, castings).
• No safety problems (parallel working is possible). • Ferritic Materials (with standard equipment).
• Low capital and running costs.

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Ultrasonic Testing

Any Questions

?
Radiographic Testing (RT)

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Radiographic Testing Radiographic Testing

The principles of radiography


• X or Gamma radiation is imposed upon a test object.
• Radiation is transmitted to varying degrees dependant
upon the density of the material through which it is
travelling.
• Thinner areas and materials of a less density show as
darker areas on the radiograph.
• Thicker areas and materials of a greater density show X – Rays Gamma Rays
as lighter areas on a radiograph. Electrically generated. Generated by the decay of
• Applicable to metals, non-metals and composites. unstable atoms.

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5-6
Radiographic Testing Radiographic Testing
Source
Source
Image quality indicator
Image quality indicator
Radiation beam Radiation beam

Test specimen
Radiographic film Test specimen

Radiographic film with latent image after exposure


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Radiographic Testing Radiographic Sensitivity


Density - relates to the degree of darkness.

Densitometer
7FE12
Contrast - relates to the degree of difference.
Definition - relates to the degree of sharpness.
Sensitivity - relates to the overall quality of the radiograph.
Step/Hole type IQI Wire type IQI
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Radiographic Sensitivity Radiographic Techniques

Single Wall Single Image (SWSI)


• Film inside, source outside.
Single Wall Single Image (SWSI) panoramic
• Film outside, source inside (internal exposure).
Step/hole type IQI Double Wall Single Image (DWSI)
• Film outside, source outside (external exposure).
Double Wall Double Image (DWDI)
• Film outside, source outside (elliptical exposure).

Wire type IQI


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5-7
Single Wall Single Image (SWSI) Single Wall Single Image Panoramic

Film

Film Film

• IQI’s are placed on the film side.


IQI’s should be placed source side • Source inside film outside (single exposure).
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Double Wall Single Image (DWSI) Double Wall Single Image (DWSI)

• Identification.
• Unique identification. EN W10

• IQI placing.
Film
• Pitch marks indicating A B
readable film length.
• IQI’s are placed on the film side. ID MR11
• Source outside film outside (multiple exposure).
• This technique is intended for pipe diameters over 100mm. Radiograph
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Double Wall Single Image (DWSI) Double Wall Double Image (DWDI)

Film

• IQI’s are placed on the source or film side.


• Source outside film outside (multiple exposure).
• A minimum of two exposures.
Radiograph • This technique is intended for pipe diameters less than 100mm.
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5-8
Double Wall Double Image (DWDI) Double Wall Double Image (DWDI)

• Identification. 4 3 4 3
EN W10
• Unique identification.

• IQI placing.

• Pitch marks indicating 1 2


readable film length. ID 1 2
MR12
Shot A Radiograph Elliptical Radiograph
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Radiography Radiography

Penetrating power Gamma sources


Question: Isotope Typical Thickness Range
What determines the penetrating power of an X-ray? • Iridium 192 10 to 50 mm (mostly used)
• The kilo-voltage applied (between anode and cathode). • Cobalt 60 > 50 mm
Question: • Ytterbium < 10 mm
What determines the penetrating power of a gamma ray? • Thulium < 10 mm

• The type of isotope (the wavelength of the gamma rays). • Caesium < 10 mm

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Radiographic Testing Radiographic Testing

Advantages Disadvantages Comparison with Ultrasonic Examination


• Permanent record. • Expensive consumables. Advantages
• Little surface preparation. • Bulky equipment.
• Good for non-planar defects.
• Defect identification. • Harmful radiation.
• Good for thin sections.
• No material type limitation. • Defect require significant depth
in relation to the radiation beam • Gives permanent record.
• Not so reliant upon operator
skill. (not good for planar defects). • Easier for 2nd party interpretation.
• Thin materials. • Slow results. • Can use on all material types.
• Very little indication of depths.
• High productivity.
• Access to both sides required.
• Direct image of imperfections.

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5-9
Radiographic Testing Radiographic Testing

Any Questions
Comparison with ultrasonic examination
Disadvantages
• Health and safety hazard.

?
• Not good for thick sections.
• High capital and relatively high running costs.
• Not good for planar defects.
• X-ray sets not very portable.
• Requires access to both sides of weld.
• Frequent replacement of gamma source needed (half life).

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5-10
CSWIP 3.1 Welding Inspection Welding Procedure Qualification
Question:
What is the main reason for carrying out a Welding Procedure
Qualification Test?
(What is the test trying to show?)
Welding Procedures Answer:
To show that the welded joint has the properties* that satisfy the
design requirements (fit for purpose).
TWI Training and Examination
* properties
Services
• Mechanical properties are the main interest - always strength but
toughness hardness may be important for some applications.
• Test also demonstrates that the weld can be made without defects.

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Welding Procedure Qualification Welding Procedure Qualification

According to EN ISO 15614


Preliminary Welding Procedure Specification
(pWPS)
Preliminary Welding Procedure Specification (pWPS).
Welding engineer writes a preliminary Welding
Welding Procedure Qualification Record (WPQR). Procedure Specification (pWPS) for each test weld
to be made.
Welding Procedure Specification (WPS).

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Welding Procedure Qualification Welding Procedure Qualification


Welding Procedure Qualification Record (WPQR)
Welding Procedure Qualification Record (WPQR)
Test weld is subjected to destructive testing (tensile, bend, macro).
• A welder makes a test weld in accordance with the Pwps. The application standard, or client, may require additional tests
such as impact tests, hardness tests (and for some materials -
• A welding inspector records all the welding conditions corrosion tests).
used for the test weld (referred to as the as-run Welding Procedure Qualification Record (WPQR) details:
conditions).
The welding conditions used for the test weld
An independent examiner/examining body/third party • Results of the NDT.
inspector may be requested to monitor the qualification • Results of the destructive tests.
process. • The welding conditions that the test weld allows for production
welding.
The finished test weld is subjected to NDT in accordance with the
methods specified by the EN ISO Standard - Visual, MT or PT and RT The Third Party may be requested to sign the WPQR as a true record.
or UT.
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6-1
Welding Procedure Qualification Welding Procedure Qualification

Welding Procedure Specification (WPS) According to EN Standards


Welding conditions are called welding variables
The welding engineer writes qualified Welding Procedure Welding variables are classified by the EN ISO Standard as:
Specifications (WPS) for production welding. • Essential variables.
• Non-essential variables.
• Additional variables.
Production welding conditions must remain within the
range of qualification allowed by the WPQR. Note: additional variables = ASME supplementary essential
The range of qualification for production welding is based on
the limits that the EN ISO Standard specifies for essential
variables*.
(* and when applicable - the additional variables)

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Welding Procedure Qualification Welding Procedure Qualification


According to EN Standards
According to EN Standards
Welding additional variables
Welding essential variables
Question:
Question:
Why are some welding variables classified as essential? Why are some welding variables classified as additional?

Answer: Answer:
A variable, that if changed beyond certain limits (specified by A variable, that if changed beyond certain limits (specified by
the Welding Standard) may have a significant effect on the the welding standard) may have a significant effect on the
properties* of the joint. toughness and/or hardness of the joint.

* particularly joint strength and ductility Note: ASME calls variables that affect toughness as supplementary
essential variables (but does not refer to hardness).
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Welding Procedure Qualification Welding Procedures


According to EN Standards
Some typical essential variables Producing a welding procedure involves:
• Welding process. • Planning the tasks.
• Post Weld Heat Treatment (PWHT). • Collecting the data.
• Material type. • Writing a procedure for use of for trial.
• Electrode type, filler wire type (classification).
• Making a test welds.
• Material thickness.
• Polarity (AC, DC+ve/DC-ve). • Evaluating the results.
• Pre-heat temperature. • Approving the procedure.
Some typical additional variables • Preparing the documentation.
• Heat input.
• Welding position.

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6-2
Welding Procedures Welding Procedures
Components of a welding procedure
In most codes reference is made to how the procedure are to be
devised and whether approval of these procedures is required.
The approach used for procedure approval depends on the code: Parent material
• Type (grouping).
Example codes: • Thickness.
• AWS D.1.1: Structural Steel Welding Code. • Diameter (pipes).
• BS 2633: Class 1 welding of Steel Pipe Work. • Surface condition).
• API 1104: Welding of Pipelines. Welding process
• BS 4515: Welding of Pipelines over 7 Bar. • Type of process (MMA, MAG, TIG, SAW etc).
• Equipment parameters.
Other codes may not specifically deal with the requirement of
• Amps, volts, travel speed.
a procedure but may contain information that may be used in
writing a weld procedure. Welding Consumables
• Type of consumable/diameter of consumable.
• Brand/classification.
EN 1011 Process of Arc Welding Steels. • Heat treatments/ storage.

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Welding Procedures Welding Procedures


Components of a welding procedure
Object of a welding procedure test
Joint design
• Edge preparation.
• Root gap, root face. To give maximum confidence that the welds mechanical and
• Jigging and tacking. metallurgical properties meet the requirements of the
applicable code/specification.
• Type of baking.
Welding Position Each welding procedure will show a range to which the
• Location, shop or site. procedure is approved (extent of approval).
• Welding position eg 1G, 2G, 3G etc. If a customer queries the approval evidence can be supplied
• Any weather precaution. to prove its validity.
Thermal heat treatments
• Preheat, temps.
• Post weld heat treatments eg stress relieving.
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Welding Procedures Welding Procedures

Purpose of a WPS

Example: • To achieve specific properties, mechanical strength,


Welding corrosion resistance, composition.
• To ensure freedom from defects.
Procedure • To enforce qc procedures.
Specification • To standardise on methods and costs.
• To control production schedules.
(WPS) • To form a record.
• Application standard or contract requirement.

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6-3
Welding Procedures Welding Positions
PA 1G / 1F Flat / Downhand
Monitoring Heat Input
PB 2F Horizontal-Vertical
As Required by BS EN ISO 15614-1:2004
PC 2G Horizontal
In accordance with EN 1011-1:1998
PD 4F Horizontal-Vertical (Overhead)

When impact and/or hardness requirements are PE 4G Overhead


specified, impact test shall be taken from the weld in the PF 3G / 5G Vertical-Up
highest heat input position and hardness tests shall be
taken from the weld in the lowest heat input position in PG 3G / 5G Vertical-Down
order to qualify for all positions.
H-L045 6G Inclined Pipe (Upwards)
J-L045 6G Inclined Pipe (Downwards)
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Welding Procedures
Monitoring Heat Input
PG As Required by BS EN ISO 15614-1:2012
PA In accordance with EN 1011-1:1998
PF • When impact requirements apply, the upper limit of heat input
PB
qualified is 25% greater than that used in welding the test
piece.
PC
• When hardness requirements apply, the lower limit of heat
PD input qualified is 25% lower than that used in welding the test
piece.

PE • Heat input is calculated in accordance with EN1011-1.


• If welding procedure tests have been preformed at both a high
and low heat input level, Then all intermediate heat inputs are
also qualified.
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Welding Procedures Welding Procedures

EN 288 PART 2 15614-1-2-3 BS EN ISO 15614-1:2012 (Replaced BS EN 288-3)


SPECIFIES CONTENTS OF WPS Does not invalidate previous … approvals made to former
Shall give details of how a welding operation is to be performed and national standards…. providing the intent of the technical
requirements is satisfied… approvals are relevant.
contain all relevant information.
Where additional tests…. make the approval technically
equivalent.. only necessary to do the additional tests….

DEFINITIONS Approval is valid… in workshops or sites under the same


technical and quality control of that manufacturer…….
• Processes to be designated in accordance with ISO 4063.
Service, material or manufacturing conditions may require
• Welding positions in accordance with ISO 6947. more comprehensive testing….
• Typical WPS form. Application standard may require more testing.

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6-4
Welding Procedures Welding Procedures
TABLE 5 BS EN ISO 15614-1:2012
TABLE 6 BS EN ISO 15614-1:2004

Range of qualification Range of qualification


Thickness of Thickness of
test piece test piece Material Throat Thickness
Single run Multi run
t t Thickness Single run Multi run
t<3 0.7t to 1.3ta 0.7t to 2t t<3 0.7 to 2 t 0.75 a to 1.5 No
a Restriction
3<t<12 0.5t (3 min) to 1.3ta 3 to 2ta
3<t<30 0.5t (3 min) 0.75 a to 1.5 No
to 2 t a Restriction
12<t<100 0.5t to 1.1t 0.5t to 2t

t>30 >5 a No
t>100 Not applicable 50 to 2t Restriction
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Welding Procedures Welding Procedures


BS EN ISO 15614-1:2012 (Replaced BS EN 288-3)
BS EN ISO 15614-1:2012 (Replaced BS EN 288-3)
Covers Arc and Gas Welding of Steels and Arc Welding of
Nickel and Nickel Alloys. RANGE OF APPROVAL
OTHER QUIRKS
111 - MMA 114 - FCAW - no gas shield
12 - SAW 131 - MIG Approval valid only for process used
135 - MAG 136 - FCAW - active gas Multi-process- valid for order used…during approval test.
311 – Oxy-Acetylene 141 – TIG Processes… Processes may be approved separately or in
15 - PLASMA ARC combination….
Cannot change multi-run to single run or vice versa.
The principle of this European Standard may be applied to
other fusion welding processes.

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Welding Procedures Welding Procedures

BS EN ISO 15614-1:2012 (Replaced BS EN 288-3)


THICKNESS DEFINITIONS
Note 1:

Butt – Parent metal thickness at the joint. a is the throat as used for the test piece
Fillet - Parent metal thickness. Note 2:
Set-on branch - Parent metal thickness. Where the fillet weld is qualified by means of a butt
Set-in / through branch - Parent metal thickness. test, the throat thickness range qualified shall be
based on the thickness of the deposited metal.
T-butt - Parent metal thickness.
For branch connections and fillet welds , the range of qualification
For special applications only. Each fillet weld shall
shall be applied to both parent materials independently. be proofed separately by a welding procedure test.

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6-5
Welding Procedures Welding Procedures
TABLE 7 BS EN ISO 15614-1:2004

Diameter of the test Range of Qualification


piece Da, mm
Monitoring Heat Input
D<25 0.5 D to 2 D

D>25 >0.5 D (25 mm min)


NOTE For structural hollow sections D is the dimension of the
smaller side
a D is the outside diameter of the pipe or outside diameter
of the branch pipe

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Monitoring Heat Input Monitoring Heat Input

Arc energy and heat input

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Monitoring Heat Input Monitoring Heat Input

Heat input
Arc energy
The amount of heat generated in the welding arc per The energy supplied by the welding arc to the work
unit length of weld. Expressed in kilo Joules per piece.
millimetre length of weld (kJ/mm).
Expressed in terms of; arc energy x thermal efficiency
Arc energy (kJ/mm)= Volts x Amps factor.
welding speed(mm/s) x 1000
Thermal efficiency factor is the ratio of heat energy
introduced into the weld to the electrical energy
consumed by the arc.

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6-6
Monitoring Heat Input Monitoring Heat Input
Thermal efficiency factor k of welding processes Abbreviations and symbols
Process No Process Factor k

121 Submerged arc welding with wire 1.0 I Arc welding current (Amps)
111 Metal-arc welding with covered electrodes 0.8 k Thermal efficiency Factor
131 MIG welding 0.8 v Welding Speed (mm/min)
135 MAG welding 0.8 Q Heat Input (kJ/mm)
114 Flux-cored wire metal-arc welding without gas shield 0.8 U Arc Voltage (Volts)
136 Flux-cored wire metal-arc welding with active gas shield 0.8

137 Flux-cored wire metal-arc welding with inert gas shield 0.8 Q= k U x I x 10-3 = kJ/mm or Amp x volts x time
138 Metal-cored wire metal-arc welding with active gas shield 0.8
v ROL x 1000
139 Metal-cored wire metal-arc welding with inert gas shield 0.8

141 TIG welding 0.6

15 Plasma arc welding 0.6

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Monitoring Heat Input Monitoring Heat Input

Example
AE (kJ/mm) = Volts x amps
A MAG weld is made and the following conditions
were recorded; Travel speed(mm/ sec) x 1000
= 24 x 240
Arc volts = 24 (300/60) x 1000
Welding amperage = 240 = 5760
Travel speed = 300mm / minute. 5000

What is the arc energy and heat input? AE = 1.152 or 1.2kJ/mm


HI = 1.2 x 0.8 = 0.96kJ/mm

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CSWIP 3.1 Welding Inspection Welder Qualification

According to EN Standards
Welder Approval Question:
Example BS EN 287
What is the main reason for qualifying a welder?

TWI Training & Examination Answer:

Services To show that he has the skill to be able to make production


welds that are free from defects.
Note: when welding in accordance with a Qualified WPS.

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6-7
Welder Qualification Welder Qualification
According to EN 287
According to EN 287
The finished test weld is subjected to NDT by the methods
specified by the EN Standard - Visual, MT or PT and RT or UT.
An approved WPS should be available covering the range of
qualification required for the welder approval.
The test weld may need to be destructively tested - for certain
materials and/or welding processes specified by the EN
• The welder qualifies in accordance with an approved WPS.
Standard or the Client Specification.
• A welding inspector monitors the welding to make sure that
• A Welder’s Qualification Certificate is prepared showing the
the welder uses the conditions specified by the WPS.
conditions used for the test weld and the range of
qualification allowed by the EN Standard for production
EN Welding Standard states that an Independent Examiner,
welding.
Examining Body or Third Party Inspector may be required to
monitor the qualification process. • The Qualification Certificate is usually endorsed by a Third
Party Inspector as a true record of the test.
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Welder Qualification Welder Qualification


According to EN 287 )
According to EN 287
The welder is allowed to make production welds within the range of
qualification shown on the Certificate.
Essential variables
The range of qualification allowed for production welding is based on Question:
the limits that the EN Standard specifies for the welder qualification
essential variables. What is a welder qualification essential variable?
(What makes the variable essential?)
A Welder’s Qualification Certificate automatically expires if the
welder has not used the welding process for 6 months or longer. Answer:

A Certificate may be withdrawn by the Employer if there is reason to A variable, that if changed beyond the limits specified by
doubt the ability of the welder, for example: the EN Standard, may require more skill than has been
• A high repair rate. demonstrated by the test weld
• not working in accordance with a qualified WPS.
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Welder Qualification Welder Qualification

According to EN 287 Numerous codes and standards deal with welder


qualification, eg BS EN 287.
Typical Welder Essential Variables
• Once the content of the procedure is approved the next stage is
• Welding Process. to approve the welders to the approved procedure.
• Material type. • A welders test know as a Welders Qualification Test (WQT).
• Electrode type. Object of a welding qualification test:
• Material thickness. • To give maximum confidence that the welder meets the quality
• Pipe diameter requirements of the approved procedure (WPS).

• Welding position. • The test weld should be carried out on the same material and
same conditions as for the production welds.
• Weld Backing (an unbacked weld requires more skill).
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6-8
Welder Qualification Welder Qualification
Information that should be included on a welders test certificate are: The inspection of a welders qualification test.
• Welders name and identification number. • It is normal for a qualified inspectors usually from an independent
• Date of test and expiry date of certificate. body to witness the welding.
• Standard/code eg BS EN 287. • Under normal circumstances only one test weld per welder is
• Test piece details. permitted.
• Welding process.
• Welding parameters, amps, volts. • If the welder fails the test weld and the failure is not the fault of the
• Consumables, flux type and filler classification details. welder eg faulty welding equipment then a re-test would be
• Sketch of run sequence. permitted.
• Welding positions.
• The testing of the test weld is done in accordance with the
• Joint configuration details.
applicable code.
• Material type qualified, pipe diameter etc.
• Test results, remarks. • It is not normal to carry out tests that test for the mechanical
• Test location and witnessed by. properties of welds eg tensile, charpy and hardness tests.
• Extent (range) of approval.
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Welder Qualification

Any Questions

?
Example:
Welder Approval
Qualification
Certification
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6-9
CSWIP 3.1 Welding Inspection Material Inspection

All materials arriving on site should be inspected for:


Material Imperfections • Size/dimensions.
• Condition.
• Type/specification.
TWI Training & Examination
Services In addition other elements may need to be considered
depending on the materials form or shape.

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Pipe Inspection Plate Inspection

Condition (corrosion, damage, wall thickness, ovality, Condition


laminations and seam) (Corrosion, Mechanical damage, Laps, Bands and
Laminations)

Specification
Welded seam

Specification

Other checks may need to be made such as: distortion tolerance, Other checks may need to be made such as: distortion
number of pipes and storage*. tolerance, number of plates and storage.
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Rolling Imperfections Parent Material Imperfections


Mechanical damage Lap

Direction of rolling
Lamination

Cold Laps*
Segregation line
Laminations are caused in the parent plate by the steel making
process, originating from ingot casting defects.
Segregation bands occur in the centre of the plate and are low
melting point impurities such as sulphur and phosphorous.
Lamination Segregation Laps are caused during rolling when overlapping metal does not fuse
to the base material.
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7-1
Lapping Lapping

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Lapping Lamination

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Lamination Material Imperfections

Any Questions

Plate Lamination
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? Copyright © TWI Ltd 2013

7-2
CSWIP 3.1 Welding Inspection Quality in Welding

Quality Assurance Manual


Essentially what the QA manual sets out to achieved
is the how the company is organised, to lay down the
Quality in welding responsibilities and authority of the various
codes and standards departments, how these departments interlink. The
manual usually covers all aspects of the company
structure, not just those aspects of manufacture.
TWI Training & Examination
Services

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Quality in Welding Standard/Codes/Specifications

Quality Control Manual


The QC manual will be the manual most often Specifications Codes
referred to by the SWI as it will spell out in detail how
different departments and operations are organised
Examples
and controlled. Examples
• Plate, pipe.
Pressure vessels.
Typical examples would be: production and control of • Forgings, castings.
Bridges.
drawings, how materials and consumables are • Valves
Pipelines.
purchased, how welding procedures are produced, etc.
• Electrodes
Essentially all operations to be carried out within the Tanks.
organisation will have control procedures laid down.

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Standard/Codes/Specifications Standard/Codes/Specifications

Standard Specification

A document that is established by consensus and Document stating requirements.


approved by a recognised body.
Meaning full data and its supporting medium stating
A standard provides, for common and repeated use, needs or expectations that is stated, generally implied
guidelines, rules, and characteristics for activities or obligatory.
or their results, aimed at the achievement of the
optimum degree of order in a given context.

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8-1
Standard/Codes/Specifications Standard/Codes/Specifications

Examples of Specification Examples of Standards

BS 4515 BS EN ISO 17637


Specification for welding of steel pipelines on land and offshore.
Non - destructive examination of fusion welds - visual examination.

BS EN 26848 BS EN 440
Specification for tungsten electrodes for inert gas shielded arc Wire electrodes and deposits for gas shielded metal arc of
welding and for plasma cutting and welding. non - alloy and fine grain steels.

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Any Questions

?
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8-2
CSWIP 3.1 Welding Inspection Weld Symbols on Drawings

Joints in drawings may be indicated:


• By detailed sketches, showing every dimension.

Welding Symbols
TWI Training & Examination
Services • By symbolic representation.

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Weld symbols on drawings Weld Symbols on Drawings

A method of transferring information from the design office to Advantages of symbolic representation:
the workshop is: • Simple and quick plotting on the drawing.
• Does not over-burden the drawing.
Please weld
here • No need for additional view.
• Gives all necessary indications regarding the specific joint to
be obtained.

The above information does not tell us much about the wishes of
the designer. We obviously need some sort of code which would be Disadvantages of symbolic representation:
understood by everyone. • Used only for usual joints.
• Requires training for properly understanding of symbols.
Most countries have their own standards for symbols.
Some of them are AWS A2.4 & BS EN 22553 (ISO 2553)
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Weld Symbols on Drawings Arrow Line


(BS EN ISO 22553 and AWS A2.4):
The symbolic representation includes: Convention of the arrow line:
• An arrow line. • Shall touch the joint intersection.
• A reference line. • Shall not be parallel to the drawing.
• An elementary symbol.
• Shall point towards a single plate preparation (when only one
The elementary symbol may be completed by: plate has preparation).
• A supplementary symbol.
• A means of showing dimensions.
• Some complementary indications.

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9-1
Reference Line Reference Line

(AWS A2.4) (BS EN ISO 22553)


Convention of the reference line: Convention of the reference line:
Shall touch the arrow line. • Shall touch the arrow line.
Shall be parallel to the bottom of the drawing. • Shall be parallel to the bottom of the drawing.
• There shall be a further broken identification line above or
beneath the reference line (Not necessary where the weld
is symmetrical!).

or

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Elementary Welding Symbols Elementary Welding Symbols


(BS EN ISO 22553 & AWS A2.4) Weld type Sketch Symbol
Convention of the elementary symbols:
Single-V butt
Various categories of joints are characterised by an elementary weld with broad
symbol.
root face.
The vertical line in the symbols for a fillet weld, single/double
bevel butts and a J-butt welds must always be on the left side. Single bevel
butt weld.
Weld type Sketch Symbol

Square edge Single bevel butt


butt weld weld with broad
root face.

Single-v Backing run.


butt weld
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Elementary Welding Symbols Double Side Weld Symbols


Weld type Sketch Symbol (BS EN ISO 22553 & AWS A2.4)
Single-U
butt weld. Convention of the double side weld symbols:
Representation of welds done from both sides of the joint
Single-J intersection, touched by the arrow head.
butt weld.

Surfacing. Fillet weld Double bevel Double J

Fillet weld.
Double V Double U

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9-2
Dimensions Supplementary Symbols

Convention of dimensions (BS EN ISO 22553 and AWS A2.4)


In most standards the cross sectional dimensions are given to Convention of supplementary symbols
the left side of the symbol, and all linear dimensions are give on
the right side. Supplementary information such as welding process, weld profile,
NDT and any special instructions.
BS EN ISO 22553
Ground flush
a = Design throat thickness.
s = Depth of Penetration, Throat thickness.
z = Leg length (min material thickness). 111
MR M

AWS A2.4 Removable Permanent Welding process


• In a fillet weld, the size of the weld is the leg length. backing strip backing strip numerical BS EN
• In a butt weld, the size of the weld is based on the depth of
the joint preparation. Further supplementary information, such as WPS number, or
NDT may be placed in the fish tail.
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Supplementary Symbols Welding Symbols


(BS EN ISO 22553 & AWS A2.4)Convention of
supplementary symbols
Supplementary information such as welding process, weld
profile, NDT and any special instructions.
Toes to be ground smoothly
(BS EN only)
BS EN 22553 (ISO 2553)
Site Weld

Concave or Convex

Weld all round

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ISO 2553/BS EN 22553 ISO 2553/BS EN 22553

Reference
lines
Arrow line

Other side Arrow side


Arrow side

Arrow side Other side

Arrow side
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9-3
ISO 2553/BS EN 22553 ISO 2553/BS EN 22553

Other side Both sides

Other side
Both sides
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ISO 2553/BS EN 22553 ISO 2553/BS EN 22553

a b

Mitre Convex

Toes
Concave shall be
c d
blended
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ISO 2553/BS EN 22553 ISO 2553/BS EN 22553


Peripheral Welds

Field weld (site weld) Welding to be carried out


all round component
(peripheral weld)

NDT WPS z10 z8


10 8
The component requires Additional information,
NDT inspection the reference document 10 8
is included in the box
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9-4
Fillet Welds ISO 2553/BS EN 22553

Fillet weld dimensions according BS EN 22553. a = Design throat thickness.


s = Depth of Penetration, Throat
z8 thickness.
or
z = Leg length(min material thickness).
z8
8 a = (0.7 x z).
a4
a
z 4mm Design throat
a 5 (z 8) s
or
a 5 (z 8) z6 s6
5
6mm leg 6mm Actual throat
8

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ISO 2553/BS EN 22553 Intermittent Fillet Welds

n = Number of weld elements. Staggered intermittent fillet weld Symbol to BS EN 22553


l = Length of each weld element.
(e) = Distance between each weld element. pitch (e) length (l)
a
n x l (e)

Welds to be
z
staggered
z n×l (e) a n×l (e)
2 x 40 (50)
111 z n×l (e) a n×l (e)
3 x 40 (50) or
Process

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ISO 2553/BS EN 22553 Intermittent Fillet Welds


Chain intermittent fillet weld Symbol to BS EN 22553
All dimensions in mm
pitch (e) length (l) a
z8 3 x 80 (90)
z6 3 x 80 (90)

6 z
80 80 80
6
z n×l(e) a n×l(e)
8 90 90 z n×l(e) a n×l(e)
90
or
8

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9-5
ISO 2553/BS EN 22553 ISO 2553/BS EN 22553
MR
All dimensions in mm M

z5 3 x 80 (90)

z6 3 x 80 (90)

5
80 80 80 Single-V Butt with Single-U Butt with
5 permanent backing strip removable backing strip

6 90 90 90

6
Single-V Butt flush cap Single-U Butt with sealing run
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ISO 2553/BS EN 22553 ISO 2553/BS EN 22553

s10

Single-bevel butt Double-bevel butt


10
15

Partial penetration single-V butt S indicates the depth


Single-bevel butt Single-J butt of penetration.
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ISO 2553/BS EN 22553 ISO 2553/BS EN 22553 Butt Weld Ex

Plug weld Square Butt weld M

1 Welded arrow side: Single-V butt


weld with permanent backing
Resistance spot weld Steep flanked strip, flat weld profile.
Single-V Butt
2 Welded other side: Single-U
butt weld, flat weld profile.

Resistance seam weld Surfacing


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9-6
ISO 2553/BS EN 22553 Butt Weld Ex ISO 2553/BS EN 22553 Compound Weld Ex

Complete the symbol drawing for the welded cruciform joint


provided below.
10 All welds are welded with the MIG process and fillet welds with the
3 Welded arrow side: Single-V butt MMA process.
weld depth of preparation 10 mm
Welded other side: Backing run.
(Plate thickness 15 mm.)
7 10
12
35 20
4 Welded arrow side: Single-J butt weld, 12
depth of preparation 12 mm with a 8 8 30
mm fillet weld superimposed. (plate 15
thickness 15 mm. Welded other side:
12 mm leg length fillet weld.

All fillet weld leg lengths 10 mm.

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ISO 2553/BS EN 22553 Compound Weld Ex BS EN 22553 rules


Complete the symbol drawing for
the welded cruciform joint
z10
Welds this side of joint, go on the unbroken reference line
provided below. while welds the other side of the joint, go on the broken
All welds are welded with the 30
MAG process and fillet welds 135 / 111 reference line.
with the MMA process. 20
7 z10
Symbols with a vertical line component must be drawn with
10
the vertical line to the left side of the symbol.
35 20
All CSA dimensions are shown to the left of the symbol.
30
15
All linear dimensions are shown on the right of the symbol
z10 a 7 ie number of welds, length of welds, length of any spaces.
35
135 / 111
Included angle and root opening are shown on top of the
15 symbol.
z10 All fillet weld leg lengths 10 mm
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BS EN 22553 rules - example

All leg lengths shall be preceded by z and throat by a or


s (in case of deep penetration welds).

z 10 3 x 50 (50)
AWS A2.4 Welding Symbols

50

50

10

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9-7
AWS Welding Symbols AWS Welding Symbols

Welding Process
Depth of Root Opening
Bevel
GSFCAW
1(1-1/8) 1(1-1/8)
1/8 1/8
60o 60o

GMAW
Effective Groove Angle
Throat GTAW
SAW

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AWS Welding Symbols AWS Welding Symbols


Welds to be
staggered

3 – 10
SMAW
3 – 10
GSFCAW Process
1(1-1/8)
3 3
Applicable to any
single groove Single Bevel
weld

10
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AWS Welding Symbols AWS Welding Symbols

3rd Operation RT
Sequence of Sequence of
Operations Operations MT
2nd Operation
MT
1st Operation FCAW
FCAW 1(1-1/8)
1(1-1/8) 1/8
1/8
60o
60o

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9-8
AWS Welding Symbols Fillet Welds

Dimensions- Leg Length Fillet weld dimensions according AWS A 2.4

6 leg on member A 8
8
6/8

6 5 leg on
Member A 5x8
vertical
member
8 5
8
Member B
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Intermittent Fillet Welds Intermittent Fillet Welds

Chain intermittent fillet weld Staggered intermittent fillet weld


e/2 length (l)
pitch (e) length (l) pitch (e)
z z

z l-e
z l-e z l-e
z l-e
Symbol to AWS A2.4
Symbol to AWS A2.4

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AWS A 2.4 rules AWS A 2.4 Rules-example

Welds on arrow side of joint go underneath the reference


line while welds the other side of the joint, go on top of
the reference line.
Symbols with a vertical line component must be drawn 10 3 x 50 (70)
with the vertical line to the left side of the symbol.
All CSA dimensions are shown to the left of the symbol.
All linear dimensions are shown on the right of the 70
symbol i.e. number of welds, length of welds, length of 50
any spaces.
10
Included angle and root opening are shown on top of the
symbol.
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9-9
Any Questions

?
Copyright © TWI Ltd 2013

9-10
CSWIP 3.1 Welding Inspection Welding Processes
Welding is regarded as a joining process in which the
work pieces are in atomic contact.

Pressure welding Fusion welding


Introduction to Welding • Forge welding. • Oxy-acetylene.
Processes • Friction welding. • MMA (SMAW).
• Resistance Welding. • MIG/MAG (GMAW).
TWI Training & Examination • TIG (GTAW).
Services • Sub-arc (SAW).
• Electro-slag (ESW).
• Laser Beam (LBW).
• Electron-Beam (EBW).
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Welding Processes Welding Processes


Choice of welding process

The four essential factors for fusion welding: Material Type:


• Steels. All processes.
1. Fusion is achieved by melting using a high intensity heat • Reactive metals TIG and MIG.
source.
(Aluminium Titanium).
2. The welding process must be capable of removing any • Nickel-based alloys All processes for most alloys.
oxide and contamination from the joint. • Copper-based alloys Mainly TIG and MIG.

3. Atmosphere contamination must be avoided.


4. The welded joint must possess the mechanical properties Material Thickness:
required by the specification being adapted. • MMA All above ~ 3mm.
• TIG (low productivity) generally thin sections (<~ 10mm).
• MIG/MAG/FCAW typically ~ 3 to 30mm.
• SAW typically ~ 15 to 150mm or
above.
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Welding Processes Welding Processes


Choice of welding process
Joint Properties Non-fusion welding processes
• Very high quality. TIG and SAW.
Friction Welding
• Very demanding properties. TIG usually best. • Because no fusion - can join wide variety of dissimilar
(for toughness and corrosion materials.
resistance). • Sound joints produced.
Welding Position • HAZ degradation minimised.
• Many variants being developed for different shapes/
• MMA, TIG, MIG/MAG. All positions. applications.
• SAW. Mainly flat but is used for girth
seams on large diameter
storage tanks.

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10-1
Welding Process Comparison Welding Processes
Process Electrical characteristic Electrode current type

MMA Drooping / constant current DC+ve, DC-ve, AC Any Questions


TIG Drooping / constant current DC-ve, AC

?
MIG/MAG Flat / constant voltage DC+ve,

MAG FCAW Flat / constant voltage DC+ve, DC-ve,

Drooping / constant current >1000amp


Sub-arc DC+ve, DC-ve, AC
Flat / constant voltage <1000amp

Electro-slag Flat / constant voltage DC+ve,

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10-2
Welding Processes and Equipment

Power Sources Manual Metal Arc Welding

TWI Training & Examination TWI Training & Examination


Services Services

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MMA - Principle of Operation MMA Welding

Electrode angle 75- Main features:


80o to the
horizontal • Shielding provided by decomposition of flux.
Consumable • Consumable electrode.
Filler metal electrode
core • Manual process.
Flux
coating Direction of
electrode travel Welder controls:
Solidified Arc Gaseous
slag shield • Arc length.
Molten weld • Angle of electrode.
pool
• Speed of travel.
Parent
metal • Current setting.
Weld metal
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MMA Basic Equipment MMA Welding Variables

Open circuit voltage (OCV)


• Value of potential difference delivered by set with
Control panel Power source no load. Must be enough for specific electrode.
(amps, volts)
• Electrodes labelled with min OCV, usually ~80V.
Electrode Holding oven
oven Voltage
Electrodes Inverter power • Measure arc voltage close to arc.
source • Variable with change in arc length.
Return lead
• Too low, electrode stubs into weld pool.
Electrode holder
Welding visor
• Too high, spatter, porosity, excess penetration,
filter glass Power cables undercut, burn-through.

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11-14-1
MMA Welding Parameters Constant /Drooping Current Characteristics

Current
• Range set by electrode, diameter, material type OCV Amperage range
+/- 5 amps
and thickness. 50-90

• Approx 35A per mm diameter.

- Voltage +
• Too low – poor start, lack of fusion, slag Operational
inclusions, humped bead shape. range 20-40V
• Too high – spatter, excess penetration, undercut,
burn-through.
Polarity - Amperage +
As arc length increases
• Can be DCEP, DCEN, AC. voltage increases and
• Determined by operation and electrode type. amperage decreases

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The Effects of Polarity on Penetration MMA Welding Parameters


DC + DC - AC
Travel speed
• Controlled by welder.
70% 30% 50% • Often measured as run-out length as time to burn
single rod fairly standard at constant current.
Heat Heat Heat
Generated Generated Generated • Too low – wide bead, excess penetration, burn-
through.
30% 70% 50%
• Too high – narrow bead, lack of penetration, lack
of fusion, difficult slag removal.

- + Dotted line denotes


penetration depth
= ion greater density (heavier = increased surface impact)
= electron generates greater heat
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MMA – Parameter Setting Operating Factor for MMA

• Welder needs time to change rods.


Left to Right • Also has to de-slag weld bead and grind any
• Good conditions. imperfections.
• Current too low. • May be required to observe interpass
• Current too high. temperatures.
• Arc length too short. • Inspection will be required.
• Arc length too long.
• On long runs welder has to reposition.
• Travel too slow.
• All reduce time weld metal is deposited.
• Travel too fast.
• Arc time % to total time is operating factor. For
MMA this is rarely above 30%.
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11-14-2
Typical Welding Defects Advantages and Disadvantages

Most caused by:


• Lack of welder skill.
Advantages Disadvantages
• Incorrect settings of equipment. • Field or shop use. • High welder skill.
• Incorrect use or treatment of electrodes. • Range of consumables. • High levels of fume.
• All positions. • Hydrogen control (flux).
Typical Defects:
• Portable. • Stop/start problems.
• Slag inclusions.
• Simple equipment. • Low productivity.
• Arc strikes.
• Porosity.
• Undercut.
• Shape defects (overlap, excessive root penetration, etc).

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MMA Welding Consumables Cellulosic Electrodes

Plastic foil sealed cardboard box • Use industrially extracted cellulose powder, or
• Rutile electrodes.
• General purpose basic electrodes.
wood flour in the formula.
• Characteristic smell when welding.
Courtesy of Lincoln Electric • Slag remains thin and friable.
Tin can • Strong arc action and deep penetration.
• Cellulosic electrodes. • AWS E6010 types DC; E6011 run on AC.
Courtesy of Lincoln Electric

• Gas shield principally hydrogen.


• Only used on C- and C-Mn steels.
Vacuum sealed pack
• High arc force allows V-D stovepiping.
• Extra low hydrogen electrodes.
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Rutile Electrodes Rutile High Recovery Electrodes

• High amount of TiO2, (rutile sand or ilmenite). • High amount Fe powder added.
• Coatings often coloured. • More weld metal laid at the same current.
• AWS type E6012 are DC; E6013 run on AC. • Coating much thicker, forms deep cup.
• Many designed for flat position. • End of coating can rest on workpiece.
• Fluid slag, smooth bead, easy slag removal. • Slag easy release, sometimes self-releasing.
• Need some moisture to give gas shield. • Only for flat position.
• Not low hydrogen. • These AWS E7024 have recovery between 150
• Available for ferritic and austenitic steels. and 180%.
• Fair mechanical properties. • Recovery = Weld metal wt x100/core wire wt.

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11-14-3
Basic Electrodes BS EN 2560 MMA Covered Electrodes

• CaCO3 and CaF2 main ingredients. E 50 3 2Ni B 7 2 H10


• AWS E7015 first modern basic rods. Ran DC. Covered Electrode
• Superseded by E7016 or E7018 – AC and DC. Yield Strength N/mm2
• E7018 has Fe powder to help stabilise arc. Toughness
• E7016 good rooting and all-positional. Chemical composition
• Both can give good mechanical properties. Flux Covering
• Often hybrid; small dia. no Fe powder, larger dia. Weld Metal Recovery
increasing amounts. and Current Type
• Used for ferritic, stainless steels, Ni and Cu. Welding Position
Hydrogen Content
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BS EN 499 MMA Covered Electrodes AWS A5.1 Alloyed Electrodes

Electrodes classified as follows: E 60 1 3


• E 35 - Minimum yield strength 350 N/mm2
Tensile strength 440 - 570 N/mm2
Covered Electrode
• E 38 - Minimum yield strength 380 N/mm2
Tensile strength 470 - 600 N/mm2
Tensile Strength (p.s.i)
• E 42 - Minimum yield strength 420 N/mm2 Welding Position
Tensile strength 500 - 640 N/mm2 Flux Covering
• E 46 - Minimum yield strength 460 N/mm2
Tensile strength 530 - 680 N/mm2
• E 50 - Minimum yield strength 500 N/mm2
Tensile strength 560 - 720 N/mm2
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MMA Welding Consumables


TYPES OF ELECTRODES
(for C, C-Mn Steels)
BS EN 2560 AWS A5.1
Any Questions

?
• Cellulosic E XX X C EXX10
EXX11
• Rutile E XX X R EXX12
EXX13
• Rutile Heavy Coated E XX X RR EXX24
• Basic E XX X B EXX15
EXX16
EXX18
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11-14-4
TIG Basics

Gas noozle

Non-consumable
TIG Welding tungsten electrode

Gas shield
Arc
Filler Rod
Weld Pool
TWI Training & Examination
Weld Metal
Services Parent Metal

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Equipment for TIG Arc Starting

Power control
Scratch start
panel Transformer/ • Tungsten touched on workpiece.
Rectifier
• Short-circuit starts current.
Power return • Arc established as torch lifted.
cable Inverter
power source
• Can leave tungsten inclusions.
Lift Arc
Torch
assemblies Power control • Electronic control very low short-circuit current.
panel • Builds to operational current as torch lifted.
Tungsten
electrodes Power cable HF
• Superimposition of HF high voltage spark.
Flow-meter
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Polarity Constant/Drooping Current Characteristics

DCEN
• Most used. OCV Amperage range
50-90 +/- 5 amps
• Tungsten cooled by electron emission.
• Workpiece receives more heat.
- Voltage +

DCEP Operational
range 20-40V
• Will clean oxide from Al and Mg.
• Heat tends to melt tungsten.
• Can be done with water cooled torch.
- Amperage +
AC As arc length increases
voltage increases and
• Usual way to weld Al and Mg to get cleaning. amperage decreases.

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11-14-5
Cathodic Cleaning Square Wave Maximum Square Wave Maximum Penetration

AC AC

Cleaning Cycle Penetrating Cycle

70 70 30 30

30 30 70 70

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0
+
Negative cycle Positive cycle
-
0

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Polarity Manual TIG

Current DCEN AC DCEP


type/polarity
Heat 70% at work 50% at work 30% at work
balance 30% at 50% at 70% at
electrode electrode electrode
Weld profile Deep, narrow Medium Shallow, wide
Cleaning Yes – every Yes
No
action half cycle
Electrode Excellent Good Poor
capacity (3.2mm/400A) (3.2mm/225A) (6.4mm/120A)

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11-14-6
Ideal for Root Runs Manual TIG

Click for manual TIG video….

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DC- Arc AC Arc

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GTAW Torch GTAW Torch

Tungsten
electrode
Torch cap / tungsten Electrode
housing collet Collet
holder

Torch
body Ceramic
Torch types: • Gas cooled: cheap, simple, large size, short life for nozzle
component parts.
• Water cooled: recommended over 150A, expensive, On/off
complex, longer life of parts. switch
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11-14-7
TIG Welding Sequence Purpose of These Functions

3 4 5
1 2
2 4
1 5

1 Purges the line, protect weld area, improve ionization.


2. Slope up current prevents 2 Prevent thermal shock to tungsten electrode.
Timeline 5.1.3.
Pre
4.
Post welding
Main
Slope
gas down gas
welding
supply tosupply
current
current
protect
burn through,
prevents tungsten
crater cracks 3 Main welding current.
molten pool upon cooling
inclusions 4 Prevents thermal shock and crater cracking.
5 Protects weld and tungsten electrode from contamination.

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Shielding Gas Selection Gas Lens

Argon (Ar) He/Ar mixes Stainless steel


wire sieve
• Suitable for welding • Suitable for welding C-
C-steel, stainless steel, stainless steel, Thread for gas
steel, Al and Mg. Cu, Al and Mg. ceramic
• Lower cost, lower • High cost, high flow Thread for
flow rates. rates. torch body
• More suitable for • More suitable for
thinner materials and thicker materials and • Reduces eddies in gas flow.
positional welding. materials of high • Extends length of laminar flow
prevents contamination.
thermal conductivity.
• Highly recommended for reactive
metals (eg Ti, Al).
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Special Shielding Methods Commercially Available Trailing Shields

Torch trailing shield Welding in protective tent


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11-14-8
Pipe Backing Gas Dams Purging Methods

• There are many ways to purge a pipe or void,


the easiest being to displace all the air with
inert gas by pumping it in and capping the end
of the pipe allowing the heavier inert gas to
push the oxygen up through the top of the butt.
• Soluble dams and tapes can also be used as
well as the chain and bung method.
• Calibrated purge monitors should record the
oxygen content in the pipe and confirm that
welding can commence.

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Tungsten Types Electrode Tip for DCEN

• Pure W – green band Penetration


– Cheap, but short life. Poor arc start. increase
electrode diameter

• W +ThO2 – yellow (1%), red (2%)


2-2.5 times

Increase
– High current carrying but slightly radioactive.
• W + CeO2 – grey (Europe), orange (USA) Vertex
– Good for low current DC work. angle
• W + La2O3 – black Decrease
– Increasing use to replace thoriated.
• W + ZrO2 – white (Europe), brown (USA) Bead width
Electrode tip for low increase Electrode tip for high
– Used for AC. current welding current welding
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Electrode Tip for AC Autogenous Welding and Fillers

• TIG can be used autogenously.


• Can mechanise and use more than one head.
• Can add filler from reel for mechanised.
• Manual filler – 1m rods in 5kg pack.
• Stamped for identity:

Electrode tip ground


Electrode tip ground and then conditioned
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11-14-9
Orbital TIG Orbital TIG

Click for Orbital TIG video….

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Orbital TIG Potential Defects


Click to Play
Tungsten inclusions
• Thermal shock splinters W.
• Touch start fuses spots to workpiece.
• Spitting and melting can throw pieces into pool.
• Very visible on radiograph but not critical defect.
Solidification cracking
• Some compositions inherently crack sensitive.
• Impurities often make eutectics.
• Fillers designed with elements to react with
impurities, eg Mn used to give high MPt MnS.

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Potential Defects Advantages of TIG

Oxide inclusions • No spatter, high cleanliness.


• Oxides contribute to lack of fusion. • Good welder easily produces quality welds.
• No fluxing to absorb oxides.
• Good for penetration beads in all positions.
• Need to keep good gas cover to avoid oxidation of
reactive metals. • Wide range metals, including dissimilar.
• Good protection for reactive.
• Very good for joining thin materials.
• Very low levels of diffusible hydrogen.

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11-14-10
Disadvantages of TIG



Low deposition rates.
Higher dexterity and co-ordination.
Any Questions
• Less economical for thicker sections.

?
• Not good in draughty conditions.
• Low tolerance of contaminants.
• Tungsten inclusions can occur.

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MIG/MAG Welding

• Also known as Gas Metal Arc Welding.


• Uses continuous wire electrode.
MIG, MAG Welding • Weld pool protected by shielding gas.
• Classified as semi-automatic – may be fully
automated.
TWI Training & Examination • Wire can be bare or coated solid wire, flux or
Services metal cored hollow wire.

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MIG/MAG - Principle of Operation Process Characteristics

• DCEP from CV power source.


Gas noozle
• Wire 0.6 to 1.6mm diameter. Gas shielded.
Consumable flux/metal
cored wire electrode
• Wire fed through conduit. Melt rate maintains
Contact Tube
constant arc length/arc voltage.
Gas shield
Weld Pool Arc • WFS directly related to burn-off rate.
Slag
• Burn-off rate directly related to current.
Parent Metal Weld Metal
• Semi-automatic – set controls arc length.
• Can be mechanised and automated.

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11-14-11
MIG/MAG Equipment Wire Feeding

External wire Transformer/


feed unit Rectifier

Internal wire
feed system Power cable &
hose
assembly
Power control
panel
Liner for wire
15kg wire spool
Welding gun Separate wire feeder Wire feeder in set
Power return assembly
cable
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Feeder Drive Rolls Types of Wire Drive System

Internal wire drive system Plain top roller

Two roll Four roll

Half grooved Wire guide


bottom roller
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Roll Grooves Liners for MIG/MAG

• Often have plain top roll.


• Bottom, and sometimes top, roll grooved.
• V shape for steel.
• U shape for softer wire, eg Al.
• Knurled for positive feed.
• Care needed on tightness of rolls.
⁻ Too light – rolls skid, wire stalls.
⁻ Too tight – rolls deform wire, wire can jam. Close wound
Teflon
stainless
• If wire stops arc burns back to contact tube. liner
steel wire

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11-14-12
Torch Components The Relationship Between Amps and Volts
Welding gun assembly Welding gun body
(less nozzle) Voltage Dial on weld
On/Off switch machine

Spatter Hose

- Voltage +
protection port

Arc Length
Nozzles or Spot welding
- Amperage +
shrouds spacer

Gas diffuser Contact tips


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Self-Adjusting Arc Self-Adjusting Arc

Arc and wire feed Arc length is Arc length returns to


Arc and wire feed rate Arc length Wire feed rate is rate in equilibrium. decreased original condition.
in equilibrium. increased constant so original arc momentarily, burn off
momentarily, burn length is re established. increases.
off reduces.
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Example – Self-Adjusting Arc Welding Parameters

• Wire feed speed:


– Increasing wfs automatically gives more current.
Wire feed at constant • Voltage:
speed
– Controls arc length and bead width.
CTWD is increased
which momentarily • Current:
increases arc length
– Wire feed sets, Mainly affects penetration.
As wire feed is constant, • Inductance:
the original arc length is
re established. – In dip, controls rise in current. Lowers spatter. Gives
hotter or colder welding.
• More info on several websites, eg:
www.millerwelds.com/resources/articles/MIG-GMAW-
welding-basics.
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11-14-13
The Effect of Increasing Arc Voltage Shielding Gas

Argon:
• OK for all metals weldable by MIG.
• Supports spray transfer, not good for dip.
• Low penetration.
Carbon dioxide:
• Use on ferritic steel.
Arc Length @ Arc Length @ • Supports dip and globular, not spray.
28 V – 250A 34 V – 230A
Ar based mixtures:
• Add He, O2, CO2 to increase penetration.
• >20Ar + He, >80Ar + O2, CO2 can spray and dip.
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MIG and MAG Shielding Gases Metal Transfer Modes

Metal Inert Gas (MIG) Depending on shielding gas and voltage, metal crosses
• Usually Ar shielding. from wire to work in:
• Can be Ar + He mixture – gives hotter action. • Spray mode – wire tapers to a point and very fine
droplets stream across from the tip.
• Used for non-ferrous alloys, eg Al, Ni.
• Globular mode – large droplets form and drop under
Metal Active Gas (MAG) action of gravity and arc force.
• Has oxidising gas shield. • Short-circuiting (dip) mode – wire touches pool
• Can be 100% CO2 for ferritic steels. surface before arc re-ignition.
• Often Ar + 12 to 20% CO2 for both dip and spray. • Pulsed mode – current and voltage cycled between
• Ar + O2 for stainless steel. no transfer and spray mode.

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Use of Transfer Modes Droplet Growth and Detachment

Spray Transfer: V > 26; i > 220


• Current heating wire causes melting and
• Thicker material, flat welding, high deposition.
droplet formation.
Globular Transfer: between dip and spray
• Droplet held by surface tension and viscosity.
• Mechanised MAG process using CO2.
• Droplet detachment by electromagnetic
Dip Transfer: V < 24; i < 200
forces (Lorentz and arc forces), gravity.
• Thin material positional welding.
• Electromagnetic forces proportional to
Pulse Transfer: spray + no transfer cycle
current – hence dip at low current.
• Frequency range 50-300 pulses/second.
• Positional welding and root runs.
These values will depend on gas mixture.
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11-14-14
Dip Transfer Dip Transfer

• Droplet stays attached and touches pool causing short-circuit.


• Current rises very quickly giving energy to pinch-off droplet
violently.
• Akin to blowing a fuse – causes spatter.
• Droplet detaches, arc re-establishes and current falls.
• Cycle occurs up to 200 times per second.
..\..\..\wpe1 films\dip.avi
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The Effect of Inductance Practical Effect of Inductance


Controls the rate of current rise Maximum inductance Minimum inductance
Current (A) • Reduced spatter. • Colder arc used for wide gaps.
Short circuit Excessive current, high
current spatter
• Hotter arc more penetration. • Convex weld, more spatter.
• Fluid weld pool flatter, • Good pool control.
No inductance smoother weld. • Recommended on thin
• Good for thicker materials materials.
and stainless steels.

Desired current for good


stability, low spatter

Time (sec)

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Dip Transfer Attributes Globular Transfer

Advantages • Transfer by gravity or short


• Low energy allows welding in all positions. circuit.
• Good for root runs in single-sided welds. • Requires CO2 shielding.
• Good for welding thin material. • Drops larger than electrode
Disadvantages hence severe spatter.
• Prone to lack of fusion. • Can use low voltage and bury
• May not be allowed for high-integrity applications. arc to reduce spatter.
• Tends to give spatter. • High current and voltage, so
high distortion.

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11-14-15
Gas Metal Arc Welding Spray Transfer

Spray Transfer
When current and voltage are raised together higher energy is
available for fusion (typically > ~ 25 volts & ~ 250 amps). • Continuous transfer of
metal.
This causes a fine droplets of weld metal to be sprayed from the • High voltage long arc.
tip of the wire into the weld pool. • High heat input.
Transfer-mode advantages • Fluid weld pool.
• High energy gives good fusion.
• High deposition.
• High rates of weld metal deposition are given. • No spatter.
• These characteristics make it suitable for welding thicker joints.
• Transfer-mode disadvantages.
• It cannot be used for positional welding.

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Spray Transfer Pulsed Transfer

• Tapered tip as anode


climbs wire
• Small droplets with free
flight from pinch effect
• Requires Ar-rich gas
• High current and voltage,
high distortion
Amps

• Large pool, not positional Back Peak current


Current
• Used for thick material and
flat/horizontal weld
Time
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Pulsed Transfer Attributes The Effect of Increasing CTWD

Advantages
• Good fusion.
• Small weld pool allows all-position welding. The self adjusting arc
quickly re adjusts to
establish equilibrium.
Disadvantages
• More complex and expensive power source.
• Difficult to set parameters. AMPS 190 AMPS 170
VOLTS 23 VOLTS 23
• But synergic easy to set, manufacturer provides
programmes to suit wire type, dia. and type of
gas. Although the arc length remains the same, the current will decrease
due to the increased resistance of lengthening the CTWD.
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11-14-16
The effect of decreasing CTWD Contact Tip to Nozzle Distance

Metal transfer mode Contact tip to nozzle


Dip +/- 2mm
The self adjusting arc
Spray 4-8mm inside
quickly re adjusts to
Spray (Al) 6-10mm inside
establish equilibrium.

Contact tip Electrode


AMPS 170 AMPS 190 Electrode recessed extension
VOLTS 23 VOLTS 23 Contact tip extension
(3-5mm)
19-25mm
extension 6-13mm
(0-3.2mm)

Although the arc length remains the same, the current will increase
due to the decreased resistance of shortening the CTWD. Set up for Dip transfer Set up for Spray transfer
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Filler Wire Potential Defects

• Most defects caused by lack of welder skill, or


• Similar composition to base material. incorrect settings of equipment.
• Solid, flux cored or metal cored. • Worn contact tip causes poor power pick up and
this causes wire to stub into work.
• FCW run in spray, gives good fusion. FCW
allows all-positional welding, slag formation. • Silica inclusions build in steels if poor inter-run
cleaning.
• Metal cored wires similar to solid wires, but
better deposition rate. • Lack of fusion (primarily with dip transfer).
• Some FCW are self-shielded. • Porosity (from loss of gas shield on site etc).
• Cracking, centerline pipes, crater pipes on deep
narrow welds.

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MIG/MAG Attributes

Advantages
• High productivity
Disadvantages
• Lack of fusion (dip) Any Questions
• Easily automated • Small range of

?
• All positional (dip and consumables
pulse) • Protection on site
• Material thickness range • Complex equipment
• Continuous electrode • Not so portable

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11-14-17
Gas Shielded Principle of Operation

Flux Core Arc Welding


Flux Core Welding

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Self-Shielded Principle of Operation Benefit of Flux

• Flux assists in producing gas cover, more


tolerant to draughts than solid wire.
• Flux creates slag that protects hot metal.
• Slag holds bead when positional welding.
• Flux alloying can improve weld metal properties.
• Reduced cross-section carrying current gives
increased burn-off at any current, higher
resistance.

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FCAW - Differences from MIG/MAG Self-Shielded Welding Gun

• Usually operate DCEP but


Close wound stainless 24V insulated
some self-shielded wires steel spring wire liner
Handle
switch lead
run DCEN. (inside welding gun cable)
• Some hardfacing wires are Conductor
tube
larger diameter – need big
power source.
• Don't work in dip. Welding
Trigger
gun cable
• Need knurled feed rolls.
• Self-shielded wires use a Thread protector
Hand shield
different torch. Contact tip

Courtesy of Lincoln Electric

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11-14-18
Backhand (Drag) Technique Forehand (Push) Technique

Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages


• Preferred for flat or • Produces higher weld • Preferred method for • Produces low weld profile,
horizontal with FCAW. profile. vertical up or overhead with coarser ripples.
• slower travel. • Difficult to follow weld with FCAW. • Fast travel gives low
• deeper penetration. joint. • Arc gives preheat effect. penetration.
• Weld hot longer so • Can lead to burn-through • Easy to follow weld joint • Amount of spatter can
gasses removed. on thin sheet. and control penetration. increase.

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FCAW Advantages Deposition Rate for C-Steel

• Less sensitive to lack of fusion.


• Smaller included angle compared to MMA.
• High productivity, up to 10kg per hour.
• All positional.
• Smooth bead surface, less danger of undercut.
• Basic types produce excellent toughness.
• Good control of weld pool in positional welding
especially with rutile wires.
• Ease of varying alloying constituents gives wide range
of consumables.
• Some can run without shielding gas.
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FCAW Disadvantages

• Limited to steels and Ni-base alloys.


• Slag covering must be removed.
• FCAW wire is more expensive per kg than solid Submerged Arc Welding
wires (except some high alloy steels) but note
may be more cost effective.
TWI Training & Examination
• Gas shielded wires may be affected by winds
Services
and draughts like MIG.
• More fume than MIG/MAG.

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11-14-19
SAW Principle of Operation SAW FILMS

Flux recovery Contact tube


SAW nozzle ..\..\..\wpe1 films\SAW.mpg
Consumable Weld Pool
electrode
Flux Feed
SAW narrow gap ..\..\..\wpe1 films\SAW1.MPG
Weld Metal Arc
Parent Metal
Slag

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Process Characteristics Process Characteristics

• Arc between bare wire and parent plate. • Flux fed from hopper in continuous mound
along line of intended weld.
• Arc, electrode end and the molten pool
submerged in powdered flux. • Mound is deep to submerge arc. No spatter,
weld shielded from atmosphere, no UV light.
• Flux makes gas and slag in lower layers under
heat of arc giving protection. • Un melted flux reclaimed for further use.
• Wire fed by voltage-controlled motor driven • Only for flat and horizontal-vertical positions in
rollers to ensure constant arc length. most cases.

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SAW Basic Equipment Types of Equipment

Transformer/
Power return
Rectifier
cable

Power control Welding carriage Hand-held gun


panel control unit
Tractor
Welding carriage

Granulated Electrode wire


flux reel

Granulated
flux
Column and boom Gantry
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11-14-20
SAW Equipment Tractor Units

Wire reel
• For straight or gently
curved joints.
Slides
Flux • Ride tracks alongside joint
hopper or directly on workpiece.
Wire feed
• Can have guide wheels to
motor
Feed roll track.
assembly
• Good portability, used
Torch
assembly
where piece cannot be Courtesy of ESAB AB

moved.
Tracking
system Courtesy of ESAB AB
Contact tip
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Column and Boom Gantry

• Linear travel only.


• 2D linear movement only.
• Can move in 3 axes. • For large production.
• Workpiece must be brought • May have more than one
to weld station. head.

• Mostly used in workshop.

Courtesy of ESAB AB

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Power Sources Constant voltage Power Supply

Power sources can be: • Most commonly used.


• Transformers for AC. • Can be mechanised or automatic welding.
• Transformer-rectifiers for DC. • Self-regulating arc so simple WFS control.
• WFS controls current, power supply controls
Static characteristic can be: voltage.
• Constant Voltage (flat) – most popular. • DC limited to 1000A by severe arc blow.
• Constant Current (drooping) – used for high current.

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11-14-21
Constant Current Power Wire

• Usually 2 to 6mm diameter.


• Preferred >1000A.
• Copper coated to avoid rusting.
• Can be mechanised or automatic welding.
• 25 or 30kg coils.
• Not self-regulating arc so must have voltage-
• Can be supplied in bulk 300 to 2000kg.
sensing WFS control.
• More expensive.
• Voltage from WFS control, power source
controls current.
• Not for high-speed welding of thin steel.

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Fused Fluxes Bonded or Agglomerated Flux

• Original Unionmelt design – manganese, • Powdered minerals pelletised with silicate.


aluminium and calcium silicates. • Baked to high temperature but hygroscopic.
• Non-hygroscopic, no need to bake. • Flexible composition, can alloy, make basic.
• Good for recycling, composition doesn’t vary. • Can add de oxidants for good properties.
• Some can accept up to 2000A. • Composition can vary as particle breakdown.
• Very limited alloying and property control. • Needs to be filtered when recycling.
• Cannot make basic fused flux. • Can add Mn and Si flux.

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SAW Operating Variables Starting/Finishing the Weld

• Welding current.
• Current type and polarity.
• Welding voltage.
• Travel speed.
• Electrode size. Extension bars Run off plate Extension bars
• Electrode extension WHY? simulating
identical joint
• Width and depth of the layer of flux. preparation

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11-14-22
Any Questions

? Copyright © TWI Ltd 2013

11-14-23
CSWIP 3.1 Welding Inspection Oxyfuel Gas Cutting Process
A jet of pure oxygen reacts with iron, that has been preheated to its
ignition point, to produce the oxide Fe3O4 by exothermic reaction.
Cutting Processes This oxide is then blown through the material by the velocity of the
oxygen stream.

Different types of fuel gases may be used for the pre-heating flame in
oxy fuel gas cutting: ie acetylene, hydrogen, propane etc.
TWI Training & Examination Services
By adding iron powder to the flame we are able to cut most metals
- Iron Powder Injection.

The high intensity of heat and rapid cooling will cause hardening
in low alloy and medium/high C steels they are thus pre-heated
to avoid the hardening effect.

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Oxyfuel Gas Cutting Process Oxyfuel Gas Cutting Related Terms

The cutting torch

Neutral cutting flame.

Neutral cutting flame with


oxygen cutting stream.

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Oxyfuel Gas cutting quality Oxyfuel gas cutting quality


Good cut - sharp top edge, fine and even drag lines, little oxide and a Good cut - sharp top edge, fine and even drag lines, little oxide and
sharp bottom edge. a sharp bottom edge.

Cut too slow - top edge is melted, Cut too fast - pronounced break Preheat flame too low - deep groves Preheat flame too high - top edge is
deep groves in the lower portion, in the drag line, irregular cut in the lower part of the cut face. melted, irregular cut, excess of
heavy scaling, rough bottom edge. edge. adherent dross.
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15-1
Oxyfuel gas cutting quality Mechanised Oxyfuel Cutting
Good cut - sharp top edge, fine and even drag lines, little oxide and
a sharp bottom edge.
• Can use portable carriages or gantry type machines high
productivity.
• Accurate cutting for complicate shapes.

Nozzle is too high above the works - Irregular travel speed - uneven space
excessive melting of the top edge, between drag lines, irregular bottom with
much oxide. adherent oxide.
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Mechanised Oxyfuel Cutting OFW/C Advantages/Disadvantages

Advantages: Disadvantages:
• No need for power supply • High skill factor.
portable.
• Wide HAZ.
• Versatile: preheat, brazing,
surfacing, repair, straightening • Safety issues.
Cutting and bevelling head. • Low equipment cost. • Slow process.

• Can cut carbon and low alloy • Limited range of consumables.


steels. • Not suitable for reactive and
• Good on thin materials. refractory metals.

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Plasma Cutting

• No need to promote oxidation


and no preheat.
• Works by melting and blowing
and/or vaporisation.
• Gases: air, Ar, N2, O2, mix of Ar
+ H2, N2 + H2.
Plasma cutting • Air plasma promotes oxidation
and increased speed but
special electrodes need.
• Shielding gas – optional.
• Applications: stainless steels,
aluminium and thin sheet
carbon steel.

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15-2
Plasma Cutting

Click for plasma cutting video…. Arc Air Gouging

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Arc-air Gouging Features Arc-air Gouging


• Operate ONLY on DCEP.
• Special gouging copper coated
carbon electrode.
• Can be used on carbon and low
alloy steels, austenitic stainless
steels and non-ferrous materials.
• Requires CLEAN/DRY
Click for Arc air gouges video….
compressed air supply.
• Provides fast rate of metal removal.
• Can remove complex shape defects.
• After gouging, grinding of carbured layer is mandatory.
• Gouging doesn’t require a qualified welder!

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Any Questions

? Copyright © TWI Ltd 2013

15-3
Welding Consumables

Welding consumables are any products that are used


up in the production of a weld.
Welding consumables may be:
Welding Consumables • Covered electrodes, filler wires and electrode wires.
• Shielding or oxy-fuel gases.
TWI Training & Examination • Separately supplied fluxes.
Services
• Fusible inserts.

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Welding Consumable Standards Welding Consumables

MMA (SMAW) MIG/MAG (GMAW) TIG (GTAW)


Welding TIG/PAW rods
• BS EN 2560: Steel • BS 2901: Filler wires
fluxes
electrodes • BS EN 440: Wire electrodes
(SAW)
• AWS A5.1 Non-alloyed steel • AWS A5.9: Filler wires
Cored wire
electrodes • BS EN 439: Shielding gases
• AWS A5.4 Chromium SAW
electrodes • BS 4165: Wire and fluxes
SAW strips
• AWS A5.5 Alloyed steel • BS EN 756: Wire electrodes MIG/MAG
electrodes • BS EN 760: Fluxes solid wire
• AWS A5.17: Wires and fluxes
SAW Covered
solid wire electrodes
Courtesy of ESAB AB

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Welding Consumable Gases Welding Consumables

Welding Gases
Each consumable is critical in respect to:
• GMAW, FCAW, TIG, Oxy- Fuel.
• Supplied in cylinders or storage tanks for • Size.
large quantities.
• Classification/supplier.
• Colour coded cylinders to minimise
wrong use. • Condition.
• Subject to regulations concerned
handling, quantities and positioning of • Treatments eg baking/drying.
storage areas.
• Handling and storage is critical for consumable control.
• Moisture content is limited to avoid cold
cracking. • Handling and storage of gases is critical for safety.
• Dew point (the temperature at which the
vapour begins to condense) must be
checked.

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16-1
Quality Assurance Welding Consumables

Welding Consumables:
• Filler material must be stored in an area with controlled
temperature and humidity.
• Poor handling and incorrect stacking may damage coatings,
rendering the electrodes unusable.
MMA Covered Electrodes
• There should be an issue and return policy for welding
consumables (system procedure).
• Control systems for electrode treatment must be checked
and calibrated; those operations must be recorded.
• Filler material suppliers must be approved before purchasing
any material.

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MMA Welding Consumables MMA Welding Consumables

Welding consumables for MMA: Function of the Electrode Covering:


• To facilitate arc ignition and give arc stability.
• Consist of a core wire typically between 350-450mm in length and
from 2.5-6mm in diameter. • To generate gas for shielding the arc and molten metal from air
contamination.
• The wire is covered with an extruded flux coating.
• To de-oxidise the weld metal and flux impurities into the slag.
• The core wire is generally of a low quality rimming steel. • To form a protective slag blanket over the solidifying and
• The weld quality is refined by the addition of alloying and refining cooling weld metal.
agents in the flux coating. • To provide alloying elements to give the required weld metal
properties.
• The flux coating contains many elements and compounds that all
have a variety of functions during welding. • To aid positional welding (slag design to have suitable freezing
temperature to support the molten weld metal).
• To control hydrogen contents in the weld (basic type).

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MMA Welding Consumables MMA Welding Consumables

Plastic foil sealed cardboard box


• Rutile electrodes.
The three main electrode covering types used in MMA welding • General purpose basic electrodes.

• Cellulosic - deep penetration/fusion. Courtesy of Lincoln Electric

• Rutile - general purpose. Tin can


• Cellulosic electrodes.
• Basic - low hydrogen.
Courtesy of Lincoln Electric

Vacuum sealed pack


• Extra low hydrogen
electrodes.

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16-2
MMA Welding Consumables MMA Welding Consumables
Cellulosic electrodes: Cellulosic Electrodes
• Covering contains cellulose (organic material).
• Produce a gas shield high in hydrogen raising the arc Disadvantages:
voltage. • Weld beads have high hydrogen.
• Deep penetration / fusion characteristics enables welding at
• Risk of cracking (need to keep joint hot during welding to allow
high speed without risk of lack of fusion.
H to escape).
• Generates high level of fumes and H2 cold cracking.
• Not suitable for higher strength steels - cracking risk too
• Forms a thin slag layer with coarse weld profile.
high (may not be allowed for Grades stronger than X70).
• Not require baking or drying (excessive heat will damage
electrode covering). • Not suitable for very thick sections (may not be used on
thicknesses > ~ 35mm).
• Mainly used for stove pipe welding.
• Hydrogen content is 80-90 ml/100 g of weld metal. • Not suitable when low temperature toughness is required
(impact toughness satisfactory down to ~ -20°C).
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MMA Welding Consumables MMA Welding Consumables

Cellulosic Electrodes Rutile electrodes:


• Covering contains TiO2 slag former and arc stabiliser.
Advantages: Disadvantages:
• Easy to strike arc, less spatter, excellent for positional
• Deep penetration/fusion. • High in hydrogen. welding.
• Stable, easy-to-use arc can operate in both DC and AC.
• Suitable for welding in all • High crack tendency.
• Slag easy to detach, smooth profile.
positions. • Rough weld
• Reasonably good strength weld metal.
appearance.
• Fast travel speeds. • Used mainly on general purpose work.
• High spatter contents.
• Large volumes of shielding • Low pressure pipework, support brackets.
gas. • Low deposition rates. • Electrodes can be dried to lower H2 content but cannot be
baked as it will destroy the coating.
• Low control.
• Hydrogen content is 25-30 ml/100 g of weld metal.

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MMA Welding Consumables MMA Welding Consumables

Rutile electrodes Rutile Electrodes


Disadvantages: Advantages: Disadvantages:
• They cannot be made with a low hydrogen content. • Easy to use. • High in hydrogen.
• Cannot be used on high strength steels or thick joints - • Low cost/control. • High crack tendency.
cracking risk too high.
• Smooth weld profiles. • Low strength.
• They do not give good toughness at low temperatures.
• Slag easily detachable. • Low toughness values.
• These limitations mean that they are only suitable for general
• High deposition possible
engineering - low strength, thin steel.
with the addition of iron
powder.

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16-3
MMA Welding Consumables MMA Welding Consumables

High Recovery Rutile Electrodes High Recovery Rutile Electrodes


Characteristics: Disadvantages:
• Coating is bulked out with iron powder.
• Same as standard rutile electrodes with respect to hydrogen
• Iron powder gives the electrode high recovery. control.
• Extra weld metal from the iron powder can mean that weld • Large weld beads produced cannot be used for all-positional
deposit from a single electrode can be as high as 180% of welding.
the core wire weight.
• The very high recovery types usually limited to PA and PB
• Give good productivity. positions.
• Large weld beads with smooth profile can look very similar • More moderate recovery may allow PC use.
to SAW welds.

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MMA Welding Consumables MMA Welding Consumables


Basic covering: Basic Electrodes
• Produce convex weld profile and difficult to detach slag. Disadvantages:
• Very suitable for for high pressure work, thick section steel and for
• Careful control of baking and/or issuing of electrodes is
high strength steels.
essential to maintain low hydrogen status and avoid risk of
• Prior to use electrodes should be baked, typically 350°C for 2 hour cracking.
plus to reduce moisture to very low levels and achieve low
• Typical baking temperature 350°C for 1 to 2hours.
hydrogen potential status.
• Holding temperature 120 to 150°C.
• Contain calcium fluoride and calcium carbonate compounds.
• Issue in heated quivers typically 70°C.
• Cannot be rebaked indefinitely!
• Welders need to take more care/require greater skill.
• Low hydrogen potential gives weld metal very good toughness
and YS. • Weld profile usually more convex.
• Have the lowest level of hydrogen (less than 5 ml/100 g of weld • Deslagging requires more effort than for other types.
metal).
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MMA Welding Consumables BS EN 499 MMA Covered Electrodes

Basic Electrodes
Advantages Disadvantages
Compulsory
• High toughness values. • High cost.
• Low hydrogen contents. • High control.
• Low crack tendency. • High welder skill required.
• Convex weld profiles.
• Poor stop/start properties.
Optional

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Copyright © 2004 TWI Ltd

16-4
BS EN 499 MMA Covered Electrodes BS EN 499 MMA Covered Electrodes

E 50 3 2Ni B 7 2 H10 Electrodes classified as follows:


• E 35 - Minimum yield strength 350 N/mm2
Covered electrode
Tensile strength 440 - 570 N/mm2
Yield strength N/mm2
• E 38 - Minimum yield strength 380 N/mm2
Toughness Tensile strength 470 - 600 N/mm2
Chemical composition • E 42 - Minimum yield strength 420 N/mm2
Flux covering Tensile strength 500 - 640 N/mm2
Weld metal recovery • E 46 - Minimum yield strength 460 N/mm2
and current type Tensile strength 530 - 680 N/mm2
Welding position • E 50 - Minimum yield strength 500 N/mm2
Hydrogen content Tensile strength 560 - 720 N/mm2
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BS EN 499 Electrode Designation AWS A5.1 Alloyed Electrodes

Recovery and type of current Welding position E 60 1 3


designation designation

Weld metal Type of Symbol Welding position


Symbol
recovery (%) current Covered electrode
1 All positions
1 105 AC/DC
2 All positions except Tensile strength (p.s.i)
2 105 DC vertical down
Welding position
3 >105 125 AC/DC 3 Flat butt/fillet,
4 >105 125 DC horizontal fillet Flux covering
5 >125 160 AC/DC 4 Flat butt/fillet

6 >125 160 DC 5 Flat butt/fillet,


horizontal fillet,
7 >160 AC/DC vertical down
8 >160 DC

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AWS A5.5 Alloyed Electrodes MMA Welding Consumables


Types of electrodes (for C, C-Mn Steels)
E 70 1 8 M G

BS EN 499 AWS A5.1


Covered Electrode • Cellulosic E XX X C EXX10
Tensile Strength (p.s.i) EXX11
Welding Position • Rutile E XX X R EXX12
Flux Covering EXX13
Moisture Control • Rutile Heavy Coated E XX X RR EXX24
Alloy Content • Basic E XX X B EXX15
EXX16
EXX18
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16-5
AWS A5.1 and A5.5 Alloyed Electrodes Moisture pick-up

Example AWS electrode flux types:


• Cellulosic: flux-ends in 0 - 1
Examples: E6010, E6011, E7010, E8011
• Rutile: flux-ends in 2 - 3 - 4
Examples: E5012, E6012, E6013, E6014
• Basic: flux-ends in 5 - 6 - 7 - 8
Examples: E6016, E7017, E8018, E9018 Moisture pick-up as a function of:
• Temperature.
• Humidity.
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Electrode Efficiency Covered Electrode Treatment

up to 180% for iron powder electrodes


Baking oven:
• Need temperature control.
• Requires calibration.
Mass of weld metal deposited
Electrode Eficiency =
Mass of core wire melted Heated quivers:
• For maintaining moisture out of
electrodes when removed from the
holding oven ie on site.
75-90% for usual electrodes

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Covered Electrode Treatment Covered Electrode Treatment

Cellulosic Use straight from the Basic electrodes


Baking in oven 2
electrodes box - No baking/drying! hours at 350°C!

Rutile If necessary, dry up to Limited number of


120°C- No baking!
After baking, maintain in
electrodes rebakes! oven at 150°C

Vacuum
Use straight from the pack If not used within 4
packed basic within 4 hours - No rebaking! hours, return to
Use from quivers
Weld
at 75°C
electrodes oven and rebake!
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16-6
Covered Electrode Treatment MMA Welding Consumables
1: Electrode size (diameter and length).

Any Questions

?
2: Covering condition: adherence, cracks, chips and concentricity.

3: Electrode designation.

EN 499-E 51 3 B

Arc ignition enhancing materials (optional!)

See BS EN ISO 544 for further information


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Welding Consumables TIG Welding Consumables

Welding consumables for TIG:


• Filler wires, Shielding gases, tungsten electrodes (non-
consumable).
• Filler wires of different materials composition and variable
TIG Consumables diameters available in standard lengths, with applicable code
stamped for identification.
• Steel Filler wires of very high quality, with copper coating to resist
corrosion.
• shielding gases mainly Argon and Helium, usually of highest purity
(99.9%).

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TIG Welding Consumables Fusible Inserts

Welding rods: Pre-placed filler material


• Supplied in cardboard/plastic tubes.

Before Welding After Welding

Courtesy of Lincoln Electric


Other terms used include:

• Must be kept clean and free from oil and dust. • EB inserts (Electric Boat Company).

• Might require degreasing. • Consumable socket rings (CSR).

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16-7
Fusible Inserts Fusible Inserts
Consumable inserts: Application of consumable inserts
• Used for root runs on pipes.
• Used in conjunction with TIG welding.
• Available for carbon steel, Cr-Mo steel, austenitic stainless
steel, nickel and copper-nickel alloys.
• Different shapes to suit application.

Radius
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Shielding Gases for TIG Welding Shielding Gases for TIG Welding
Helium
Argon
• Costly and lower availability than Argon.
• Low cost and greater availability.
• Lighter than air - requires a higher flow rate compared with
• Heavier than air - lower flow rates than Helium.
argon (2-3 times).
• Low thermal conductivity - wide top bead profile.
• Higher ionisation potential - poor arc stability with AC, less
• Low ionisation potential - easier arc starting, better arc forgiving for manual welding.
stability with AC, cleaning effect.
• For the same arc current produce more heat than argon -
• For the same arc current produce less heat than helium - increased penetration, welding of metals with high melting
reduced penetration, wider HAZ. point or thermal conductivity.
• To obtain the same arc power, argon requires a higher
• To obtain the same arc power, helium requires a lower
current - increased undercut.
current - no undercut.
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Shielding Gases for TIG Welding Shielding Gases for TIG Welding

Hydrogen Nitrogen

• Not an inert gas - not used as a primary shielding gas. • Not an inert gas.

• Increase the heat input - faster travel speed and increased • High availability – cheap.
penetration.
• Added to argon (up to 5%) - only for back purge for
• Better wetting action - improved bead profile. duplex stainless, austenitic stainless steels and copper
• Produce a cleaner weld bead surface. alloys.

• Added to argon (up to 5%) - only for austenitic stainless • Not used for mild steels (age embrittlement).
steels and nickel alloys. • Strictly prohibited in case of Ni and Ni alloys (porosity).
• Flammable and explosive.

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16-8
TIG Welding Consumables Welding Consumables

Any Questions

?
MIG/MAG Consumables

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MIG/MAG Welding Consumables MIG/MAG Welding Consumables


Welding wires:
Welding consumables for MIG/MAG • Supplied on wire/plastic spools or coils.
• Spools of Continuous electrode wires and shielding gases. • Random or line winding.
• variable spool size (1-15Kg) and Wire diameter (0.6-1.6mm)
supplied in random or orderly layers.
• Basic Selection of different materials and their alloys as
electrode wires.
• Some Steel Electrode wires copper coating purpose is
corrosion resistance and electrical pick-up.
• Gases can be pure CO2, CO2+Argon mixes and Argon+2%O2
mixes (stainless steels).
Courtesy of Lincoln Electric Courtesy of Lincoln Electric Courtesy of Lincoln Electric

Plastic spool Wire spool Coil


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MIG/MAG Welding Consumables MIG/MAG Welding Consumables


Welding wires: Wire designation acc BS EN 440:
• Carbon and low alloy wires may be copper coated. Type of shielding gas
Tensile properties
• Stainless steel wires are not coated.
Standard number

EN 440 - G 46 3 M G3Si1
Weld deposit produced by
gas shielded metal arc
welding

Courtesy of Lincoln Electric Courtesy of ESAB AB Impact properties


• Wires must be kept clean and free from oil and dust.
• Flux cored wires does not require baking or drying. Type of wire electrode
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16-9
MIG/MAG Welding Consumables MIG/MAG Welding Consumables

Wire designation acc. AWS A-5.18: How to check the quality of welding wires:
Chemical composition of the solid wire or
Cast diameter
of the weld metal in case of composite
Helix size - limited to 25 mm to
electrodes
avoid problems with arc
Minimum UTS of weld metal (ksi) wandering!
Standard number

AWS A-5.18 ER 70 S-6 Cast diameter improves the contact force and defines the contact point;
usually 400-1200 mm.
Designate an electrode/rod (ER) or
only an electrode (E)

Solid (S) or composite (C) wire Contact point close to contact tip Contact point remote from contact tip
end - GOOD! end - POOR!
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MIG/MAG Shielding Gases MIG/MAG Shielding Gases

Gas shielded metal Ar Ar-He He CO2


arc welding

Argon (Ar):
MIG process (131) MAG process (135) Higher density than air; low thermal conductivity  the arc has
a high energy inner cone; good wetting at the toes; low
ionisation potential.
BS EN 439
Helium (He):
Lower density than air; high thermal conductivity  uniformly
distributed arc energy; parabolic profile; high ionisation
Group I - Ar, He Group R - Ar Group M - Ar + Group C - CO2, potential.
and Ar-He + H2 (<35%) CO2/O2 CO2 + O2 Carbon Dioxide (CO2):
mixtures (<50/15%) (<30%) Cheap; deep penetration profile; cannot support spray
transfer; poor wetting; high spatter .
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MIG/MAG Shielding Gases MIG/MAG Shielding Gases


Gases for spray transfer
Gases for dip transfer:
• Ar + (5-18)% CO2: carbon steels; minimum spatter; good
• CO2: carbon steels only; deep penetration; fast welding speed; wetting and bead contour.
high spatter levels.
• Ar + 2% O2: low alloy steels; minimise undercut; provides
• Ar + up to 25% CO2: carbon and low alloy steels; minimum good toughness.
spatter; good wetting and bead contour. • Ar + 2% O2 or CO2: stainless steels; improved arc stability;
provides good fusion.
• 90% He + 7,5% Ar + 2,5% CO2:stainless steels; minimises
undercut; small HAZ. • Ar: Al, Mg, Cu, Ni, Ti and their alloys.
• Ar: Al, Mg, Cu, Ni and their alloys on thin sections. • Ar + He mixtures: Al, Cu, Ni and their alloys; hotter arc than
pure Ar to offset heat dissipation.
• Ar + He mixtures: Al, Mg, Cu, Ni and their alloys on thicker
sections (over 3 mm). • Ar + (25-30)% N2: Cu alloys; greater heat input.

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16-10
MIG/MAG Welding Consumables Welding Consumables

Any Questions
Flux Core Wire Consumables

? Copyright © TWI Ltd 2013 Copyright © TWI Ltd 2013

Flux Core Wire Consumables Types of Cored Wire

Seamless Butt joint Overlapping


Functions of metallic Function of the filling powder: cored wire cored wire cored wire

sheath: • Stabilise the arc. • Sensitive to


• Not sensitive to moisture • Good resistance to
• Provide form stability • Add alloy elements. pick-up. moisture pick-up. moisture pick-up.
to the wire. • Produce gaseous shield. • Can be copper coated  • Can be copper • Cannot be copper
• Serves as current • Produce slag. better current transfer. coated. coated.
transfer during • Thick sheath  good form • Thick sheath. • Thin sheath.
welding. • Add iron powder. stability  2 roll drive • Difficult to seal the • Easy to
feeding possible. sheath.
manufacture.
• Difficult to manufacture.

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Cored Wire Manufacturing Process Core Elements and Their Function

Aluminium - deoxidize and denitrify.


Strip reel
Calcium - provide shielding and form slag.
Flux input
Carbon - increase hardness and strength.
Manganese - deoxidize and increase strength and toughness.
Molybdenum - increase hardness and strength.
Closing Nickel - improve hardness, strength, toughness and corrosion
Thin sheet
rollers resistance.
metal
Forming Potassium - stabilize the arc and form slag.
Draw die
rollers Silicon - deoxidize and form slag.
Sodium - stabilize arc and form slag.
Titanium - deoxidize, denitrify and form slag.
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16-11
FCAW Wire Designation FCAW Wire Designation
Wire designation acc. BS EN 758: Wire designation acc. AWS A-5.20:
Diffusible hydrogen content (optional) 27J at -40°C requirement (optional)
Shielding gas Electrode usability (polarity, shielding
Light alloy additions and KV); can range from 1 to 14
Tensile properties Welding position (0 - F/H only; 1- all
positions)
Standard number
Designates an electrode
EN 758 - T 46 3 1Ni B M 4 H5 E 71 T-6 M J H8
Minimum UTS of weld metal (ksi x 10)
Tubular cored electrode
Flux cored electrode
Impact properties
Shielding gas for classification
Type of electrode core
Diffusible hydrogen content (optional);
Welding position (optional) can be 4, 8 or 16
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Flux Core Wire Consumables Welding Consumables

Any Questions

?
SAW Consumables

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SAW filler material SAW Filler Material


Wire/flux combination designation acc. BS EN 756: Wire/flux combination designation acc. AWS A-5.17:
Type of welding flux Temperature for impact test

Tensile properties Minimum UTS of weld metal (10 ksi)


Standard number Standard number

EN 756 S46 3 AB S2 AWS A-5.17 F 6 A 2-EM12K

SAW welding flux


Wire electrode and/or wire/flux combination
Heat treatment conditions
Impact properties

Chemical composition of wire electrode Chemical composition of wire electrode


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16-12
SAW filler material SAW filler material
Welding wires Welding wires can be used to weld:
• Supplied on coils, reels or drums.
• Random or line winding. • Carbon steels.
• Low alloy steels.
• Creep resisting steels.
• Stainless steels.
• Nickel-base alloys.
• Special alloys for surfacing applications.
Welding wires can be:
Courtesy of Lincoln Electric Courtesy of Lincoln Electric Courtesy of ESAB AB • Solid wires.
Coil (approx. 25 kg) Reel (approx. 300 Drum (approx. 450 kg) • Metal-cored wires.
kg)
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SAW filler material SAW filler material

Welding wires: Copper coating functions:


• Carbon and low alloy wires are copper coated.
• Stainless steel wires are not coated.
• To assure a good electric contact between wire and
contact tip.
• To assure a smooth feed of the wire through the guide
tube, feed rolls and contact tip (decrease contact tube
wear).
• To provide protection against corrosion.

Courtesy of Lincoln Electric Courtesy of Lincoln Electric

• Wires must be kept clean and free from oil and dust.
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SAW Consumables SAW Consumables


Welding fluxes: Welding flux:
• Supplied in bags/pails (approx. 25 kg) or bulk bags (approx.
• Are granular mineral compounds mixed according to various 1200 kg).
formulations. • Might be fused, agglomerated or mixed.
• Shield the molten weld pool from the atmosphere.
• Clean the molten weld pool.
• Can modify the chemical composition of the weld metal.
• Prevents rapid escape of heat from welding zone.
• Influence the shape of the weld bead (wetting action).
• Can be fused, agglomerated or mixed.
• Must be kept warm and dry to avoid porosity.
Courtesy of Lincoln Electric Courtesy of Lincoln Electric Courtesy of Lincoln Electric

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16-13
SAW Consumables SAW Consumables
Welding flux:
SA Welding flux:
• Might be fused or agglomerated.
• Must be kept warm and dry.
• Supplied in bags. • Handling and stacking requires care.
• Must be kept warm and dry. Fused fluxes are normally not hygroscopic but particles can
hold surface moisture.
• Handling and stacking requires care.
Courtesy of Lincoln Electric
• Only drying.
• Fused fluxes are normally not hygroscopic but particles can Agglomerated fluxes contain chemically bonded water.
hold surface moisture so only drying. • Similar treatment as basic electrodes.
• Agglomerated fluxes contain chemically bonded water. Similar • For high quality, agglomerated fluxes can be recycled with
new flux added.
treatment as basic electrodes.
• If flux is too fine it will pack and not feed properly.
• If flux is too fine it will pack and not feed properly. It cannot be • Cannot be recycled indefinitely.
recycled indefinitely.
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SAW Consumables SAW Consumables


Fused welding fluxes
Fused Flux
Components
• Flaky appearance. Components are melted in Charge is
• Lower weld quality. are dry mixed. an electric cooled by:
• Low moisture intake. furnace.
• Low dust tendency.
• Good re-cycling.
• Very smooth weld profile. Shooting the melt
through a stream
Product is of water.
Fused Flux: crushed and
Baked at high temperature, glossy, hard and black in colour, cannot screened for
add ferro-manganese, non moisture absorbent and tends to be of the size. Pouring melt onto
acidic type. large chill blocks.
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SAW Consumables SAW Consumables


Agglomerated Flux
Fused fluxes advantages:
• Granulated appearance.
• Good chemical homogeneity.
• High weld quality.
• Easy removal of fines without affecting flux composition.
• Addition of alloys.
• Normally not hygroscopic  easy storage and handling.
• Lower consumption.
• Readily recycled without significant change in particle size
• Easy slag removal.
or composition.
• Smooth weld profile
Fused fluxes disadvantages:
• Difficult to add deoxidizers and ferro-alloys (due to Agglomerated Flux:
segregation or extremely high loss).
Baked at a lower temperature, dull, irregularly shaped,
• High temperatures needed to melt ingredients limit the range friable, (easily crushed) can easily add alloying elements,
of flux compositions. moisture absorbent and tend to be of the basic type.
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16-14
SAW Consumables SAW Consumables

Agglomerated welding fluxes


Agglomerated fluxes advantages:
Components are • Easy addition of deoxidizers and alloying elements.
Components The wet mix
powdered and • Usable with thicker layer of flux when welding.
are bonded. is pelletized.
dry mixed. • Colour identification.

Agglomerated fluxes disadvantages:


• Tendency to absorb moisture.
Pellets are broken up • Possible gas evolution from the molten slag leading to
Pellets are porosity.
and screened for
baked. • Possible change in flux composition due to segregation
size.
or removal of fine mesh particles.

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SAW Consumables Ceramic Backing


Mixed fluxes
Two or more fused or bonded fluxes are mixed in any ratio Ceramic backing:
necessary to yield the desired results. • Used to support the weld
pool on root runs.
Mixed fluxes advantages:
Several commercial fluxes may be mixed for highly critical or • Usually fitted on an
proprietary welding operations. aluminium self adhesive
tape.
Mixed fluxes disadvantages:
• Segregation of the combined fluxes during shipment,
storage and handling. • Allow increased welding current without danger of burn-through
• Segregation occurring in the feeding and recovery systems  increased productivity, consistent quality.
during welding. • Different profiles to suit different applications.
• Inconsistency in the combined flux from mix to mix. • No backing/drying required.

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Questions CSWIP 3.2 Welding Inspection


Welding Consumables:
QU 1 Why are basic electrodes used mainly on high strength
materials and what controls are required when using basic
electrodes? Welding Consumables
QU 2 What standard is the following electrode classification taken
from and briefly discuss each separate part of the coding? E 80 Inspection and Validation
18 M

QU 3 Why are cellulose electrodes commonly used for the TWI Training & Examination
welding of pressure pipe lines?
Services
QU 4 Give a brief description of fusible insert and state two alterative
names given for the insert?

QU 5 What standard is the following electrode classification taken


from, and briefly discuss each separate part of the coding ? E
42 3 1Ni B 4 2 H10
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16-15
Inspection of Consumables BS EN 10204-Type of documents

Why? To assess whether the products are in compliance with Non-specific


the requirements of the order or not  see BS EN inspection
10204. documents

How? Type 2.1 Type 2.2

• Name: Declaration of • Name: Test report.


Non-specific inspection Specific inspection
• Carried out before delivery in compliance with the order. • Content: statement of
• Carried out by the accordance to product • Content: statement of compliance with the order
manufacturer in accordance specification. compliance with the order (include test results!)
with its own procedures. (doesn’t include test results!) • Who validate it - the
• Inspection is performed on the • Who validate it - the manufacturer.
• The products inspected are products to be supplied or on manufacturer.
NOT necessarily the products test units of which the
supplied! products supplied are part.
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BS EN 10204-Type of documents

Specific
inspection
documents Any Questions
Type 3.1 Type 3.2

?
• Name: Inspection certificate 3.1. • Name: Inspection certificate 3.2
• Content: statement of • Content: statement of
compliance with the order compliance with the order
(include specific test results!) (include specific test results!)
• Who validate it - the • Who validate it - the
manufacturer inspection manufacturer inspection
(independent of manufacturing (independent of manufacturing
department!) department!) +
purchaser’s/official designated
authorised inspector.
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16-16
CSWIP 3.1 Welding Inspection Weldability of Steels

Definition
It relates to the ability of the metal (or alloy) to be welded
Weldability of Steels with mechanical soundness by most of the common
welding processes. The resulting welded joint retain the
properties for which it has been designed is a function of
many inter-related factors but these may be summarised
TWI Training & Examination as:
Services • Composition of parent material.
• Joint design and size.
• Process and technique.
• Access.

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Weldability of Steels The Effect of Alloying on Steels


The weldability of steel is mainly dependant on carbon and
other alloying elements content. Elements may be added to steels to produce the properties
If a material has limited weldability, we need to take special required to make it useful for an application.
measures to ensure the maintenance of the properties
required. Most elements can have many effects on the properties of
Poor weldability normally results in the occurrence of steels.
cracking.
Other factors which affect material properties are:
A steel is considered to have poor weldability when:
• An acceptable joint can only be made by using very • The temperature reached before and during welding.
narrow range of welding conditions. • Heat input.
• Great precautions to avoid cracking are essential (eg high • The cooling rate after welding and or PWHT.
pre-heat etc).
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Steel Alloying Elements Steel Alloying Elements


Iron (Fe): Phosphorus (P):
Main steel constituent. On its own, is relatively soft, ductile, with low • Residual element from steel-making minerals.
strength. • Difficult to reduce below < ~ 0.015% brittleness.

Carbon (C): Sulphur (S):


Major alloying element in steels, a strengthening element with major • Residual element from steel-making minerals.
• Typically < ~ 0.015% in modern steels < ~ 0.003% in very clean
influence on HAZ hardness. Decreases weldability. typically < ~ 0.25%
steels.
Manganese (Mn): Aluminium (Al):
Secondary only to carbon for strength, toughness and ductility, secondary • De-oxidant and grain size control. typically ~ 0.02 to ~ 0.05%.
de-oxidiser and also reacts with sulphur to form manganese sulphides.
typically< ~0.8% is residual from steel de-oxidation. Chromium (Cr):
• For creep resistance and oxidation (scaling) resistance for
• Up to ~1.6% (in C-Mn steels) improves strength and toughness. elevated temperature service. Widely used in stainless steels for
corrosion resistance, increases hardness and strength but
Silicon (Si): reduces ductility.
Residual element from steel de-oxidation. typically to ~0.35%. • Typically ~ 1 to 9% in low alloy steels.
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17-1
Steel Alloying Elements Materials
Iron Fe
Nickel (Ni): Carbon C is for Strength
Used in stainless steels, high resistance to corrosion from acids, Manganese Mn is for Toughness
increases strength and toughness.
Silicon Si < 0.3% Deoxidiser
Aluminium Al Grain refiner, <0.008% Deoxidiser + Toughness
Molybdenum (Mo):
Affects hardenability. Steels containing molybdenum are less susceptible Chromium Cr Corrosion resistance
to temper brittleness than other alloy steels. Increases the high Molybdenum Mo 1% is for Creep resistance
temperature tensile and creep strengths of steel. typically ~ 0.5 to 1.0%. Vanadium V Strength
Nickel Ni Low temperature applications
Niobium (Nb): Copper Cu Used for weathering steels (Corten)
Vanadium (V): a grain refiner, typically ~ 0.05% Sulphur S Residual element (can cause hot shortness)
Titanium (Ti) : Phosphorous P Residual element
Copper (Cu): Titanium Ti Grain refiner, Used a a micro alloying element
(S&T)
Niobium Nb Grain refiner, Used a a micro alloying element
Present as a residual, (typically < ~ 0.30%) added to weathering steels
(~ 0.6%) to give better resistance to atmospheric corrosion. (S&T)
(S&T) = Strength & Toughness
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Classification of Steels Carbon – The Key Element in Steel

Steels are classified into groups as follows: It affects:

• Plain carbon steels.

• Alloy Steels. 1 Strength.


2 Hardness.
3 Ductility.

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Classification of Steels Classification of Steels

Plain Carbon Steels: Alloy Steels:

• Low Carbon Steel 0.01 – 0.3% Carbon.


• Low Alloy Steels <7% alloying elements.
• Medium Carbon Steel 0.3 – 0.6% Carbon.
• High Alloy Steels >7% alloying elements.
• High Carbon Steel 0.6 – 1.4% Carbon.
Alloy steels are considered the type of steels that
Plain carbon steels contain only iron and carbon as predominantly contain extra alloying elements other
main alloying elements, but traces of Mn, Si, Al, S and than iron and carbon.
P may also be present.

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17-2
Classification of Steels Classification of Steels

Types of weldable C, C-Mn and low alloy steels. Types of weldable C, C-Mn and low alloy steels
low alloy steels.
Carbon Steels
• Carbon contents up to about ~ 0.25%. • Strength and toughness raised even higher by very
• Manganese up to ~ 0.8%. small additions of grain refining elements like
• Low strength and moderate toughness. aluminium, niobium, vanadium.
• Higher strength grades may be referred to as HSLA
Carbon-Manganese Steels steels (high strength low alloy steels, eg API 5L X65
• Manganese up to ~ 1.6%. and higher).
• Carbon steels with improved toughness due to
additions of manganese.

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Classification of Steels Classification of Steels


Types of weldable low alloy steels
Types of Stainless Steels
Steels for Elevated Temperature Service
Austenitic Grades
Chromium (Cr) and Molybdenum (Mo) additions give improved strength • Alloyed with Chromium & Nickel.
at high temperature and good creep resistance. • Examples - 304 & 316 (18%Cr + 8%Ni).
Typical steels are:
• 2.25% Cr +1% Mo. • Main phase is austenite.
• 9%Cr + 1%Mo. • Very wide range of applications:
Steels for Low Temperature Service
⁻ Very low temperature service (cryogenic).
⁻ High temperature service.
Ni additions give good toughness at low temperatures. • Moderate corrosion resistance.
Steels may be referred to as cryogenic steels. • Non-magnetic.
• Low thermal conductivity (hold the heat during welding).
Typical examples are:
• 3.5%Ni steel.
• High coefficient of expansion - more distortion during
• 9%Ni steels.
welding.
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Classification of Steels Classification of Steels


Types of Stainless Steels Types of Stainless Steels
Ferritic and Martensitic Grades
Duplex Grades
• Alloyed with chromium (but have no or low nickel
• Alloyed with Chromium & some Nickel.
content).
• Examples - 22%Cr + 5%Ni & 25%Cr + 7%Ni.
• Examples - 13% Cr (ferritic) 13%Cr +4%Ni.
• Called duplex because there are 2 phases - 50% ferrite +
• Ferritic grades have ferrite as main phase and so can be
50% austenite.
magnetised.
• The presence of ferrite means that the steels can be
• Martensitic grades have martensitic as main phase
magnetised.
• Similar characteristics to C and Mn steels but with
• Stronger than 304 and 316 and good resistance to
improved corrosion resistance.
certain types of corrosion.
• Not suitable for very low temperatures but some ferritic
• Not suitable for very low temperature service or very
grades used for good resistance to scaling at high
high temperature service.
temperatures.
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17-3
Carbon Equivalent Formula Classification of Steels
Mild steel (CE < 0.4)
The weldability of the material will also be affected by
• Readily weldable, preheat generally not required if low hydrogen
the amount of alloying elements present. processes or electrodes are used.
• Preheat may be required when welding thick section material, high
restraint and with higher levels of hydrogen being generated.
• The carbon equivalent of a given material also depends on
its alloying elements.
• The higher the CE, higher the susceptibility to brittleness, C-Mn, medium carbon, low alloy steels (CE 0.4 to 0.5)
and lower the weldability. • Thin sections can be welded without preheat but thicker sections
will require low preheat levels and low hydrogen processes or
– The CE or CEV is calculated using the following formula:
electrodes should be used.
CEV = %C + Mn + Cr + Mo + V + Cu + Ni
Higher carbon and alloyed steels (CE > 0.5)
6 5 15 • Preheat, low hydrogen processes or electrodes, post weld heating
and slow cooling may be required.
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Process Cracks Cracking


When considering any type of cracking mechanism, *four elements
must always be present:
• Hydrogen induced HAZ cracking (C/Mn steels).
Stress
• Hydrogen induced weld metal cracking (HSLA
• Residual stress is always present in a weldment, through
steels).
unbalanced local expansion and contraction.
• Solidification or hot cracking (all steels).
• Lamellar tearing (all steels). Restraint
• Re-heat cracking (all steels, very susceptible • Restraint may be a local restriction, or through plates being
Cr/Mo/V steels). welded to each other.
• Inter-crystalline corrosion or weld decay (stainless
steels). Susceptible microstructure
• The microstructure may be made susceptible to cracking by the
process of welding.
*Temperature (only applicable to certain types of cracking)
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Cracks Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking

Also known as HCC, hydrogen, toe, underbead, delayed,


chevron cracking.
Occurs in:
• Carbon steels
Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking • Carbon-manganese
• Low, medium and high alloy steels:
⁻ Mainly in ferritic or martensitic steels.
⁻ Very rarely in duplex stainless steels,
⁻ Never in nickel or copper alloys.

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17-4
Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking
Crack type:
Hydrogen HAZ and weld metal cracking.
There is a risk of hydrogen cracking when all of the 4
factors occur together:
Location: Hydrogen:
HAZ (longitudinal) weld metal (transverse). More than 15ml/100g of weld metal
Stress:
Steel types:
All hardenable steels. More than ½ the yield stress
Temperature:
Including: Below 300°C.
HSLA (high strength low alloy) steels. Quench and tempered
steels TMCP (thermal mechanically controlled processed) steels. Susceptible Microstructure:
Hardness Greater than 400HV Vickers (Martensite).
Susceptible Microstructure: martensite.
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Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking

May occur:

• Up to 72hrs after completion.


• In weld metal, HAZ, parent metal.
• At weld toes.
• Under weld beads.
• At stress raisers.

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Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking


Atomic
• Hydrogen is the smallest atom known. Hydrogen
• Hydrogen enters the weld via the arc. (H)

• Source of hydrogen mainly from moisture pick-up on


the electrodes coating, welding fluxes or from the
consumable gas.

Moisture on the electrode Molecular


Water vapour in the air
or in the shielding gas H2 or grease on the wire Hydrogen
H2 (H2)
H2 Steel in expanded condition Steel under contraction
Oxide or grease H2 H2
on the plate Above 300oC Below 300oC
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17-5
Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking
Steel in expanded condition
Cellulosic electrodes produce
Hydrogen Above 300oC hydrogen as a shielding gas
diffusion Hydrogen absorbed in a
long, or unstable arc

Hydrogen introduced in
weld from consumable, oils,
or paint on plate Hydrogen
crack

H22
H

Martensite forms H2 diffuses in to HAZ


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Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking Effect of Carbon in the Properties of Iron


Susceptible microstructure: Increasing the carbon content will increase the strength, but
Hard brittle structure – Martensite promoted by: will also increase greatly the risk of formation of martensite.
a High carbon content, carbon equivalent (CE)
CEV = %C + Mn + Cr+Mo+V + Ni+Cu
6 5 15
b High alloy content. 0.83 % Carbon
(Eutectoid)*
c Fast cooling rate: Tensile
• Inadequate pre-heating. Hardness
Strength
• Cold material.
• Thick material.
• Low heat input. Ductility
Heat input (Kj/mm) = Amps x Volts x arc time
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
Run out length x 103 (1000) %Carbon
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Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking


Typical locations for cold cracking Micro Alloyed Steel Carbon Manganese Steel

Hydrogen induced weld Hydrogen induced HAZ


metal cracking cracking
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17-6
Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking

Under bead cracking Toe cracking

Toe cracking in MMA fillet weld


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Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking Hydrogen Scales

Precautions for controlling hydrogen cracking List of hydrogen scales from BS EN 1011:
• Pre heat, removes moisture from the joint preparations, part 2.
and slows down the cooling rate. Hydrogen content per 100 grams of weld metal
• Ensure joint preparations are clean and free from deposited.
contamination.
• The use of a low hydrogen welding process and correct
arc length. • Scale A High: >15 ml
• Ensure all welding is carried out is carried out under • Scale B Medium: 10 ml - 15 ml
controlled environmental conditions.
• Scale C Low: 5 ml - 10 ml
• Ensure good fit-up as to reduced stress.
• The use of a PWHT.
• Scale D Very low: 3 ml - 5 ml
• Avoid poor weld profiles. • Scale E Ultra-low: < 3 ml

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Potential Hydrogen Level Processes Hydrogen Cold Cracking Avoidance

List of welding processes in order of potential lowest To eliminate the risk of hydrogen cracking how do you
hydrogen content with regards to 100 grams of remove the following:
deposited weld metal.
Hydrogen: MMA (basic electrodes). MAG cleaning
weld prep etc.
• TIG < 3ml
• MIG < 5ml Stress: Design, balanced welding.
• ESW < 5ml
Temperature: Heat to 300oC (wrap and cool slowly).
• MMA (Basic Electrodes) < 5ml
• SAW < 10ml Hardness: Preheat-reduces cooling rate which
• FCAW < 15ml reduces the risk of susceptible
microstructure.

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17-7
Hydrogen Cold Cracking Avoidance Hydrogen Cold Cracking Avoidance

Reduce Hydrogen Level


Prevention
• Select lower hydrogen potential process eg:
• BASIC vs RUTILE. • Slow the cooling rate.
• MAG vs MMA. • Reduce hydrogen level.
• Increase hydrogen diffusion with increased preheat. • Reduce residual stress.
• Maintain preheat after welding allowing diffusion from weld.
• Bake basic MMA electrodes/SAW fluxes - manufacturers
recommendations!
• Cleanliness/dryness of consumables and weld preparations
eg rust scale grease cutting fluids.
• Use austenitic or nickel fillers (if acceptable).

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Residual Stress Hydrogen Cold Cracking Avoidance

Residual stress will be increased by: How to reduce residual stress

• Increasing plate thickness. • Ensure good fit-up: minimum root gap and
misalignment.
• Restraint - rigid fixtures • Avoid restraints: preset the join.
⁻ weld volume.
• Preheat may help: to slow down cooling rate.
⁻ insert in plate.
• Large weld passes: higher deposition rate.
• Multi-pass vs single pass. • Minimise volume of weld metal: less residual stress.
• PWHT from preheat temperature.
• Small weld beads vs large weld beads. • Dress weld toes at preheat temperature.

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Pre-heat Application Combined Thickness

Application Of Preheat Combined chilling effect of joint type and thickness.

• Heat either side of joint.


• Measure temp 2mins after heat removal. t3
• Always best to heat complete component rather
than local if possible to avoid distortion.
• Preheat always higher for fillet than butt welds due
to different combined thicknesses and chill effect
factors. t1 t2 t1 t2

t = t1+t2 t = t1+t2+t3

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17-8
Combined Thickness Combined Thickness

The chilling effect of the joint The chilling effect of the joint

Heat flow

Two dimensional heat flow

Three dimensional heat flow

Heat flow

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The Chill Effect of the Material Pre-heat Application


Furnace:
Heating entire component - best.
Electrical elements:
Controllable; portable; site use; clean; component cannot be
moved.
Gas burners:
Direct flame impingement; possible local overheating; less
controllable, portable, manual operation possible, component can
be moved.
Radiant gas heaters:
Capable of automatic control, no flame impingement, no contact
with component, portable.
Induction heating:
Controllable, rapid heating (mins not hours), large power supply,
expensive equipment.
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Pre-Heat Application Heating Temperature Control

• Tempilsticks - crayons, melt at set temps. Will not


measure max temp.
• Pyrometers - contact or remote, measure actual
temp.
• Thermocouples - contact or attached, very
accurate, measure actual temp.

Electrical Heated Elements Manual Gas Operation

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17-9
Hydrogen Cold Cracking Avoidance Hydrogen Cold Cracking Avoidance
• Maintain calculated preheats, and never allow the inter-
Slow Cooling Rate pass temperature to go below the pre-heat value.
• Apply or increase preheat - BS EN 1011 Part 2
Gives recommendations on suitable preheat • Use Low Hydrogen processes with short arcs and ensure
levels. consumables are correctly baked and stored as required.

• If using a cellulosic E 6010 for the root run, hot pass as


• Recommendations in specifications e.g. soon as possible. (Before HAZ < 300 °C).
BS 2633, ASME VIII, ASME B31.3.
• Remove any paint, oil or moisture from the plate or pipe.
• Increase process heat input complying with
toughness requirements. • Carry out any specified PWHT as soon as possible.

• Avoid any restraint, and use high ductility weld metal.


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Heat Input Cracks

High heat input - slow cooling.


• Low toughness (grain growth).
• Reduction in yield strength.

Low heat input - fast cooling.


Solidification Cracking
• Increased hardness.
• Hydrogen entrapment.
• Lack of fusion.

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Solidification Cracking Solidification Cracking

Also referred as hot cracking


Crack type:
Solidification cracking.
Location:
Weld centreline (longitudinal).
Steel types:
High sulphur and phosphor concentration in steels.
Susceptible Microstructure:
Columnar grains In direction of solidification.

Usually Occurs in Weld Centerline


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17-10
Solidification Cracking Solidification Cracking

• Sulphur in the parent material may dilute in the weld Factors for solidification cracking
metal to form iron sulphides (low strength, low
melting point compounds). • Columnar grain growth with impurities in weld
metal (sulphur, phosphor and carbon).
• The amount of stress/restraint.
• During weld metal solidification, columnar crystals
• Joint design high depth to width ratios.
push still liquid iron sulphides in front to the last
place of solidification, weld centerline . • Liquid iron sulphides are formed around solidifying
grains.
• High contractional strains are present.
• The bonding between the grains which are • High dilution processes are being used.
themselves under great stress. may now be very poor
• There is a high carbon content in the weld metal.
to maintain cohesion and a crack will result, weld
• Most commonly occurring in sub-arc welded joints.
centerline.
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Solidification Cracking in Fe Steels Solidification Cracking


Intergranular liquid film
Columnar
Liquid Iron Sulphide films grains Columnar
HAZ grains HAZ

Solidification crack Shallow, wider weld bead Deep, narrower weld bead

* On solidification the On solidification the


bonding between the bonding between the grains
grains may be adequate to may now be very poor to
maintain cohesion and a maintain cohesion and a
Contractional strain crack is unlikely to occur crack may result

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Solidification Cracking Solidification Cracking


Precautions for controlling solidification cracking Precautions for controlling solidification cracking
The first steps in eliminating this problem would be to choose
a low dilution process, and change the joint design.
• The use of high manganese and low carbon content
Grind and seal in any lamination and avoid further dilution? fillers.
• Minimise the amount of stress/restraint acting on the
Add Manganese to the electrode to form spherical Mn/S which joint during welding.
form between the grain and maintain grain cohesion. • The use of high quality parent materials, low levels
of impurities (phosphor and sulphur).
As carbon increases the Mn/S ratio required increases • Clean joint preparations contaminants (oil, grease,
exponentially and is a major factor. Carbon content % should paints and any other sulphur containing product).
be a minimised by careful control in electrode and dilution. • Joint design selection depth to width ratios.
Limit the heat input, hence low contraction and minimise
restraint.
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17-11
Solidification Cracking Solidification Cracking
Add Manganese to weld metal Solidification cracking in austenitic stainless Steel

Spherical Mn Sulphide balls


• Particularly prone to solidification cracking.
form between solidified grains
• Large grain size gives rise to a reduction in grain
boundary area with high concentration of impurities.
Cohesion and strength between • Austenitic structure very intolerant to contaminants
grains remains (sulphur, phosphorous and other impurities).
• High coefficient of thermal expansion/low coefficient of
thermal conductivity, with high resultant residual
stress.
• Same precautions against cracking as for plain carbon
steels with extra emphasis on thorough cleaning and
Contractional strain high dilution controls.
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Cracks Lamellar Tearing

• Location: Parent metal just below the HAZ.


• Steel Type: Any steel type possible.
• Susceptible Microstructure: Poor through thickness ductility.

• Lamellar tearing has a step like appearance due to the solid


Lamellar Tearing inclusions in the parent material (eg sulphides and silicates)
linking up under the influence of welding stresses.
• Low ductile materials (often related to thickness) in the short
transverse direction containing high levels of impurities are
very susceptible to lamellar tearing.
• It forms when the welding stresses act in the short transverse
direction of the material (through thickness direction).

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Lamellar Tearing Lamellar Tearing

Susceptible joint types

Step like appearance

Tee fillet weld Tee butt weld Corner butt weld


(double-bevel) (single-bevel)
Cross section
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17-12
Lamellar Tearing Lamellar Tearing
Critical area Critical area
Factors for lamellar tearing to occur
• Low quality parent materials, high levels of impurities
there is a high sulfur content in the base metal.
• Joint design, direction of stress 90 degrees to the
rolling direction, the level of stress acting across the
joint during welding.
• Note! very susceptible joints may form lamellar tearing
under very low levels of stress.
Critical • High contractional strains are through the short
area transverse direction.
• There is low through thickness ductility in the base
metal.
• There is high restraint on the work.

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Lamellar Tearing Lamellar Tearing

Precautions for controlling lamellar tearing


Assessment of susceptibility to lamellar • The use of high quality parent materials, low levels of
tearing: impurities.
• The use of buttering runs.
• Carry out through thickness tensile test. • A gap can be left between the horizontal and vertical
members enabling the contraction movement to take
place.
• Carry out cruciform welded tensile test.
• Joint design selection.
• Minimise the amount of stress/restraint acting on the joint
during welding.
• Hydrogen precautions.

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Short Tensile (Through Thickness) Test Lamellar Tearing


The short tensile test or through thickness test is a test to determine a
materials susceptibility to lamellar tearing

Friction welded Methods of avoiding lamellar tearing:*


extension stubs
Plate Material 1 Avoid restraint*.
Short Tensile Specimen
2 Use controlled low sulfur plate*.
Sample of 6.4mm
Parent Material DIA
3 Grind out surface and butter*.

4 Change joint design*.


Final short transverse
tensile specimen 5 Use a forged T piece (critical applications)*.

The results are given as a STRA value


Short Transverse Reduction in Area
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17-13
Lamellar Tearing Lamellar Tearing
Modifying a Tee joint to avoid lamellar tearing
Modifying a corner joint to avoid lamellar tearing
Non-susceptible Susceptible Improved

Susceptible Non-Susceptible

Susceptible

Non-susceptible Susceptible Less susceptible

An open corner joint


may be selected to
avoid lamellar tearing
Prior buttering of the joint with a
ductile layer of weld metal may
Use a forged Tee piece avoid lamellar tearing
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Cracks Inter-Granular Corrosion

Crack type: Inter-granular corrosion


Location: Weld HAZ. (longitudinal)
Steel types: Stainless steels
Microstructure: Sensitised grain boundaries*

Weld Decay Occurs when:


An area in the HAZ has been sensitised by the formation
of chromium carbides. This area is in the form of a line
running parallel to and on both sides of the weld. This
depletion of chromium will leave the effected grains low
in chromium oxide which is what produces the corrosion
resisting effect of stainless steels. If left untreated
corrosion and failure will be rapid*

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Inter-Granular Corrosion Inter-Granular Corrosion

1 Use stabilized stainless steels*.

2 Use low carbon stainless steels ( Below 04%)*.

• During the welding of stainless steels, a small grain area 3 A sensitized stainless steel may be de-sensitized
in the HAZ, parallel to the weld will form chromium carbide by heating it to above 1100°C where the chrome
at the grain boundaries. This depletes this grain of the carbide will be dissolved. The steel is normally
corrosion resisting chrome oxide quenched from this temperature to stop re-
• We say that the steel has become sensitised or has association*.
become sensitive to corrosion*

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17-14
Inter-Granular Corrosion Inter-Granular Corrosion

• Weld decay, intergranular corrosion or knife line attack,


Also known as Weld Decay may occur in austenitic stainless steels.

• At the critical range of 600-850oC chromium carbide


• Location: Weld HAZ. (longitudinal). precipitation at the grain boundaries takes place.

• Steel Type: Austenitic stainless steels. • At this temperature range chromium is absorbed by the
carbon at the grain boundaries, which causes a local
depletion of chromium content in the adjacent areas.
• Susceptible Microstructure: Sensitised HAZ grain
boundaries. • The depletion of chromium content in the affected areas
results in lowering the materials resistance to corrosion
attack, allowing rusting to occur.

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Inter-Granular Corrosion Inter-Granular Corrosion

• Sensitisation range where peak temperatures in the When heated in the range 6000C
HAZ reaches about 6000C to 8500C. to 8500C Chromium Carbides
form at the grain boundaries

Chromium migrates to site of


growing carbide

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Inter-Granular Corrosion Inter-Granular Corrosion


Grain boundary adjacent areas become depleted of
chromium and lose their corrosion resistance.

Areas depleted of
Chromium below
12.5%.

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17-15
Weld Decay Weld Decay

Precautions against Weld Decay Precautions against Weld Decay


• Using low carbon grade stainless steel eg 304L,
316L, as the amount of free carbon in solution is • Standard austenitic grades may require PWHT,
sufficiently low to ensure that Cr carbide formation this involves heating the material to a
is minimal and therefore that sensitisation is not temperature over 1100°C and quench the
usually of practical significance during welding. material, this restores the chromium content at
the grain boundary, a major disadvantage of
• Stabilized grade stainless steel eg 321, 347, 348
recommended for severe corrosive conditions and this heat treatment is the high amount of
high temperature operating conditions containing Ti distortion.
or Nb, to form carbides preferentially to Cr.

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Basic Atomic Structure of Steels Basic Atomic Structure of Steels

• A most important function in the metallurgy of steels, is the At temperatures below Ac/r 1, (LCT) iron exists like this*
ability of iron to dissolve carbon in solution*.
• The carbon atom is very much smaller than the iron atom and α Alpha iron
does not replace it in the atomic structure, but fits between it*.
This structure occurs below 723 °C and is
body centred, or BCC in structure
It can only dissolve up to 0.02% Carbon
Iron Carbon
atoms atoms* Also known as Ferrite or BCC iron*
*
• Iron is an element that can exist in 2 types of cubic structures,
depending on the temperature. This is an important feature*. Compressed representation could appear like this

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Basic Atomic Structure of Steels Basic Atomic Structure of Steels


At temperatures above the Ac/r 3, (UCT) iron exists like this* • If steel is heated and then cooled slowly in
equilibrium, then exact reverse atomic changes
γ Gamma iron
take place*.
This structure occurs above the UCT in • If a steel that contains more than 0.3% carbon is
Plain Carbon Steels and is FCC in cooled quickly, then the carbon does not have time
structure. to precipitate out of solution, hence trapping the
It can dissolve up 2.06% Carbon carbon in the BCC form of iron.
• This now distorts the cube to an irregular cube, or
Also called Austenite or FCC iron* tetragon*.
*
• This supersaturated solution is called martensite
Compressed representation could appear like this and is the hardest structure that can be produced in
steels*.
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17-16
Basic Atomic Structure of Steels The Important Points of Steel Microstructures

Some steels if cooled quickly their structure looks like this* Solubility of Carbon in BCC & FCC phases of steels*

Martensite can be defined as: Ferrite: a Low carbon solubility. Maximum 0.02%*
A supersaturated solution of carbon in
Austenite: g High carbon solubility. Maximum 2.06%*
BCT iron (Body Centred Tetragonal)
It is the hardest structure we can produce
Martensite: The hardest phase in steels, which is
in steels*
produced by rapid cooling from the
Austenite phase:
*
It mainly occurs below 300 °C*
Compressed representation could appear like
this
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Summary of Steel Microstructures


• To summarize the effect of increasing the hardness of

Any Questions
steels by thermal treatment, it can be said that the
formation of Martensite is caused by the entrapment of
carbon in solution, produced by rapid cooling from
temperatures above the Upper Critical*

?
• In plain carbon steels there must be sufficient carbon to
trap. In low alloy steels however, the alloying elements play
a significant part in the thermal hardening of steels*

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17-17
CSWIP 3.1 Welding Inspection Weld Repairs

A weld repair can be a relatively straight forward activity, but in


many instances it is quite complex, and various engineering
disciplines may need to be involved to ensure a successful
Weld Repairs outcome.
Analysis of the defect types may be carried out by the Q/C
department to discover the likely reason for their occurrence,
(material/process or skill related).
TWI Training & Examination
Services
In general terms, a welding repair involves what!

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Weld Repairs Weld Repair Related Problems


• Is welding the best method of repair?
• Heat from welding may affect dimensional stability and/or
• Is the repair really like earlier repairs? mechanical properties of repaired assembly.
• What is the composition and weldability of the base metal? • Due to heat from welding, YS goes down danger of
collapse.
• What strength is required from the repair?
• Filler materials used on dissimilar welds may lead to galvanic
• Can preheat be tolerated?
corrosion.
• Can softening or hardening of the HAZ be tolerated?
• Local preheat may induce residual stresses.
• Is PWHT necessary and practicable?
• Cost of weld metal deposited during a weld joint repair can
• Will the fatigue resistance of the repair be adequate? reach up to 10 times the original weld metal cost!

• Will the repair resist its environment?


• Can the repair be inspected and tested?
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Weld Repairs Weld Repairs

• Cleaning the repair area, (removal of paint, grease, etc). A weld repair may be used to improve weld profiles or
• A detailed assessment to find out the extremity of the defect. extensive metal removal:
This may involve the use of a surface or sub surface NDE
method. • Repairs to fabrication defects are generally easier than
repairs to service failures because the repair procedure
• Once established the excavation site must be clearly identified
and marked out.
may be followed.

• An excavation procedure may be required (method used i.e. • The main problem with repairing a weld is the
grinding, arc-air gouging, preheat requirements etc). maintenance of mechanical properties.
• NDE should be used to locate the defect and confirm its • During the inspection of the removed area prior to
removal.
welding the inspector must ensure that the defects have
• A welding repair procedure/method statement with the been totally removed and the original joint profile has
appropriate* welding process, consumable, technique, been maintained as close as possible.
controlled heat input and interpass temperatures etc will need
to be approved.
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18-1
Weld Repairs Weld Repairs

The specification or procedure will govern how the


defective areas are to be removed. The method of removal
In the event of repair, it is required: may be:
• Authorization and procedure for repair. • Grinding.
• Removal of material and preparation for repair. • Chipping.
• Monitoring of repair weld. • Machining.

• Testing of repair - visual and NDT. • Filing.


• Oxy-Gas gouging.
• Arc air gouging.

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Weld Repairs Production Weld Repairs

Production Repairs
Weld repairs can be divided into 2 specific areas: • Are usually identified during production inspection.

• Production repairs. • Evaluation of the reports is usually carried out by


the Welding Inspector, or NDT operator.
• In service repairs.

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Production Weld Repairs In Service Weld Repairs

Before the repair can commence, a number of elements need to Service Repairs
be fulfilled:
• Can be of a very complex nature, as the component is very
If the defect is surface breaking and has occurred at the fusion likely to be in a different welding position and condition
face the problem could be cracking or lack of sidewall fusion. than it was during production.
If the defect is found to be cracking the cause may be associated
with the material or the welding procedure.
• It may also have been in contact with toxic, or combustible
fluids hence a permit to work will need to be sought prior to
If the defect is lack of sidewall fusion this can be apportioned to any work being carried out.
the lack of skill of the welder.
• The repair welding procedure may look very different to the
In this particular case as the defect is open to the surface, MPI or
DYE-PEN may be used to gauge the length of the defect and U/T original production procedure due to changes in these
inspection used to gauge the depth. elements.

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18-2
In Service Weld Repairs Weld Repairs

There are a number of key factors that need to be considered


Other factors to be taken into consideration: before undertaking any repair:
Effect of heat on any surrounding areas of the component ie • The most important - is it financially worthwhile?
electrical components, or materials that may become damaged
by the repair procedure. • Can structural integrity be achieved if the item is repaired?

This may also include difficulty in carrying out any required pre • Are there any alternatives to welding?
or post welding heat treatments and a possible restriction of • What caused the defect and is it likely to happen again?
access to the area to be repaired.
• How is the defect to be removed and what welding process is to
For large fabrications it is likely that the repair must also take be used?
place on site and without a shut down of operations, which
may bring other elements that need to be considered. • What NDE is required to ensure complete removal of the defect?
• Will the welding procedures require approval/re-approval?

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Weld Repairs Weld Repairs

• Use of approved welders.


• What will be the effect of welding distortion and residual • Dressing the weld and final visual.
stress?
• A NDT procedure/technique prepared and carried out to
• Will heat treatment be required? ensure that the defect has been successfully removed and
repaired.
• What NDE is required and how can acceptability of the repair
be demonstrated? • Any post repair heat treatment requirements.
• Will approval of the repair be required – if yes, how and by • Final NDT procedure/technique prepared and carried out after
whom? heat treatment requirements.
• Applying protective treatments (painting etc as required).
• (*Appropriate’ means suitable for the alloys being repaired
and may not apply in specific situations)

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Weld Repair Decision Tree Weld Repairs


Has nature of NO NDE +
Determine the Determine welding
the defect been Destructive
filler material standards
determined? tests

YES
Train the Qualify the
Is repair the Replace welder welder
right decision? NO the part
NO

Determine base Choose the Is welder Establish repair


metal weldability welding process qualified? procedure Plan View of defect
YES
Inspection Perform welding
repair Prepare the
defect area
Has repair been NO
Procedure problem
successful?
Fix problem
YES
Protect and
return to service Welder problem

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18-3
Production Weld Repairs Cost of Weld Repairs
Original weld Cost Repair weld Extra cost
Side View of defect excavation
Cut, prep, tack weld £ Inspector Repair report (NCR etc) ££
W
Welder time £ Inspector Identify repair area ££
D Consumable & gas £ Inspector Mark out repair area ££
Visual inspection £ Welder Remove defect ££
NDT ££ Inspector Visual inspection of excavation ££
Documentation £ Inspector NDT area of excavation ££
Inspector Monitor repair welding ££
Side View of repair welding Welder time £
Consumable & gas £
Inspector Visual inspection ££
NDT ££
Extra repair Documentation £
Penalty % NDT ££

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Any Questions

? Copyright © TWI Ltd 2013

18-4
CSWIP 3.1 Welding Inspection Residual stress

In case of a heated bar, the resistance of the


Residual Stress and Distortion surrounding material to the expansion and
contraction leads to formation of residual stress.

TWI Training & Examination


Services

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Residual stress Residual Stress

Cool with
At room restraint present
temperature

On heating to
400˚C 200mm

Cool with
On cooling to restraint removed
200mm 1mm room
temperature

199mm 1
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Residual Stress Residual stress

Origins of residual stress in welded joints

Ambient temperature.
Heat to 400°C.
Cool with restraint present. Cold weld unfused

The resistance of the surrounding material to the expansion Hot weld


and contraction leads to formation of residual stress.
Cold weld fused
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19-1
Types of residual stress Types of residual stress
Transverse residual stress after welding Longitudinal residual stress after welding.
Maximum stress = YS at
room temperature. Compression Tension

Tension

YS at room
temperature

Compression

The longer the weld, the higher the tensile stress! The higher the heat input the wider the tensile zone!
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Types of residual stress Residual Stress


Compression Tension
Residual stresses are undesirable because:
• They lead to distortion.
Residual stress • They affect dimensional stability of the
after PWHT welded assembly.
• They enhance the risk of brittle fracture.

YS at PWHT YS at room
temperature temperature

After PWHT, peak residual stress is less than a quarter of its initial level!
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Types of Distortion Distortion


Origins of distortion in welded joints:
Transverse shrinkage

Hot weld and HAZ.

400mm
5mm

Separate cooling.

398mm

Combined cooling.

400mm

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19-2
Distortion

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Residual Stress Distortion Prevention

Distortion prevention by restraint techniques.

Use of fully welded strongbacks.

Heating and cooling


causes expansion and
contraction.

Use of strongbacks with wedges.

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Distortion Prevention Distortion

Distortion prevention by fabrication techniques


Tack welding. Factors affecting distortion:

a Tack weld straight through


• Parent material properties.
to end of joint. • Amount of restrain.
7
1 5
2 3
3 41 25 4
6 6
7
b Tack weld one end, then use • Joint design.
back-step technique for • Fit-up.
tacking the rest of the joint.
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 • Welding sequence.
c Tack weld the centre, then
complete the tack welding
by the back-step technique.

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19-3
Factors Affecting Distortion Factors affecting distortion

Parent material properties: Joint design:


• Weld metal volume.
• Thermal expansion coefficient - the greater the • Type of joint - butt vs. fillet, single vs double side.
value, the greater the residual stress.
• Yield strength - the greater the value, the greater
Amount of restrain:
the residual stress. • Thickness - as thickness increases, so do the stresses.
• Thermal conductivity - the higher the value, the • High level of restrain lead to high stresses.
lower the residual stress. • Preheat may increase the level of stresses.

Fit-up:
• Root gap - increase in root gap increases shrinkage.

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Factors Affecting Distortion Types of distortion

Welding sequence:
Angular distortion
• Number of passes - every pass adds to the total
contraction.
Transverse shrinkage
• Travel speed - the faster the welding speed, the producing angular
less the stress. distortion.
• Build-up sequence.

Transverse
shrinkage producing
distortion.

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Distortion Prevention Distortion Prevention


Distortion prevention by design Distortion prevention by design
Consider eliminating the welding!!
Consider weld placement.
Neutral
axis
Neutral
axis

Reduce weld metal volume


and/or number of runs.
a By forming the plate.
b By use of rolled or extruded sections.
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19-4
Distortion Prevention Distortion prevention

Distortion prevention by fabrication techniques Distortion prevention by fabrication techniques


Back to back assembly.

a Assemblies tacked Reduce the number of runs


together before welding. required to make a weld (eg
a
angular distortion as a

a
function of number of runs
for a 10 mm leg length
b Use of wedges for
weld).
components that distort 10mm
on separation after
welding. N

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Distortion Prevention Distortion Prevention

Distortion prevention by fabrication techniques


Distortion prevention by fabrication techniques
• Control welding techniques by use balanced Control welding techniques by:
welding about the neutral axis.
• Control welding techniques by keeping the time
between runs to a minimum. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 4 2 5 3 6

a Back-step welding. b Skip welding.

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Distortion Prevention
Distortion - Best practice for fabrication corrective
techniques
• Using tack welds to set up and maintain the joint gap.
• Identical components welded back to back so welding can be
balanced about the neutral axis.
• Attachment of longitudinal stiffeners to prevent longitudinal bowing in
butt welds of thin plate structures.
• Where there is choice of welding procedure, process and technique
should aim to deposit the weld metal as quickly as possible; MIG in
preference to MMA or gas welding and mechanised rather than
manual welding.
• In long runs, the whole weld should not be completed in one
direction; back-step or skip welding techniques should be used.
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19-5
CSWIP 3.1 Welding Inspection Heat Treatment
Why?
• Improve mechanical properties.
• Change microstructure.
• Reduce residual stress level.
Heat treatment of welded structures • Change chemical composition.
How?
• Flame oven.
TWI Training & Examination • Electric oven/electric heating blankets.
• induction/HF heating elements.
Services

Global Where? Local

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Heat Treatment Methods Heat Treatment Methods

Advantages:
• Easy to set up. Advantages:
• Good portability. • Ability to vary heat.
• Repeatability and • Ability to continuously
temperature maintain heat.
uniformity.
Disadvantages:
• Elements may burn out or
Disadvantages: arcing during heating.
Gas furnace heat treatment • Limited to size of Local heat treatment using
parts. electric heating blankets

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Heat Treatment Methods Heat Treatments

Advantages: The inspector, in general, should ensure that:


• High heating rates. • Equipment is as specified.
• Ability to heat a narrow
band. • Temperature control equipment is in good condition.
• Procedures as specified, is being used eg.
Disadvantages:
• High equipment cost.
⁻ Method of application.
⁻ Rate of heating and cooling.
• Large equipment, less
portable.
⁻ Maximum temperature.
⁻ Soak time.
⁻ Temperature measurement (and calibration).
HF local heat treatment • Documentation and records.

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20-1
Heat Treatment Cycle Heat Treatment
Variables for heat treatment process must be carefully controlled.
Recommendations
Temperature
SoakingTemperature and • Provide adequate support (low YS at high temperature).
time at the attained
temperature Cooling rate • Control heating rate to avoid uneven thermal expansions.
• Control soak time to equalise temperatures.
• Control temperature gradients - NO direct flame
impingement.

heating rate • Control furnace atmosphere to reduce scaling.


Time
• Control cooling rate to avoid brittle structure formation.
Heating Soaking Cooling

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Heat Treatments Heat Treatments


Many metals must be given heat treatment before and
after welding. Pre-heat treatments
The inspector’s function is to ensure that the treatment is
given correctly in accordance with the specification or as • Are used to increase weldability, by reducing sudden
per the details supplied. reduction of temperature, and control expansion and
contraction forces during welding.
Types of heat treatment available:
• Preheat.
• Annealing. Post weld heat treatments
• Normalising. • Are used to change the properties of the weld metal,
• Quench hardening. controlling the formation of crystalline structures.

• Temper.
• Stress relief.
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Heat Treatments Heat Treatments


Preheat:
We can preheat metals and alloys when welding for a number Preheat temperatures are arrived by taking into
of reasons. Primarily we use most pre-heats to achieve one
or more of the following: consideration the following:

• To control the structure of the weld metal and HAZ on • The heat input.
cooling.
• The carbon equivalent (CE).
• To improve the diffusion of gas molecules through an
atomic structure. • The combined material thickness.
• To control the effects of expansion and contraction. • The hydrogen scale required (A, B, C, D).
• Preheat controls the formation of un-desirable
microstructures that are produced from rapid cooling of
certain types of steels. Martensite is an undesirable grain
structure very hard and brittle it is produced by rapid
cooling form the austenite region.
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20-2
Heat Treatments Heat Treatments

The temperatures mentioned are for steels:


Pre-Heat Requirements
• The welding heat input Increased – Reduced.
Process: Pre-heat for welding.
• Carbon Equivalent Increased – Increased.
Temperature: 50-2500C higher by exception.
• Hydrogen content Increased – Increased.
Cooling: Hold during welding.
• Combined material thickness Increased -
Increased. Result: Prevents cracking and hard zones.

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Heat Treatments Preheat Comparison Chart


175 150 125 100 75 50 20 0
Advantages of preheat: 200
Combined material thickness

180
• Slows down the cooling rate, which reduces the risk
160
of hardening.
140
• Allows absorbed hydrogen a better opportunity of 120
diffusing out, thereby reducing the risk of cracking. 100

• Removes moisture from the material being welded. 80


60
• Improves overall fusion characteristics.
40
A B C D E
• Lowers stresses between the weld metal and parent 20 0.43 0.45 0.47 0.53 0.55
material by ensuring a more uniform expansion and 0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0
contraction.
Heat input
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Methods of Measuring Preheat Post Weld Heat Treatment

• Temperature indicating crayons (tempil sticks).


Question:
• Thermocouples or touch pyrometers.
What is the main reason for carrying out PWHT (to
• At intervals along of around the joint to be welded. steel joints)?
• The number of measurements taken must allow the inspector to be Answer:
confident that the required temperature has been reached.
To reduce residual stresses.
• In certain cases the preheat must be maintained a certain distance
back from the joint faces. Supplementary Question:
• If a gas flame is being used for preheat application the temperature What is the benefit for reduce residual stresses?
should be taken form the opposite side to the heat source. Supplementary Answer:
• If this is not possible time must be allowed before taking the preheat To improve resistance to brittle fracture.
temperature eg 2 mins for 25mm thickness.

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20-3
Post Weld Heat Treatment Post Weld Heat Treatment
Removal of Residual Stress PWHT Procedures - Basic Requirements
• At PWHT temp. the yield Maximum Heating Rate
Cr-Mo steel - typical
500 strength of steel is reduced Usually from 300 or 400°C - need to avoid large temperature gradients
Yield Strength (N/mm2 )

so that it is not strong that may cause distortion/cracking.


400 enough to give restraint. Max rate depends on thickness but typically up to ~ 200°C/h.
C-Mn steel - typical
Soak Temperature depends on steel type - usually specified by code (~550
300
• Residual stress reduced to
to ~710 °C).
very low level by
rearrangement of the atomic Minimum Soak Time
200
structure. Need to make sure and whole item/full thickness reaches specified temp.
100 Codes typically specify 1h per 25mm related to maximum joint thickness.
Maximum Cooling Rate
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 Usually down to 400 or 300°C - for same reasons as controlled heating
Temperature (°C) rate.

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Heat Treatments Heat Treatments

Annealing (steels) Stress Relief (steels)

Temperature: 920°C hold for sufficient time (full austenitization). Temperature: 550-6500C no phase transformation.

Cooling: Hold, slow cooling in furnace. Cooling: Hold, furnace or controlled cooling.

Result: Produces a very soft, low hardness material suitable Result: Relieves residual stresses, improves
for cold working or machining operations. stability during machining, reduces
Decreases toughness and lowers yield stress hydrogen levels, prevents stress corrosion
Homogenising annealing. cracking.

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Heat Treatments Heat Treatments

Any Questions
Post Hydrogen Release (according to BS EN1011-2)
Temperature: Approximately 250°C hold up to 3 hours
Cooling: Slow cool in air

?
Result: Relieves residual hydrogen
Procedure: Maintaining pre-heat / interpass
temperature after completion of
welding for 2 to 3 hours.

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20-4
CSWIP 3.1 Welding Inspection Welding Related Risks

• Fire and explosion.

Welding Safety • Fume and gases.


• Electrical shock.
• Eye injuries.
TWI Training & Examination
Services • Skin burns.
• Mechanical hazards.

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Fire and Explosion Fire and Explosion

Gas cylinders must be correctly


Weld away flammable materials. secured, otherwise:
Secure gas cylinders.
1 May cause direct injury.
2 May snatch hoses and
blowpipe.
Use flashback arrestors.
3 Regulator may break off
escape of gas.
Protect the floor - layer
of sand or fire retardant 4 Valve may break off escape of gas.
sheets.
5 Valve may break off cylinder accelerating by rocket action.
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Fire and Explosion Hazard Onsite Checking Gas Cylinder for Leaks

• Leak testing.

• Acetylene screws are


left handed!

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21-1
Welding Fume and Gases Welding Fume
Effect of welding fume and gasses on health:
Welding fume sources:
• Fume - particulate and toxic: irritation of nose, throat, lungs,
asphyxiation. • Parent material. (Cr6 thought to
• Ozone - irritation of nose, throat lungs; excess mucous secretion, be carcinogeni c!)
coughing. • Welding consumables.
(filler, flux, gas).
• Nitrous oxide, hydrogen chloride, phosgene - delayed irritation
and toxic effect on upper respiratory tract; excess fluid in lungs. • Action of heat/UV on air:
nitrous oxide and ozone
• Carbon monoxide - oxygen deficiency, drowsiness, headache, • Surface treatments.
nausea; fatal oxygen starvation. (paint, plating, coatings).
• Carbon dioxide - oxygen deficiency, asphyxiation. • Cleaning fluids.
• Argon, helium, nitrogen – asphyxiation.
• Hydrogen, other fuel gases - explosion, fire, asphyxiation.
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Welding Fume Welding Fume


Control of substances hazardous to health (COSHH)
Things to be addressed:
regulations set occupational exposure limits
• Composition of the fume.
8hr TWA 10minTWA
• Concentration of the fume. mg/m³ mg/m³
• Duration of exposure.
Iron 5 10
Fume health effects: Cr6 0.5
Ozone 0.2 0.6
Cadmium 0.05 0.05
Respiratory Metal Systemic Chronic Weld fume 5
tract irritation fume fever poisoning effects Aluminum 5

TWA - Time waited average


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Welding Fume Welding Fume

COSHH regulations requires fume measurement:


How to avoid welding fume exposure:
a In workshop.

b In breathing zone.
• Keep head out of fume.
• Work upwind of weld.
c Regular monitoring.
• Use local fume extraction.
d Regular auditing.

NOTE : COSHH regulations covers also NOISE exposure

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21-2
Welding Fume Respiratory Protective Equipment (RPE)
Requirements
How to avoid welding fume exposure:
• Must be suitable for purpose.
• Use fresh air welding helmets.
• Must be approved by relevant organisations.
• Use respirators as second line of defense. • Must be fully maintained.
• Must be safely stored.
• Must be correctly fitted.
• Selection, maintenance and fitting require trained staff.
• Users must be trained in its use.

RPE can adversely affect:


• Communication. • Visibility.
• Work rate. • Use of other PPE.
• Mobility. • Tool use.
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Electrical Shock Electrical shock

Points to be considered:
Points to be considered: Check weld connections and cable insulation.

O.C.V. : for AC - 80V; for DC - 70V


Modern equipment: 50V
Plasma cutting: over 100V
TIG uses HF: round 20,000V

Bad! Good!
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Electrical Shock Electrical Shock

Welding current flows in


crane hook, wire rope, crane Welding return lead runs
bearings weakens and directly to the work: no
damage them damage.

Possibly burning out the


crane electrics! Earth lead divert current
from the crane:
supplementary safeguard.

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21-3
Eye injuries and skin burns Eye Injuries and Skin Burns
Electric arc produces ultra violet/infra red light Wear safety goggles and visor during grinding.
Gives arc eye and skin burns! Wear ear defenders.
Measures to be taken:
• Wear PPE.
• Choose shade of filter according to welding process.

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Skin Burns Work in Confined Spaces


Do NOT leave flame
unattended! Definition: any place by virtue of its enclosed nature,
there is a foreseeable risk of any specified occurrence.

Example: chambers, tanks, silos, pits, pipes, etc.


Warning
notice Specified occurrence:
• Fire or explosion.
• Loss of consciousness or asphyxiation due to
gas, fumes, vapour or lack of oxygen.
Fire extinguisher • Drowning.
(if any combustible • Asphyxiation due to free flowing solid.
material nearby!) • Loss of consciousness due to high temperature.

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Summary

• Be aware of health and safety regulations for each specific


application!
• Are the cables the right size for your job? Any Questions
• Are they spread out or run neatly to prevent overheating?
• Is the work lead connected securely?

?
• Is there enough insulation between your body and the work piece?
• Are all connections tight, including the earth ground?
• Are electrode holder and welding cable in good conditions?
• Do not operate with power source covers removed!
• Disconnect input power before servicing!
• Do not touch electrically live parts or electrode with skin or wet
clothing!
• Insulate yourself from work and ground!

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21-4
3.1 Weld Inspection Calibration/Validation

BS 7570: Covers the calibration and


validation of welding equipment.
CALIBRATION
Grade 1 (general purpose equipment) all
parameters should be +/- 10%.
TWI Training & Examination
Services Grade 2 (Automatic or automated equipment)
parameters should be +/- 2.5% for current and
+/- 5% for all other parameters.

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Calibration/Validation Measuring in Welding

Calibration can only be done on equipment with meters The purposes


or gauges as theses can be adjusted. of measuring

Demonstration of
Validation can be done on equipment with and without Welding process
conformance to
meters or gauges. control
specified requirements

Parameters to be measured:
Oil fill transformers etc.
• Welding current. • Preheat / inter-pass
All equipment can be Validated but not all equipment • Arc voltage. temperature.
can be Calibrated. • Travel speed. • Force/pressure.
• Shielding gas flow rate. • Humidity.
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Welding Current Measurement The Tong Tester

Used for AC current


Definition: The current delivered by a welding
power source during welding. No need to insert the meter into the
circuit.

• Measured with an ammeter.


• Measured in A.
• The ammeter may be connected at any point in the
circuit.
• Due to its sensitivity, a shunt is needed.
• Indirect measurement: tachogenerator and tong
tester.

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22-1
Arc Voltage Measurement Travel Speed Measurement
Definition: The potential difference across the welding arc. Definition: The rate of weld progression.
• Measured in case of mechanised and automatic welding
• Varies with the arc length.
processes.
• Measured with a voltmeter.
• In case of MMA can be determined using ROL and arc
• Measured in V. time.
• The voltmeter may be connected only across the circuit
(to the workpiece and as close as possible to the
electrode).
• If the voltmeter is connected at the welding power
source, a higher voltage will be recorded (due to
potential drops across cables).
• Usually not required for MMA and TIG.

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Gas Flow Rate Measurement Welding Temperatures Definitions


Definition: The rate at which gas is caused to flow. Preheat • Is the temperature of the workpiece in the
weld zone immediately before any welding
temperature operation (including tack welding).
Set with a gas Can be checked • Normally expressed as a minimum.
regulator. with a flowmeter • Is the temperature in a multirun weld and
Interpass
adjacent parent metal immediately prior to
temperature the application of the next run.
• Normally expressed as a maximum.

Minimum interpass temperature = Preheat temperature


• Is the minimum temperature in the weld zone
Preheat which shall be maintained if welding is
Maintenance interrupted.
temperature • Shall be monitored during interruption.
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Welding Temperatures – where? Welding Temperatures - Where?

Point of measurement - see


Point of measurement - see BS EN ISO 13916
BS EN ISO 13916
• If t > 50 mm  A = min. 75 mm.
• Where practicable, the
• If t  50 mm  A = 4 x t but max. temperature shall be measured on
50 mm. the face opposite to that being
heated.
• The temperature shall be
measured on the surface of the • Allow 2 min per every 25 mm of
workpiece facing the welder. parent metal thickness for
temperature equalisation.
• Interpass temperature shall be
measured on the weld metal or
immediately adjacent parent
metal.
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22-2
Welding Temperatures - How? Temperature Test Equipment
Test equipment Temperature sensitive
materials:
Thermocouple • Crayons, paints and pills.
(TE) • Cheap.
Temperature • Convenient, easy to use.
sensitive Thermistor
materials (TS) (CT)

Optical/electrical
devices for
Contact contactless Doesn’t measure the
thermometer measurement (TB) actual temperature!
(CT)
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Temperature Test Equipment Temperature Test Equipment

Thermistors
Thermocouple • Are temperature-sensitive resistors
whose resistance varies inversely
• Based on measuring the thermoelectric potential with temperature.
difference between a hot junction (on weld) and a
cold junction. • Used when high sensitivity is
• Accurate method. required.
• Measures over a wide range of temperatures. • Gives the actual temperature.
• Gives the actual temperature. • Need calibration.
• Need calibration.
• Can be used up to 320°C.

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Temperature Test Equipment PAMS (Portable Arc Monitor System)

Devices for contactless measurement PAMS UNIT


The purposes
of PAMS
• IR radiation and optical pyrometer.
• Measure the radiant energy emitted
by the hot body. For measuring For calibrating
and recording and validating
• Contactless method  can be used the welding the welding
for remote measurements. parameters equipment
• Very complex.
• For measuring high temperatures.

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22-3
PAMS (Portable Arc Monitor System) Use of PAMS
What does a PAMS unit measure?
Wire feed speed monitoring
Welding Gas flow rate
current (Hall (heating
effect device) element
sensor) Incorporated pair of
rolls connected to a
tachogenerator
Wire feed speed
(tachometer)

Arc voltage
(connection
leads) Temperature
(thermocouple)
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Use of PAMS Calibration, Validation and Monitoring

Shielding gas flow rate Definitions:


monitoring • Measurement = set of operations for determining a value of a
quantity.
• Repeatability = closeness between successive measuring results of
the same instrument carried out under the same conditions.
Heating element • Accuracy class = class of measuring instruments that are intended
to keep the errors within specified limits.
sensor
• Calibration = checking the errors in a meter or measuring device.
• Validation = checking the control knobs and switches provide the
same level of accuracy when returned to a pre-determined point.
• Monitoring = checking the welding parameters (and other items) are
in accordance with the procedure or specification.

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Calibration and Validation Calibration and Validation

When is it required? When it is NOT required?


• Once a year unless otherwise specified. • When verification of the process is not required.
• Whenever there are indications that the instrument
does not register properly. • In case of small series and single piece production
when all the following conditions are fulfilled:
• Whenever the equipment has been damaged, misused
- procedures are approved by procedure testing.
or subject to severe stress.
- production is carried out by the same welding
• Whenever the equipment has been rebuild or repaired. machine used during procedure testing.

See BS EN ISO 17662 for details!

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22-4
Calibration and Validation Welding Parameter Calibration/Validation

When it is NOT required? Which parameters need calibration/validation?


• In case of mass production when all the following • Depends on the welding process.
conditions are fulfilled: • See BS EN ISO 17662 and BS 7570 for details.
- Production is controlled by pre-production testing,
followed by testing of samples from production at How accurate?
regular intervals. • Depends on the application.
- A statistical quality control system is used. • Welding current - ±2.5%.
- The process is stable between testing of samples. • Arc voltage - ±5%.
- Pre-production testing and sampling are performed • Wire feed speed - ±2.5%.
separately for each production line (robotic cells).
• Gas flow rate - ±20% (±25% for backing gas flow rate).
• Temperature (thermocouple) - ±5%.
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Example 1 - MMA Elementary Monitoring Example 2 - High integrity MMA Operation

In theory any MMA operation could require monitoring In theory, this might require monitoring of all the
of: activities previously mentioned.
The equipment thus required would be:
• Welding current. • Ammeter.
• Arc voltage. • Voltmeter.
• R.O.L. • Stop watch. OR a PAMS
• Preheat/interpass temperature.
• Tape measure.
• Electrode treatment and storage.
• Thermometer.
In practice (depending on the application) only the • Calculator.
welding current could require monitoring with a tongue All of the above equipment would require calibration; any meters
test ammeter. fitted to the power source or electrode ovens would also require
calibration.
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Example 3 – MIG/MAG Welding With a Robot Summary

In theory, the following would require monitoring: • A welding power source can only be calibrated if it
• Wire feed speed. has meters fitted.
• Amperage. • The inspector should check for calibration stickers,
• Voltage. dates etc.
• Travel speed. • A welding power source without meters can only be
• Gas flow rate. validated that the control knobs provide
• Repeatability of the controls. repeatability.
• The main role is to carryout in process monitoring
In practice, a data logger would be preferred to monitor to ensure that the welding requirements are met
all the parameters; also a PAMS would be required to during production.
check the repeatability of the control knobs.

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22-5
Any Questions

?
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22-6
CSWIP 3.1 Welding Inspection Example of Weld Face
EXAMPLE PLATE REPORT
Candidates Name……………………………….. Specification……………………………..

Candidates signature…………………………… Welding process………………………..

Welding Position………………………..

MEASURE
WELD FACE

Practical Plate Inspection A


Lack of sidewall Gas pore
1.5 Ø
Undercut
smooth
B

FROM
fusion 1.5 max
87 22 230 236 30

TWI Training & Examination

THIS
Services 51 8 153 40 Arc
Strike

DATUM
Slag
Centreline 241
inclusion
crack

EDGE
NOTES: Excess Weld Metal = Linear Misalignment = Toe Blend = Weld Width =

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Example of Plate Root Plate Inspection Examination

2 Compare to acceptance standard.


A B
MEASURE

1 Read the Questions and compare


Root concavity Lack of root
Fusion
with your thumb print.
2mm deep
23
FROM

10 247
20
THIS

128 50

Incomplete root
DATUM

penetration
3 Mark the answer in the OMR
grid in pencil and accept or reject
accordingly. When you are sure
EDGE

about your answer mark the OMR


NOTES: grid in BLACK PEN.
Penetration Height = Toe Blend = Weld Width =

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Any Questions

?
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A2-1
CSWIP 3.1 Welding Inspection Pipe Inspection

Practical Pipe Inspection


TWI Training & Examination
Services

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Hi – Low and Root Gap Measurements Pipe Inspection Examination


1

2
After you have observed an imperfection and determined its type, you
3

4
must be able to take measurements and complete the thumb print
5
report sketch
6

Root gap The first thumb print report sketch should be in the form of a repair
HI-LO Single Purpose Welding Gauge

dimension map of the weld. (ie all observations are Identified sized and located)

The thumb print report sketch used in CSWIP exam will look like the
Internal following example.
alignment
The thumb print is to used in conjunction with the multiple choice
questions during the examination

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Pipe Inspection Examination Pipe Inspection Examination


EXAMPLE PIPE REPORT
PIPE ROOT FACE
Name: [Block capitals] ….............................. Signature: ………………. Date…………………….
Code/Specification used: …………………… Welding process: ……………… Joint type: …………….
Welding position: …………………. Outside Dia & thickness …………… Date …………………… A Lack of root B C
fusion Burn through

WELD FACE 140 8 40 6

A Lack of side B Arc Strike C


wall fusion Under fill
98
140 8 40 12 20 15 90 10 180 46 5
60

Lack of root Undercut Excess Poor stop


20 15 90 10 180 60 5 penetration >1.0 mm penetration start
46
5mm
Slag inclusion
Lack of side Undercut Under fill
NOTES:
wall fusion >1.0 mm Excess Penetration Height Toe Blend =
NOTES:
Excess Weld Metal Height = Misalignment = Weld Width = Toe Blend = =
Lack of root
Lack of side wall fusion / C D fusion
A
Arc Strike
C Slag D incomplete fill A 38 8
120 15 38 8 25

120
120

Smooth Undercut
<1.0mm

NOTES:
Excess Weld Metal Height = Misalignment = Weld Width = Toe Blend = NOTES: Excess Penetration Height = Toe Blend =
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A3-1
Pipe Inspection Examination

2. Compare to acceptance standard


1. Read the Questions and compare
with your thumb print
Any Questions

3. Mark the answer in the OMR


grid in pencil and accept or reject
accordingly. When you are sure about
your answer mark the OMR grid in
BLACK PEN

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? Copyright © TWI Ltd 2013

A3-2
CSWIP 3.1 Welding Inspection Macro Inspection Examination

Practical Macro Inspection

TWI Training & Examination


Services

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Macro Inspection Examination Macro Defects

For CSWIP 3.1 Welding Inspectors examination you


are required to conduct a visual examination of two
macro samples.

Time allowed 45 minutes

Acceptance Levels TWI 09

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Macro Defects Macro Inspection

Welded With SMAW 9 1

2
7

5 4 3

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A5-1
Macro Inspection Macro Inspection
1 1
8
Welded With SMAW Welded With SMAW
7

6 7

2
2

3
3
6

4 5
4

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Macro Inspection Macro Inspection


7 1
Welded With SMAW 7

6
2
6

3
5
5
4 4 3

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Macro Inspection Macro Inspection Examination


1. Examine the Macro Photograph
Welded With GMAW 1
10 3. Compare Against Acceptance Levels
9 1
8
TWI 09 Exam Acceptance Levels for Plate, Pipe and Macro

D=Depth L=Length H=Height t =Thickness

10 Acceptance Levels
Table Number

Acceptance levels Plate and Pipe


Defect Type

Macro Only

7 Remarks Maximum Allowance Remarks

At no point shall the excess weld


Excess weld metal will not exceed H= 2mm in any
metal fall below the outside surface
Excess Weld area on the circumference of the pipe, showing As for plate and pipe
1 of the pipe. All weld runs shall blend
Metal smooth transition at weld toes.
smoothly.
Slag inclusions are defined as non The length of the slag inclusion shall not exceed

6 2
Slag/Silica
Inclusions
metaltic inclusions trapped in the
weld metal or between the weld
metal and the parent material.
50mm. continuous or intermittent. Accumulative
totals shall not exceed 50mm 1mm diameter

2
Under cut is defined as a grove The length of any undercut shall not exceed 50mm
melted into the parent metal, at the continuous or intermittent. Accumulative totals shall
3 Undercut toes of the weld excess metal, root or not exceed 50mm. Max D = 2mm for the excess
0.5mm deep
adjacent weld metal. weld metal. Root undercut not permitted.
Trapped gas, in weld metal,
Individual pores ≥ 1.5 max.Cluster porosity 10mm in
elongated, individual pores, cluster
4 Porosity area.Elongated, piping or wormholes
porosity, piping or wormhole
15mm max. L continuous or intermittent. 1mm diameter
porosity.

Transverse, longitudinal, star cracks


5 Cracks Not permitted Not permitted
or crater cracks.
Incomplete fusion between the weld Surface breaking lack of side wall fusion, lack of
.
metal and base material, incomplete inter-run fusion continuous or intermittent not to
Lack of fusion between weld metal. (lack of exceed 25mm. Accumulative totals not to exceed
6 Not permitted
fusion inter-run fusion) 25mm over a 300mm length of weld.
Damage to the parent material or
weld metal, from an un-intentional
touch down of the electrode or arcing Not permitted
7 Arc Strikes
from poor connections in the welding Not permitted
circuit.
Damage to the parent material or
Mechanical weld metal, internal or external
8 Max. D = 0.5 Not permitted
Damage resulting from any activities.
Mismatch between the welded or un- Max.= 1.5 L not exceed 30mm continuous or
Misalignmen
9 welded joint. intermittent As for plate and pipe
t

3 10 Penetration
Excess weld metal, above the base
material in the root of the joint. At no
point shall the penetration fall below
Max H ≤ 2mm
As for plate and pipe
the thickness of the material.
Lack of root The absence of weld metal in the root

9 5
Not permitted
11 penetration area. Refer to Table 10

2
Lack of root Inadequate cross penetration of both Lack of root fusion, not to exceed 50mm total
12
fusion root faces. continuous or accumulative. No t permitted

4 13
Burn
through Excessive penetration , collapse of
Not permitted Not permitted
the weld root

2. Read the Questions


3
4. Mark the answer in the OMR
1 What is the defect at position 1 and would you accept grid in pencil and accept or reject
or reject the defect to the given acceptance levels?
a) Poor toe blend
b) Underfill accordingly. When you are sure about
c) Undercut
d) Lack of fusion your answer mark the OMR grid in
e) Accept
4 f) Reject
8 7 6 5 BLACK PEN

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A5-2
Any Questions

? Copyright © TWI Ltd 2013

A5-3

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