Planetary and Space Science 74 (2012) 42–48

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Planetary and Space Science

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/pss

A brief review of chemical and mineralogical resources on the Moon and

likely initial in situ resource utilization (ISRU) applications
M. Anand a,b,n, I.A. Crawford c,d, M. Balat-Pichelin e, S. Abanades e, W. van Westrenen f, G. Péraudeau e,
R. Jaumann g, W. Seboldt h
a
Planetary and Space Sciences, Department of Physical Sciences, The Open University, Milton Keynes, UK
b
Department of Mineralogy, The Natural History Museum, London, UK
c
Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Birkbeck College, University of London, UK
d
Centre for Planetary Sciences at UCL/Birkbeck, London, UK
e
PROMES-CNRS, 7 rue du four solaire, 66120 Font-Romeu Odeillo, France
f
Faculty of Earth and Life Sciences, VU University Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
g
DLR, Institute of Planetary Research, Rutherfordstrasse 2, D-12489 Berlin, Germany
h
DLR, Institute of Space Systems, Robert-Hooke-Str. 7, D-28359 Bremen, Germany

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In situ resource utilization (ISRU) refers to the in situ generation of consumables for autonomous or
Received 24 March 2012 human activities from raw materials found on the Moon or other planetary bodies. The use of ISRU on
Received in revised form the Moon may provide a means of reducing the cost and risk of human exploration of the Moon and
14 July 2012
beyond, and an impetus for commercial contributions to lunar exploration. Potential products include
Accepted 3 August 2012
Available online 19 August 2012
O2 and H2O for life support, H2 and O2 for fuel and propellant, and other elements and compounds for
metallurgic and chemical production processes.
Keywords: If ISRU is to be applied successfully on the Moon, it is important that landing site selection, surface
Moon operations and suitable ISRU technologies are identified using knowledge of the availability and
ISRU
distribution of lunar resources and detailed understanding of the workings of the various processes
Chemical
available. Here, we review current knowledge of chemical and mineralogical resources on the Moon
Mineralogical
Resources which can be used in the development of ISRU as a realistic component of future lunar exploration.
Regolith & 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction space exploration will be mutually beneficial in both terrestrial

A natural extension of the development of fundamental
scientific understanding of the origin and evolution of a planetary
body is to explore its natural resource potential. In addition,
exploration of space is an expensive undertaking in purely
economic terms, with return on investment mostly measured
in terms of scientific output. Identification of extraterrestrial
resources, and development of techniques to use them, could
therefore, both reduce our dependence on Earth-based resources
and aid in the establishment of financially sustainable space
exploration programmes (e.g. Lewis et al., 1993; Lewis, 1996;
Spudis, 1996; Spudis and Lavoie, 2011). Besides, in the longer
term, as natural resources on Earth continue to be depleted, the
emphasis on exploring extraterrestrial resources will inevitably
grow (e.g., Elvis, 2012; Kargel, 1994; Martin, 1985), and hence
n
Corresponding author at: The Open University, Department of Physical
Sciences, Planetary and Space Sciences, Walton Hall, Milton Keynes, UK.
Tel.: þ44 19 08 85 8551.
E-mail address: m.anand@open.ac.uk (M. Anand).
and extra-terrestrial settings.
After Earth, the Moon is the planetary body which has been
most extensively studied for its geological history and evolution
by means of automated landers, human exploration missions, and
numerous remote sensing spacecraft. As a result, opportunities
for lunar resource utilization have been studied for decades (e.g.,
see Badescu, 2012; Lewis et al., 1993). In situ resource utilization
(ISRU) is the term used to refer to the generation of consumables
for autonomous or human activities from raw materials found in-
situ on the Moon or other planetary bodies. A number of common
geochemical processes involved in producing economic mineral
deposits on Earth are also thought to have occurred on the Moon,
albeit under somewhat different geochemical conditions. Cur-
rently, the most important ISRU products on the Moon are
perceived to be the production of O2 and H2O for life support or
H2 and O2 for fuel and propellant. However, as our knowledge and
understanding of lunar resources improve other elements and
compounds on the Moon, which may be present in sufficient
abundances, may become equally attractive for ISRU activities,
enabling sustainable lunar exploration in the longer term.

0032-0633/$ - see front matter & 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pss.2012.08.012
 M. Anand et al. / Planetary and Space Science 74 (2012) 42–48 43

The types of lunar ISRU processes that might be applied in the analysis of these returned samples provide the ground truth
future, and the corresponding research and development activ- against which remote sensing datasets are calibrated. As most
ities they would enable, depend on both the scientific and returned samples were collected from the near-side equatorial
technical maturity of potential industrial applications for in-situ regions of the Moon occupied by lunar maria, our knowledge of
extraction, and accurate knowledge of the composition, physical the composition and properties of mare regolith is relatively
states, availability and distribution of resources on the lunar mature compared to non-mare regions. Mare regions are com-
surface. At present, our knowledge concerning all of these aspects posed of basaltic lava flows which contain varying proportions of
is still considered to be insufficient. As a result, it is not feasible to plagioclase, pyroxene and olivine as well as ilmenite (FeTiO3).
incorporate ISRU considerations into long-term exploration sce- Following the classification scheme proposed by Neal and Taylor
narios or into the critical path of mission designs. Here, we review (1992) these are further subdivided into ‘high-Ti’ and ‘low-Ti’
current knowledge of chemical and mineralogical resources on basalts depending on whether their TiO2 content is above or
the Moon which can be used in the development of ISRU as a below 6% by mass. Many proposed processes for ISRU, especially
realistic component of future lunar exploration, and identify gaps those based on ilmenite reduction (see below) have used this
in our knowledge of resource distribution and ISRU capabilities. sample-based information as a starting point. However, it is
important to realise that there are numerous un-sampled basalts
in lunar mare regions on both the near side and the far side.
1.1. Chemical and mineralogical resources on the Moon
Orbital remote sensing data indicate that some of these have
compositions that differ from those present in the returned
1.1.1. Regolith as a resource
samples (e.g. Hiesinger et al., 2000), and some of these composi-
The most likely primary feed stock in processes aimed at extrac-
tional variations may have ISRU implications.
tion of in situ resources on the Moon is the lunar regolith; a layer of
The diversity of highland regolith is less well constrained from
rocks and fine-grained particles at the lunar surface, with a thickness
sample studies, and most knowledge comes from analyses of
generally varying between approximately 3 m and 20 m (McKay
remote sensing data, lunar meteorites, and a limited number of
et al., 1991). The particles that make up the regolith have been
Apollo samples. Although generally anorthositic (i.e. plagioclase-
generated by millions to billions of years of (micro-)meteoroid
rich), the large diversity of lunar crustal materials continues to be
impacts, with subsequent space weathering by thermal cycling, solar
demonstrated by results from orbital remote sensing instruments
wind erosion and implantation, and impacts leading to comminution
on Kaguya, Chang’e-1, Chandrayaan-1 and Lunar Reconnaissance
and agglutination of particles (e.g., Lucey et al., 2006). Lunar soils can
Orbiter (LRO) spacecraft. As summarised by Crawford et al.
generally be described by log-normal size distributions with mean
(2012), these include outcrops of pure anorthosites which may
diameters typically between 45 mm and 100 mm; although particles
represent pristine magma ocean flotation cumulates (e.g., Ohtake
can be at least as small as 10 nm (Greenberg et al., 2007; Liu et al.,
et al., 2009), olivine-rich outcrops which may sample mantle
2008). Grain morphologies can vary from highly irregular and angular
material (Yamamoto et al., 2010), and spinel-rich (Sunshine et al.,
vesicular agglutinates to spherical glass beads generated during
2010) and silica-rich (Glotch et al., 2010; Greenhagen et al., 2010;
impacts and explosive volcanic (pyroclastic) activities (Liu and
Jolliff et al., 2011) lithologies not represented in the existing
Taylor, 2011; McKay et al., 1991; Papike et al., 1982).
sample collection. Thus we now know that that the Apollo and
Lunar regolith contains a number of minerals with the most
Luna sample locations are unrepresentative of the lunar surface as
abundant being plagioclase, pyroxene, olivine, ilmenite and spi-
a whole.
nel, followed by minor minerals including cristobalite, apatite,
Future exploration missions to lunar highlands and non-mare
sulphides, and native metals such as Fe and Ni. The absolute and
locations (including the polar regions and the South Pole Aitken
relative abundances of these, and other, minerals are variable
basin) at which ISRU is to be applied will require a process which
depending on location. In general the basaltic terrains of lunar
is appropriate to the available feedstock. To this end, it is essential
mare tend to be much richer in ilmenite, olivine and pyroxene
to determine the properties of this feedstock in terms of its
whilst the more primitive lunar highlands are dominated by
composition and physical properties. As of yet, no direct sampling
Ca-rich plagioclase (e.g. Haskin et al., 1993). The actual composi-
of lunar polar regions or the South Pole Aitken basin has taken
tion of lunar soils is however observed to be very localised, even
place and most of our knowledge on the chemical and miner-
on the scale of a few kilometres, indicating a limited extent of
alogical makeup of these terrains is derived from remote sensing
lateral mixing (Papike et al., 1982). Within this complex mixture
studies by extrapolation of Apollo sample sets. Direct sampling
of materials and minerals lie several possible resources.
will be required to fully understand localized lateral and vertical
In the following sections a brief description of several potential
distributions of chemical and mineralogical resources at sites not
resources in the regolith and their potential for extraction and
previously visited, especially at the lunar polar regions and on the
application as discussed in the literature by a number of previous
far-side.
investigators is given. For in depth discussions of lunar resources and
their potential applications, readers are referred to the twin books
1.2. Water ice in permanently shadowed craters
Resources of Near-Earth Space (edited by Lewis et al., 1993), which
remains the most authoritative reference for many aspects of lunar
It has long been suggested that water ice might be present in
resources, and Moon: Prospective Energy and Material Resources (edited
permanently shadowed and near polar craters on the Moon (e.g.,
by Badescu, 2012). In the former book see especially the chapters by
Arnold, 1979). The temperature in the interior of such craters has
Fegley and Swindle (1993), Colson and Haskin, 1993, Haskin et al.
recently been shown to be below 40 K by the Diviner instrument
(1993), Senior (1993), Taylor and Carrier (1993), and Waldron (1993).
on LRO (Paige et al., 2010). Increased levels (up to 1700 ppm) of
An excellent book-length discussion of lunar resources in the context
hydrogen at both the North and South lunar poles were suggested
of establishing lunar bases has been given by (Eckart, 1999; for ISRU
by Lunar Prospector (Feldman et al., 1998,2000). After much
see especially chapter 19).
speculation on the nature of observed hydrogen and whether or
not it was contained in water (Campbell et al., 2006; Crider and
1.1.2. Ground truth and current unknowns about the lunar regolith Vondrak, 2002; Hodges, 2002; Nozette et al., 2001; Starukhina,
The six Apollo and three Luna missions brought back over 2012) recent measurements by the Lunar Crater Observation and
382 kg of rock and soil samples from the Moon. Laboratory Sensing Satellite (LCROSS) and LRO missions have apparently
44 M. Anand et al. / Planetary and Space Science 74 (2012) 42–48
confirmed that water is indeed present (Colaprete et al., 2010).
However, the LCROSS result, that 5.672.9 wt% of the target
material in the permanently shadowed crater Cabeus consists of
water ice (Colaprete et al., 2010), is barely significant at the
2-sigma level and is in urgent need of verification. A recent search
for water ice within the permanently shadowed crater Shackleton
by making surface albedo measurements has also proved ambig-
uous (Zuber et al., 2012). More controversially, LCROSS appears to
have identified the presence of organic compounds in shadowed
craters on the Moon. Given the importance of polar water and
organics for lunar ISRU it is important to verify these findings
with future in situ measurements.
The possible presence of large quantities of water on sections
of the surface of the Moon has major implications for ISRU as a
potential source of water and oxygen for life support and hydro-
gen for fuel. In this case the major challenge for ISRU technologies
will be the extraction of ice from such cold and dark environ-
ments. As a first step however the extent, quantity, distribution
and nature of this ice must be better constrained. It has been
proposed that icy materials in craters are more likely present as
small grains ( o 10 cm in size) mixed into the regolith, or a thin
coating of ice on rock (Neish et al., 2011); the extent and
distribution of such icy materials are by no means certain.
Understanding these aspects is essential to any proposal for
extraction and utilisation of this potential resource. It is recog-
nised that accessing permanently dark craters and identifying the
presence or otherwise of in situ ice as a potential resource poses
major technical challenges. This is probably beyond the scope of
near-term missions of restricted scale, although preliminary
in situ reconnaissance level measurements could perhaps be
made by suitably instrumented penetrators (such as envisaged
for the proposed LunarNet concept; Smith et al., 2012).
Confirmation of exploitable quantities of water at the lunar
poles would undoubtedly be a major boost for lunar ISRU,
especially in the context of developing a cis-lunar space-faring
infrastructure (e.g. Spudis and Lavoie, 2011). However, it is also
important to recognize that there are many scientifically inter-
esting areas of the Moon that are located well away from the
polar regions (e.g. Crawford et al., 2012; Flahaut et al., 2012), and
the exploration of these regions would benefit from non-water-
based ISRU processes for O2 and H2 production, regardless of
whatever water reserves may exist at the lunar poles. In addition,
using water as a source of oxygen and hydrogen will not
simultaneously yield useful metals as a by-product, which is a
benefit of some other ISRU processes for hydrogen and oxygen
production (e.g. Schwandt et al., this issue). Therefore, notwith-
standing the potential importance of lunar water, it is important
to continue to develop other ISRU processes in support of lunar
exploration.
1.3. H2O, OH and hydrated minerals in the regolith
Recently published results from the missions Chandrayaan-1,
Deep Impact and Cassini (Clark, 2009; Pieters et al., 2009;
Sunshine et al., 2009) have revealed the presence of hydroxyl
(OH), water (H2O), or both, in the lunar regolith in regions that are
not permanently shadowed, through identification of absorption
features near 3 mm wavelength. This feature corresponds to the
fundamental vibration of the OH chemical group and thus is an
indicator of OH and/or H2O. Initial indications are that up to a few
tenths of a percent by weight of water equivalent (probably
existing as chemically bound hydroxyl groups formed by implan-
tation of solar wind hydrogen; McCord et al., 2011; Starukhina,
2012) might be present to depths of 1 mm at the surface. The
abundance of water appears to increase as a function of latitude
so that the highest concentrations are observed close to the poles,
consistent with retention in relatively colder regoliths.
Variations in absorption were also observed for different
surface mineralogies, in particular associated with plagioclase
feldspar in anorthositic highland regions at lower latitudes (Clark,
2009). Time variations in the strength of the absorption feature
suggest that the OH is dynamic and migrating across the lunar
surface, possibly providing a source for ice trapped at the lunar
poles. Another instrument on the Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft
reportedly detected water vapour in the tenuous lunar atmo-
sphere (Sridharan, et al., 2010).
These new discoveries of water/hydroxl on and near the lunar
surface have been complemented by a number of new ground-
based findings of water/hydroxyl in lunar samples that originated
at depth in the Moon (e.g., Boyce et al., 2010; Greenwood et al.,
2011; Hauri et al., 2011; McCubbin et al., 2010; Saal et al., 2008),
although the sources of water/hydroxyl are probably quite dif-
ferent in the two cases (e.g. Anand, 2010; McCord et al., 2011).
These new discoveries of water on and in the Moon have
necessitated a paradigm shift in our understanding of the history
of water in and on the Moon and have added new dimensions for
ISRU considerations. The extent to which these water/hydroxyl
deposits have practical utility remains to be determined, and
obtaining an answer to this question will be a key objective of
future lunar landers.
1.4. Solar wind implanted volatiles
Solar wind implanted volatiles are another potential resource,
with the advantage that their extraction from the regolith can be
achieved by heating alone. These volatiles have a number of
potential applications, including their use as a feed product for
the reduction of metal oxides such as FeO for the production of O
and H2O. The main solar wind implanted volatiles include the
elements H, N, C and He (e.g. Fegley and Swindle, 1993). These
elements can be important for various aspects of lunar explora-
tion and the maintenance of a lunar outpost, and volatile extrac-
tion from the regolith may reduce the requirements for
replenishment of these elements from terrestrial sources. Volatile
extraction is probably the simplest example of potential ISRU, but
because the abundance of volatile elements in the regolith is in
general fairly low (e.g. of the order of 50 ppm by mass in the case
of H; Fegley and Swindle, 1993), their practical application to
future exploration requires further investigation. One possibility
is that higher volatile concentrations may occur in colder, higher
latitude regolith than sampled by Apollo, owing to slower diffu-
sion of light atoms out of mineral lattices at lower temperatures.
High latitude in situ measurements of solar wind implanted
volatiles are therefore desirable, and ESA’s proposed Lunar Lander
mission (Carpenter et al., 2012) would be well placed to conduct
these measurements.
Much previous speculation has centred on the possible use of
3
He in the lunar regolith as a fuel for future nuclear fusion
reactors (e.g. Schmitt, 2006). However, the concentration of 3He
in the regolith samples returned by Apollo is very low (in the
range 2–10 parts per billion by mass; Fegley and Swindle, 1993)
and it is far from clear whether significant exploitation could ever
be economic in terms of mining it on the Moon and exporting it
back to the Earth. Although it is true that we currently have very
little direct information on global 3He concentrations, the
observed correlation of 3He with ilmenite abundance (Fegley
and Swindle, 1993) implies that the highest concentrations will
probably occur in high-Ti mare basalt regions such as those
already sampled by Apollo 11 in Mare Tranquillitatis (where the
3
He concentration is 9.5 part per billion by mass; Fegley and
Swindle, 1993). Preliminary remote sensing observations by the
 M. Anand et al. / Planetary and Space Science 74 (2012) 42–48
Chang’e-1 mission (Fa and Jin, 2010) support this hypothesis. For
this reason, we would not expect to find vastly enhanced
concentrations of 3He in other areas of the Moon (again with
the caveat that higher concentrations may conceivably occur in
colder, high latitude regolith).
Any scheme designed to extract 3He from the lunar regolith
would also yield much larger (by at least two orders of magni-
tude) quantities of other solar wind-implanted volatiles of possi-
ble economic benefit (including H and 4He). For this reason there
is a good case for implementing a pilot regolith volatile extraction
scheme on the Moon to assess the possible long-term economic
value of solar-wind implanted volatiles. Initially, this activity
should be carried out with the aim of developing a more
sustainable approach to human exploration of the Moon and
other near-Earth objects.
1.4.1. Other elements on the Moon and possible lunar ore deposits
The Moon is a chemically differentiated body similar to Earth
such that during its geological history, several ore-forming
processes might have operated on the lunar surface as well as
in its interior. The biggest difference in conditions of ore forma-
tion between the Earth and the Moon relates to the relative
dryness of the lunar interior along with its more reduced nature
and lack of biological processes. Haskin et al. (1993) carried out a
detailed geochemical assessment of possible lunar ore formation
and grouped all chemical elements and their compounds found
on the Moon in one of the six categories: Major elements (ME),
Minor elements (MIE), Incompatible trace elements (ITE), Side-
rophile elements (SE), Solar wind implanted elements (SWIE) and
Vapor mobilized elements (VME). From a resource viewpoint it is
important to understand how the Moon might have developed
mineral deposits for each of these groups. Processes ranging from
those involved in the origin and differentiation of the Moon to
those primarily acting on the lunar surface (e.g., space weath-
ering) have the potential to re-mobilize and concentrate elements
into useful mineral deposits (Haskin et al., 1993). For example, as
a consequence of lunar crustal evolution processes, the north-
western nearside Procellarum KREEP Terrain (Jolliff et al., 2000) is
particularly enriched in incompatible trace elements; lanthanum
concentrations in this region are comparable to those in terres-
trial crustal materials and could locally be much higher (Haskin
et al., 1993). Other localised areas of highly evolved magmatism
(e.g. the Compton–Belkovich region on the farside; Jolliff et al.,
2011) may also have concentrated incompatible trace-elements
and other economically useful materials. Such elevated concen-
trations of incompatible trace elements (including rare earth
elements) in the lunar crust, although of restricted geographical
extent, could be a target for future ISRU and commercial applica-
tions. Again, in situ measurements and/or sampling of these
regions will be required to confirm this. It is also useful to
remember that, in addition to natural processes involved in lunar
ore formation, several proposed ISRU techniques for oxygen
production result in the generation of metals in significant
quantities as a by-product of oxide reduction schemes (e.g.,
Schwandt et al., this issue).
1.5. Likely initial lunar ISRU applications: the production of oxygen
The production of oxygen on the Moon using the lunar regolith
has received most attention in the past decades. Taylor and
Carrier (1993) reviewed 20 different processes that have been
put forward to produce oxygen from indigenous lunar resources.
For the sake of brevity only two processes are discussed here:
ilmenite reduction in the presence of hydrogen (which is the most
widely studied oxygen production process), and metal reduction
45
by focused solar irradiation (which is actively studied by some of
the authors of this work).
1.6. Ilmenite reduction
Oxygen production by ilmenite reduction has been one of the
most studied ISRU process (e.g. Cutler and Krag, 1985; Gibson and
Knudsen, 1985; Pesl and Eric, 2002; Williams, 1985; Zhao and
Shadman, 1993). Titanium-rich lunar regolith has been found
to contain relatively high abundances of ilmenite, a potential
resource for the extraction of oxygen through the reduction
reaction
heating
FeTiO3 ! Fe þTiO2 þ 0:5O2 : ð1Þ
In the presence of hydrogen, either introduced as a separate
feedstock or present at the surface through solar wind implanta-
tion, the above process can be modified to,
heating
FeTiO3 þ 2H ! Fe þTiO2 þ H2 O: ð2Þ
In the latter case (Eq. (2)) the resulting water can be used
either as an end product in itself or as a feedstock for electrolysis
for the reclamation of hydrogen.
Ilmenite reduction is currently a favoured process for ISRU
owing to its relative simplicity compared with alternative pro-
cesses and the relative maturity of the required technologies.
However its application is almost certainly limited to areas with
high ilmenite abundance (i.e. high-Ti mare-basalt terrains) in
near-equatorial sites. The distribution of these terrains is fairly
well characterised on a global scale by remote sensing based
maps of Ti. For exploration at sites such as the South Pole,
ilmenite reduction is likely to be an inappropriate choice. How-
ever, similar reduction processes which can effectively reduce any
oxide (e.g., anorthositic feedstock from lunar non-mare terrains
such as the ones likely to be present near the South Pole) into its
constituent elements and produce oxygen/water as a by-product
are worth investigating for ISRU purposes. One such possibility is
the molten salt electrochemistry process described elsewhere in
this issue by Schwandt et al.. Note that in addition to oxygen this
process also yields a metal product (aluminium if run on
anorthositic feedstock and titanium if run on ilmenite), which
may be of additional economic importance by reducing the need
to carry resources from the Earth to the Moon and, therefore,
reducing the overall cost of lunar exploration in the longer-term.
1.7. Solar thermochemical reduction of lunar oxides
This concept focuses on the solar thermochemical production of
oxygen using mineralogical resources. The objective of the process is
the extraction of oxygen from mineralogical resources that are found
on the Moon (e.g., ilmenite, pyroxene, olivine) using solar illumination
(Sauerborn et al., 2003, 2004). This process is also known as pyrolysis.
Senior (1993) provided a comprehensive review of production of
oxygen from lunar regolith by pyrolysis. Here we describe a pre-
liminary experiment that has been carried out using a solar furnace
facility to demonstrate the feasibility of oxygen production by
thermal reduction of oxides.
The solar process consists of an endothermic reaction driven
by solar energy, in which an oxide is thermally reduced at high
temperature by releasing some oxygen from its lattice, thus
generating O2. Concentrated solar radiation is used as the source
of high temperature process heat. The reaction can be written as:
Mx Oy -Mx Oy1 þ 0:5O2 ð3Þ
The reaction is thermodynamically favoured with increasing
temperature or decreasing pressure.
46 M. Anand et al. / Planetary and Space Science 74 (2012) 42–48
According to a more conventional process as described above,
a reducing agent such as H2 (or CH4) can be used to lower the
process temperature. In this case, water is produced along with
the reduced oxide (e.g., Eq. (2)). The water can then be split by
conventional electrolysis techniques to generate O2 and H2 that
can be recycled (H2 is then not consumed in the overall process).
Direct solar thermal reduction avoids the use of both an addi-
tional reducing compound and an electrolytic step.
The reaction generating oxygen is promoted by the very
favourable conditions found on the Moon, namely the high
vacuum conditions and the direct solar irradiation (solar constant)
35% higher than the one on Earth as it is not attenuated by a thick
atmosphere. As a consequence, very high temperatures (in excess
of 2000 1C) can be reached with solar irradiation concentrators
and no extra-pumping is required to operate under vacuum
conditions. The lunar conditions are thus well adapted for achiev-
ing optimal reaction rates. These conditions can be simulated on
the Earth by using high-flux solar furnaces that provide the
required high temperatures for reducing the oxide materials.
Initial feasibility experiments have been performed for the
thermal reduction of different oxide materials in high-
temperature solar reactors operating at reduced pressure. For
example, materials with rutile (TiO2), haematite (Fe2O3), spinel
(MxFe3-xO4) or fluorite (ceria) type structures were thermally
reduced in the temperature range of 1200–2300 1C depending
on the type of oxide (Abanades and Flamant, 2006; Abanades
et al., 2006,2010; Abanades and Villafan-Vidales, 2011; Charvin
et al., 2007,2009; Le Gal et al., 2011; Millar et al., 1997; Palumbo
et al., 1995; Sibieude et al., 1982). The material was placed in a
closed vessel under controlled atmosphere (atmospheric pressure
or reduced pressure down to 0.1 bar) and the reaction occurred
either in the solid phase (case of Fe2O3, MxFe3-xO4 or MxCe1-xO2)
or in the liquid phase when the reduction temperature was above
the oxide melting point (in case of Fe3O4, TiO2 or CeO2). Because
the oxide remains in the condensed state, oxygen is emitted alone
and is thus naturally separated from the solid or molten material,
which simplifies its recovery. The decrease in the partial pressure
of O2 improves the reaction rate and the reaction extent. Decreas-
ing the pressure down to vacuum could further enhance the
oxygen production rate and the degree of material reduction.
Further work is thus needed to study the thermal reduction of
representative oxide materials with compositions similar to the
typical ones found on the Moon. The use of solar reactors
operating under vacuum conditions at the focus of solar concen-
trators is targeted in order to measure the oxygen production
rates at operating conditions representative of the lunar surface.
2. Summary
As we have barely begun to accurately assess the abundance
and distribution of lunar resources at a global scale, the economic
and technical viability of ISRU on the Moon remain largely
unexplored. The limited amount of near-surface water and the
absence of both plate tectonics and biological activity means that
some processes involved in producing economic chemical/miner-
alogical deposits on Earth will not have operated on the Moon.
However, many of the other geochemical and petrological
mechanisms for concentrating economically valuable raw materi-
als (e.g. partial melting and fractional crystallization) are common
to both bodies. Indeed, the particular geological history of the
Moon, and especially the consequences of magma ocean crystal-
lization and its aftermath, may have enhanced the concentrations
of some economically valuable materials over those found in
the Earth’s crust. Moreover, the lunar soil has accumulated solar-
wind implanted volatiles over billions of years, and permanently
shadowed polar craters may contain significant deposits
of water ice and other volatiles. For all these reasons, lunar
resources warrant serious consideration.
Lunar oxygen, hydrogen and water may be the most crucial
resources in the near-term human exploration of the Moon, but
other chemical and mineral resources such as metals and rare
gases could become equally valuable resources (especially when
they are produced as a by-product of other metallurgical pro-
cesses). Continued innovation in mining, processing and manu-
facturing techniques driven by ground-based laboratory
experiments could further increase the resource potential of the
Moon. The existing lunar sample collection provides unprece-
dented access to lunar materials for improving our understanding
of the chemical/mineralogical makeup of the Moon, and for
devising experiments to develop and test new technologies for
extracting lunar resources. However, it should be realized that the
current sample collection is not representative of the Moon as a
whole. High-resolution mapping of the Moon at global scale,
complemented by in-situ measurements by landed spacecraft and
sample return missions to as yet unsampled regions, is needed
to identify the optimal locations for lunar ISRU. In the current
phase of expanding global exploration initiatives (GES, 2007;
Ehrenfreund et al., 2012), the topic of resources in space will
immensely benefit from a synergistic approach involving not only
the space faring nations but also partnerships between the state
and commercial sector.
Acknowledgements
We wish to express our sincere thanks to James Carpenter for
his encouragement and support throughout the preparation of
this manuscript. We also thank members of the ESA Topical Team
on Exploitation of Local Planetary Materials (TT-ELMP) who
contributed to general discussions on the topic of lunar resources
in various team meetings. We also would like to thank two
anonymous reviewers for their critical comments, which helped
improve the manuscript.
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