HBEF3103

Faculty of Education and Languages
HBEF3103
Principles of Instructional Technology
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

HBEF3103
PRINCIPLES OF
INSTRUCTIONAL
TECHNOLOGY
Assoc Prof Dr Wan Zah Wan Ali
Assoc Prof Dr Ramlah Hamzah
Dr Rosini Abu
Tengku Putri Norishah Tengku Shariman

Project Directors: Prof Dato’ Dr Mansor Fadzil
Assoc Prof Dr Chung Han Tek
Open University Malaysia
Module Writers: Assoc Prof Dr Wan Zah Wan Ali

Assoc Prof Dr Ramlah Hamzah
Dr Rosini Abu
Universiti Putra Malaysia
Tengku Putri Norishah Tengku Shariman
Multimedia University
Moderator: Prof Dr Abtar Kaur Darshan Singh

Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

First Edition, May 2009

Second Edition, August 2012
Third Edition, December 2012 (rs)
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), December 2012, HBEF3103
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means
without the written permission of the President, Open University Malaysia (OUM).

Table of Contents
Course Guide xi–xv
Topic 1 Introduction to Instructional Technology 1

1.1 Concept of Technology 2
1.2 Concept of Instruction 2
1.3 Instructional Technology 3
1.3.1 Terminology Related to Instructional Technology 4
1.4 Domains 5
Summary 7
Key Terms 8
Topic 2 Instructional Design 9

2.1 Learning and Instruction 9
2.1.1 Definition of Learning 10
2.1.2 Definition of Instruction 10
2.2 Instructional Design 11
2.2.1 Definition 11
2.2.2 Importance of Instructional Design 12
2.3 Traditional Instructional Design 13
2.3.1 Instructional System Development 14
2.4 Traditional Instructional Design versus Systematic
Instructional Design 15
2.5 Nine Events of Instruction 17
Summary 19
Key Terms 19
Topic 3 Learning Theories and ID 20

3.1 Behaviourist Theory 21
3.1.1 Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936) 21
3.1.2 Edward Thorndike (1874–1949) 22
3.1.3 John B. Watson (1878–1958) 23
3.1.4 B. F. Skinner (1904–1990) 23
3.2 Implications of Behaviourism in Education 26
3.2.1 Behavioural Objectives 26
3.2.2 BloomÊs Taxonomy 26
3.2.3 GagneÊs Learning Objectives Taxonomy (1972) 27
3.2.4 Mastery Learning 27
3.2.5 Industrial and Military Approach 28

iv TABLE OF CONTENTS
3.2.6 Teaching Machine and Programmed Instruction 28

3.2.7 Individual Learning 28
3.3 Basis of Cognitive Theory 30
3.3.1 Jean Piaget (1896–1980) 30
3.3.2 Implications of Cognitive Theory in Learning 32
3.3.3 Main Concepts of Cognitive Theory 33
3.4 Constructivism 35
3.4.1 Implication of Constructivist Theory in Teaching 37
3.4.2 Learning and Constructivism 37
3.4.3 NeedhamÊs Five Phase Processing Model 38
3.4.4 Constructivism and Instructional Design 39
3.4.5 Simulation of Particle – Science Subject Software
Based on Constructivism 41
3.4.6 Strength and Weaknesses of Behaviourist,
Cognitive and Constructivist Theories 44
3.5 Summary of Learning Theories 44
Summary 45
Key Terms 45
Topic 4 Instructional Design Models 46

4.1 Instructional Design Models and Theories 47
4.1.1 Dick and Carey Model 47
4.1.2 Hannafin and Peck Model 48
4.1.3 ASSURE Model 48
4.1.4 Waterfall Model 49
4.1.5 Knirk and Gustafson Model 49
4.1.6 Jerrold Kemp Model 50
4.1.7 Gerlach-Ely Model 51
4.1.8 Rapid Prototyping Model 52
4.1.9 Gagne-Briggs Systems Model 53
4.1.10 ADDIE Model 54
4.2 Differences between Instructional Design Models 55
4.3 Samples of Analysis of Phases in Instructional Design 57
4.3.1 Analysis 58
4.3.2 Design 59
4.3.3 Development 60
4.3.4 Implementation 60
4.3.5 Evaluation 61
Summary 61
Key Terms 62

TABLE OF CONTENTS v
Topic 5 Theories into Practice 63

5.1 Putting Theories into Practice 63
Summary 80
Key Terms 80
Topic 6 Teaching and Learning Strategies 81

6.1 Teaching and Learning Strategies 81
6.2 Direct Instruction 83
6.3 Indirect Instruction 86
6.3.1 Needham Model 86
6.3.2 Laurillard Conversational Framework 87
6.3.3 Active Learning 90
6.3.4 Cooperative Learning 91
6.3.5 Problem-based Learning 93
6.4 Thinking Skills 95
6.4.1 Importance of Thinking Skills 96
6.4.2 Categories of Thinking Skills 97
6.4.3 Critical and Creative Thinking 98
6.4.4 Problem Solving 100
6.4.5 Decision Making 101
6.5 Thinking Tools 103
6.5.1 Mind Map 103
6.5.2 Roles of Mind Maps 104
6.5.3 How to Do a Mind Map 105
6.5.4 Graphic Organiser 106
6.5.5 Guidelines to Help Students in Creating Graphic
Organisers 107
6.5.6 Types of Graphic Organisers 108
6.5.7 CoRT 111
6.5.8 CoRT I 111
6.5.9 Question and Questioning 115
Summary 118
Key Terms 118
Topic 7 Components of Instruction 119

7.1 Definitions and Characteristics of Learning Outcomes 119
7.1.1 Alternative Names for Learning Outcomes 120
7.2 Purpose and Function of Learning Outcomes 121
7.3 Elements of Learning Outcomes 122
7.4 Three Domains of learning Outcomes 123
7.4.1 Cognitive Domain 124
7.4.2 Affective Domain 126

vi TABLE OF CONTENTS
7.4.3 Psychomotor Domain 127

Summary 128
Key Terms 128
Topic 8 Instructional Media 129

8.1 Categories of Instructional Media 129
8.2 Purpose of Using Instructional media 132
8.3 Factors of Instructional Media Selection 133
8.3.1 Instruction Objectives 135
8.3.2 Students 136
8.3.3 Methods/Strategies 136
8.3.4 Practical 137
8.4 Designing Instructional Media 137
Summary 138
Key Terms 139
Topic 9 Educational Technology in Schools 141

9.1 Current Trends in School 141
9.2 Current Trend in Malaysia: The Smart School Concept 145
9.2.1 Smart School Concept 146
9.3 The Use of Technologies in Classrooms 151
9.4 Best Practices 152
9.4.1 Case Study in Korea 155
9.4.2 Case Study in Australia 156
9.4.3 Case Study in England, United Kingdom 158
9.4.4 Case Study in Singapore 160
Summary 164
Key Terms 165
References 165
Topic 10 Technologies of the Future 167

10.1 Handheld Technologies: Mobile and Wireless Learning 168
10.1.1 Application of Mobile Technologies in Education 171
10.1.2 A New Model for Learning: Mobigogy 172
10.2 Search Technologies 173
10.2.1 Specialised Search Tools 173
10.2.2 Application of Search Technologies in the Future 175
10.3 Blog and Vlogging 176
10.3.1 Characteristics of a Blog 176
10.3.2 Characteristics of a Vlog 178
10.3.3 Blogging/Vlogging Benefits for Students 179
10.3.4 Blogging/Vlogging Benefits for Educators 180

TABLE OF CONTENTS vii
10.4 Podcasting and Vodcasting 181

10.4.1 Factors for the Explosive Growth of Podcasting 182
10.4.2 Compelling Uses for Podcasting in an Educational
Setting 183
10.5 Virtual Worlds 185
10.5.1 Artificial Intelligence: Virtual Learning Companions 185
10.5.2 Virtual Reality 186
10.6 Connectivism and Web 2.0 190
10.7 Conclusion 193
Summary 197
Key Terms 198
References 198

viii TABLE OF CONTENTS

COURSE GUIDE

COURSE GUIDE xi
COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It tells
you briefly what the course is about and how you can work your way through
the course material. It also suggests the amount of time you are likely to spend in
order to complete the course successfully. Please keep on referring to the Course
Guide as you go through the course material as it will help you to clarify
important study components or points that you might miss or overlook.
INTRODUCTION
HBEF3103 Principles of Instructional Technology is one of the courses offered by
the Faculty of Education and Languages at Open University Malaysia (OUM).
This course is worth 3 credit hours and should be covered over 15 weeks.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This course is offered to all students taking the Bachelor of Education
(Educational Administration) and Bachelor of Education (Teaching English as a
Second Language – TESL) programmes. This module should be able to form a
strong foundation for the principles of teaching and learning, thinking skills and
also teaching technologies.
As an open and distance learner, you should be able to learn independently and
optimise the learning modes and environment available to you. Before you begin
this course, please confirm the course material, the course requirements and how
the course is conducted.
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every
credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend
120 study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours could be
accumulated.

xii COURSE GUIDE
Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours
Study
Study Activities
Hours
Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial discussions 3
Study the module 60
Attend 3 to 5 tutorial sessions 10
Online participation 12
Revision 15
Assignment(s), Test(s) and Examination(s) 20
TOTAL STUDY HOURS 120
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1. Explain the historical development and important concepts, principles and

theories of instructional technology; and
2. Apply these concepts, theories and principles in situational context.
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This course is divided into 10 topics. The synopsis for each topic can be listed as
follows:
Topic 1 begins with an introduction to the concept of instructional technology.
Topic 2 explains aspects of instrumental design including the concepts, the

importance and also the comparison with traditional instructional design.
Topic 3 describes the relationship between learning thories and instructional

design by giving examples of the application.
Topic 4 explains the various instructional design models.
Topic 5 gives examples of materials developed using instructional design

models.

COURSE GUIDE xiii
Topic 6 describe teaching and learning strategies that can be used in instructional
design based on the learning theories. Further, it discusses several elements of
thinking skills including the concept, the importance and also the types. Also
discussed is how learning problems could be overcome by understanding
thinking skills. In addition, this topic explains the types and the use of thinking
tools as well as how thinking skills could be improved by using thinking tools.
Topic 7 explains components of learning outcomes that include the characteristics,

the functions and the domains.
Topic 8 discusses the categories of instructional media, the purpose of using

instructional media and also the factors in selecting the instructional media.
Topic 9 highlights some of the latest developments in schools today, in particular

the Smart School project by the Ministry of Education.
Topic 10 examines some of the more recent technologies that are slowly being used
in education today. Also suggested are possible learning situations in the future.
TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text
arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement will help you to organise your
study of this course in a more objective and effective way. Generally, the text
arrangement for each topic is as follows:
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you
have completely covered a topic. As you go through each topic, you should
frequently refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously
gauge your understanding of the topic.
Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

throughout the module. It may be inserted after one sub-section or a few sub-
sections. It usually comes in the form of a question. When you come across this
component, try to reflect on what you have already learnt thus far. By attempting
to answer the question, you should be able to gauge how well you have
understood the sub-section(s). Most of the time, the answers to the questions can
be found directly from the module itself.
Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

locations or junctures throughout the module. This component may require you to
solve questions, explore short case studies, or conduct an observation or research.
It may even require you to evaluate a given scenario. When you come across an
xiv COURSE GUIDE
Activity, you should try to reflect on what you have gathered from the module and
apply it to real situations. You should, at the same time, engage yourself in higher
order thinking where you might be required to analyse, synthesise and evaluate
instead of only having to recall and define.
Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. This component
helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you should
be able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points in the
summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to
revisit the details in the module.
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go
through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms in the module.
References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

textbooks, journals, articles, electronic contents or sources can be found. The list
can appear in a few locations such as in the Course Guide (at the References
section), at the end of every topic or at the back of the module. You are
encouraged to read or refer to the suggested sources to obtain the additional
information needed and to enhance your overall understanding of the course.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
No prior knowledge is required.
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Please refer to myINSPIRE.

COURSE GUIDE xv
REFERENCES
Abu Bakar Nordin. (1986). Asas penilaian pendidikan. Kuala Lumpur:
Heinmann.
Abdul Fatah Hasan. (1996). Kecemerlangan minda: Dalam pembelajaran

keseluruhan otak dan daya berfikir. Kuala Lumpur: Utusan Publishing.
Agnew, P. W., Kellerman, A. S., & Meyer, J. (1999). Multimedia in the classroom.
Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Ainon Mohd & Abdullah Hassan. (1999). Menyelesaikan masalah secara kreatif.
Kuala Lumpur: Utusan Publishing.
Clark, L. H. (1991). Secondary and middle school teaching methods. New York:
Macmillan.
TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS) DIGITAL

LIBRARY
The TSDAS Digital Library has a wide range of print and online resources for
the use of its learners. This comprehensive digital library, which is accessible
through the OUM portal, provides access to more than 30 online databases
comprising e-journals, e-theses, e-books and more. Examples of databases
available are EBSCOhost, ProQuest, SpringerLink, Books24x7, InfoSci Books,
Emerald Management Plus and Ebrary Electronic Books. As an OUM learner,
you are encouraged to make full use of the resources available through this
library.

xvi COURSE GUIDE

Topic Introduction
1 to
Instructional
Technology
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain the definition of technology, instruction and instructional
technology; and
2. Identify the domains and the functions of domains in instructional
technology.
INTRODUCTION
The concept of instructional technology has often been misinterpreted. Many
will mention the use of devices such as computer, television, video, CD-ROM,
overhead projector and slides in the teaching process. However, it is a
misconception that the field of instructional technology is about the use of
technology in education. Instead, instructional technology is a discipline, a field
of study, a craft and an art. Those devices are used to improve the quality of the
instruction materials to cater to learnersÊ needs.

2 TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY
1.1 CONCEPT OF TECHNOLOGY

Many will say that technology involves machines or products created by modern
science. This covers only one aspect of technology. According to Webster's
Dictionary (1994), technology is composed of two terms – „technique‰ and
„logy.‰ „Technique‰ means a skilful way of doing something and the suffix
„logy‰ means knowledge and knowing. Galbraith (1967) defined technology as:
„⁄ the systematic application of scientific knowledge and other organised

knowledge to practical tasks.‰
Evans and Nation (2000) said technology is not a tool but an art or science of how
to use a tool for a purpose. Seels and Richey (1994) stated that technology
includes tools, processes, applications, skills and organisation. Technology in
education or instruction is more than the technical application of tools, machines,
computers, products and communication systems (such as multimedia,
computerised instruction, games, simulations or interactive video). It also
encompasses the „application of the principles of science in order to solve
learning problems.‰
Therefore, technology in any discipline is the knowledge resulting from studies

and explorations in that discipline which is used to skilfully perform tasks
subject to that discipline. Technology in any discipline is based firstly on
theoretical findings and secondly on practical and applied conclusions of that
discipline in order to prepare the grounds for applying those findings to resolve
problems in that particular context (Fardanesh, 2007).
1.2 CONCEPT OF INSTRUCTION

Instruction has many meanings. In education, instruction is the act of teaching
something to somebody. Fardanesh (2007) stated that instruction is a
conglomeration of decisions and activities that are made and carried out to
achieve the desired outcomes for learners. He explained some of the decisions
and activities as follows:
(a) Examining learnersÊ prior knowledge;
(b) Determining structure and combination of learning materials;
(c) Using incentives and feedback;

TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY 3
(d) Determining required capabilities for desired learning outcomes;

(e) Identifying required learning conditions;
(f) Identifying ways to measure learning outcomes;
(g) Determining presentation strategies;
(h) Determining the time necessary for learning;
(i) Informing learners about learning goals;
(j) Communicating with learners;
(k) Providing learning materials;
(l) Setting appropriate standards for performance and evaluation; and
(m) Managing learning processes.
The above list is by no means complete. Instruction is a multifaceted and
complex process which needs to be studied and dealt with as a unique and goal-
oriented process. Thus, the main purpose of instruction is to create a good quality
learning environment. Such an environment will enhance learnersÊ thinking and
help them to become better human beings.
1.3 INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY

There are several definitions of instructional technology by scholars in the field.
The following were stated by Sara McNeil:
(a) Instructional technology is the systemic and systematic application of

strategies and techniques derived from behavioural, cognitive and
constructivist theories to the solution of instructional problems.
(b) Instructional Technology = Instructional Design + Instructional Development.
(c) Instructional technology is the systematic application of theory and other

organised knowledge to the task of instructional design and development.
Molenda (2003) said that instructional technology is the art and science of
designing, producing and using – with economy and elegance – solutions to
solve institutional problems; these solutions may combine verbal or audiovisual
media and may be experienced with or without human mediation and may take
the form of learners, courses or whole systems that facilitate learning efficiently,
effectively and humanely.

Meanwhile, Illinois School District U-46 stated that instructional technology is

the use of a variety of teaching tools to improve student learning. At the mention
of instructional technology, we usually think of computers and computer
software but instructional technology is not limited to the use of computers in the
classroom. In fact, instructional technology describes all tools used for teaching
and learning such as cameras, compact disc (CD) players, personal digital
assistants (PDAs), global positioning system (GPS) devices, computer-based
probes, calculators and electronic tools.
In 1994, the Association for Education Communications and Technology (AECT)

stated the following:
„Instructional technology is the theory and practice of design, development,

utilisation, management and evaluation of processes and resources for learning.‰
(Seels and Richey, 1994)
From all these definitions, a new definition of instructional technology was born
which emphasised mental processes and cognitive analysis of learning tasks. It
was suggested by Reiser (2001, p. 53) as shown below:
„The field of instructional design and technology encompasses the analysis

of learning and performance problems, and the design, development,
implementation, evaluation and management of instructional and non-
instructional processes and resources intended to improve learning and
performance in a variety of settings, particularly educational institutions and the
workplace. Professionals in the field of instructional design and technology
often use systematic instructional design procedures and employ a variety of
instructional media to accomplish their goals. Moreover, in recent years, they
have paid increasing attention to non-instructional solutions to some
performance problems.‰
1.3.1 Terminology Related to Instructional

Technology
There are many terms related to instructional technology, some of which are
explained as follows:
(a) Instruction
A planned process that facilitates learning.

(b) ISD/ID
This refers to Instructional Systems Design (alternatively called
Instructional Systems Development). It means sound decision making to
determine the who, what, when, where, why and how of training. ISD is
often called Systems Approach to Training (SAT) or Analysis, Design,
Development, Implement, Evaluate (ADDIE).
(c) IST
This means Instructional Systems Technology. A survey of websites shows
that IST is normally related to a programme, department or a faculty that
offers courses related to ISD.
(d) Instructional Context

This refers to the physical and psychological environment in which
instruction is delivered or in which transfer occurs. We call it learning
environment.
(e) Individualised Instruction

This means the use, by students, of systematically designed learning
activities and materials specifically chosen to suit their individual interests,
abilities and experience. Such instruction is usually self-paced.
1.4 DOMAINS
Instructional technology is a multifaceted field. Seels and Richey (1994) identified
five domains which contribute to the field. Shown in Figure 1.1, these are as
follows:
(a) Management (M);
(b) Design (D);
(c) Utilisation (U);
(d) Development (D); and
(e) Evaluation (E).

Figure 1.1: Domains of the field of instructional technology
These five domains can be stored for easy retrieval by remembering the
mnemonic acronym M-DUDE. The Definition and Terminology Committee
provided descriptions for each of the domains (Seels & Richey, 1994):
(a) Design refers to the process of specifying conditions for learning. The
design component demonstrates knowledge, skills and dispositions to
design conditions for learning by applying principles of instructional
systems design, message design, instructional strategies and learner
characteristics.
(b) Development refers to the process of translating the design specifications

into physical form. Development includes actual creation of instructional
materials and experiences, along with the resulting products. Development
includes knowledge, skills and dispositions to develop instructional
materials and experiences using (by applying principles, theories, and
research related to) print, audiovisual, computer-based and integrated
technologies.

(c) Utilisation refers to the use of processes and resources for learning.
Utilisation incorporates knowledge, skills and dispositions to use processes
and resources for learning by applying principles and theories of (and
research related to) media utilisation, diffusion, implementations and
policy-making.
(d) Management refers to processes for controlling instructional technology. It

includes the application of principles of projects, resources, delivery
systems and information management to the planning, organising,
coordination and supervision of instructional technology.
(e) Evaluation is the process for determining the adequacy of instruction.

Evaluation focuses on the application of principles of problem analysis,
criterion-referenced measurement, formative and summative evaluation,
and long-range planning to the evaluation of products and processes of
learning.
ACTIVITY 1.1
1. Discuss what is instructional technology.
2. Discuss the function of each domain of instructional technology.
Technology can be defined as knowledge resulting from studies and

explorations in a particular discipline that is used to perform tasks subject to
that discipline.
Instruction is a group of decisions and activities made and carried out to

achieve the desired outcomes for learners. Its main purpose is to create a
good quality learning environment.
Instructional technology has been defined in many ways in the topic.

However, the latest one emphasises mental processes and cognitive analysis
of learning tasks.

Five domains contribute to instructional technology:

(a) Management;
(b) Design;
(c) Utilisation;
(d) Development; and
(e) Evaluation.
Instruction M-DUDE
Instructional Systems Design (ISD) Technology
Instructional technology

Topic Instructional
2 Design
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Differentiate between „instruction‰ and „learning‰;
2. Explain instructional design concepts;
3. State the importance of the instructional design process; and
4. Compare traditional instructional design with systematic instructional
design development.
INTRODUCTION
There is growing awareness among instructors from both academic institutions
and corporate industries on the importance of designing their own teaching and
learning materials for students and workers. But how are these instructional
materials designed? Designing instructional materials is not easy as it involves
many aspects such as instructional design theories, learning theories and
instructional media. Instructional design may guarantee effective teaching and
learning.
2.1 LEARNING AND INSTRUCTION

This subtopic will explain the definition of learning and instruction in greater
detail.

10 TOPIC 2 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN
2.1.1 Definition of Learning

Learning is the acquisition and development of memories and behaviours,
including skills, knowledge, understanding, values and wisdom. It is the product
of experience and the goal of education.
Learning may also be defined as the process of acquiring knowledge, attitudes or

skills from study, instruction or experience (Miller & Findlay, 1996). In short,
learning is said to occur when there is a change in studentsÊ behaviour due to
their interaction with their surroundings.
Examples:
A child fixing a bicycle tyre with the help of instructions from his father. He
is interacting with his surroundings – the bicycle and his father. Learning is
said to happen here.
You are baking a cake with help from your mother. She explains to you the
ingredients used and the temperature needed to bake a cake. You are
involved in the learning process.
2.1.2 Definition of Instruction

Instruction is the act of instructing, teaching or furnishing with knowledge or
information. It may also be defined as methods and processes by which pupils'
behaviours are changed. Instruction is arranging conditions and contingent
relationships by using materials or media, whereby learning occurs according to
plan.
The term „teaching‰ refers to methodology or strategies chosen in arranging

information, activities, approaches or media in order to help students achieve
their objectives.
Examples:
Mrs Lee, a Physics teacher, is preparing a lesson plan for her class the next
day. She decides to use the demonstration method as the lesson involves a
dangerous experiment. The teaching process is happening here.
Mrs Ravi discusses with her husband the best strategy to educate their
daughter on sexually transmitted diseases. Considering this is a sensitive
issue, they decide to use the discussion method.

TOPIC 2 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN 11
2.2 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

This subtopic will discuss the definition and the importance of instructional
design in detail.
2.2.1 Definition
Montague, Wulfrek and Ellis (1980) stated that „the best design doesnÊt
compensate for the lack of skills needed to develop quality instruction.‰ An
instruction is a set of events that facilitate learning while design means a creative
pattern or a rational, logical and sequential process to solve problems. Thus,
instructional design can be defined as „the systematic process of translating
principles of learning and instruction into plans for instructional materials and
activities.‰ However, there are many different definitions for instructional design
and all of them are an expression of underlying philosophies and viewpoints of
what is involved in the learning process (Siemens, 2002). According to Albion
et al., (1996) instructional design can be defined as a process, discipline, science
or reality as follows:
(a) Instructional Design as a Process

It is the systematic development of instructional specifications using
learning and instructional theory to ensure the quality of instruction. It is
the process of analysing learning needs and goals and developing a
delivery system to meet those needs. It includes developing instructional
materials and activities as well as trying out and evaluating all instructions
and learner activities.
(b) Instructional Design as a Discipline

It is the branch of knowledge concerned with research and theory about
instructional strategies and the process of developing and implementing
these strategies.
(c) Instructional Design as a Science

It is the science of creating detailed specifications for the development,
implementation, evaluation and maintenance of situations that facilitate the
learning of both large and small units of subject matter at different levels of
complexity.

(d) Instructional Design as Reality

It can start at any point in the design process. Often, a glimmer of an idea is
developed to give the core of an instruction situation. When the entire
process is done, the designer looks back and examines it so that all parts of
the „science‰ have been taken into account. Then, the entire process is
written up as if it occurred systematically.
Instructional design is a systematic process where elements such as teachers,

students, media, teaching aids and learning environment are taken into
consideration and given specific purposes in the teaching and learning process.
The process involves a systematic instructional design sequence – beginning with
analysis, design, development, implementation and evaluation.
However, all of them share some basic features as follows (Thompson, 2001):
(i) Needs assessment;
(ii) Goal and objective identification;
(iii) Audience and setting analysis;
(iv) Content and delivery development; and
(v) Evaluation.
2.2.2 Importance of Instructional Design

The greatest objective of instructional design is to serve the learning needs and
enable the success of students through effective presentation of content and
fostering of interaction. Thus, a systematic process of instructional design allows
an educator or instructor to:
(a) Identify a performance problem;
(b) Determine goals and objectives;
(c) Define learners and their needs;
(d) Develop strategies to meet needs and goals;
(e) Assess learning outcomes; and
(f) Evaluate whether the goals, objectives and needs are met.

The practice of the instructional design process can help to:
(a) Improve teaching efficiency;
(b) Enhance teaching effectiveness;
(c) Ensure studentsÊ interest in the lessons taught;
(d) Ensure that the teaching and learning process is cost effective;
(e) Ensure that the learning content matches the intended objectives;
(f) Ensure that the teaching can be applied to various suitable scenarios; and
(g) Ensure that the teaching plan adheres to the time allocation.
2.3 TRADITIONAL INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

Imagine that in your first week as a teacher, you are asked to create a course or
teaching material for your class or school. What would you do? Some might go
home and think about the syllabus, content, objectives, media, presentation,
strategies and activities related to teaching and learning. Then, they might ask
themselves: „How do I get these materials?‰ Others might approach former
teachers and obtain materials from them or visit the bookshop to buy relevant
books.
Then, the teacher must decide how teaching is to be presented. Presentation is

usually influenced by previous teaching practice or what had been done before.
For example, if the „chalk and talk‰ method is the usual practice in the school,
the teacher might think it is the best method. In most cases, all students are
assumed to start at the same point, so the content is the same for everyone.
Do you grasp the scenario of the teacherÊs task in preparing learning materials?
We can see that it is done unsystematically and haphazardly. Of course, some
learning materials were created but materials developed using traditional
instructional designs might be ineffective.

2.3.1 Instructional System Development

Studies in instructional design and delivery have created a knowledge database
which allows us to view instruction as a science, or as stated by Glaser (1976), „a
science of instruction.‰
A number of researchers have supported efforts to create effective teaching. The

information and implication gathered towards this idea were mainly contributed
by Gage, Berlinger and Gagne, who were educators themselves. Their research
resulted in approaches which are now applied in the design and development
process for learning materials as well as teaching materials, modules,
programmes and systems.
The new approaches are often referred to as systematic teaching (Dick & Carey,
1978), instructional design (Gagne & Briggs, 1977; Wager, 1981) and instructional
system development or ISD (Branson, 1975). The main components of these
approaches are a sequence of planning, design, development, execution and
evaluation.
⁄ ISD is a general systems approach used to produce an instructional

system. The phases are a set of activities called analysis, design,
development, implementation and evaluation (ADDIE).
Figure 2.1 shows an example of an instructional system development model.
Figure 2.1: Example of an instructional system development model

2.4 TRADITIONAL INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

VERSUS SYSTEMATIC INSTRUCTIONAL
DESIGN
Table 2.1 will explain the differences of instructional components between the
traditional and the systematic instructional design.
Table 2.1: The Differences of Instructional Components in the

Traditional and Systematic Instructional Design
Instructional Components Traditional Instruction Systematic Instruction

Aims Based on: Based on:
Traditional curriculum or Evaluation needs
previous syllabus
Task analysis
Internal reference
External or global
reference
Objectives Stated as teachersÊ Stated based on

accomplishments evaluation needs or task
Identical for all students analysis
Stated as behavioural
accomplishments
Selected based on
studentsÊ needs
StudentsÊ awareness about Students are not told Mentioned to the students
objectives before the lessons or
Acquired intuitively from
stated clearly in the
textbooks and the lesson
presentation
Previous knowledge Not considered Taken into consideration

All students have the Different set of objectives
same objectives and based on studentsÊ
activities previous knowledge and
abilities
Expected achievement Normal curve Possibly skewed
Mastery learning Only a handful of Almost all students

students master all the master all the objectives
objectives
Hit and miss

Grading Norm-referencing (based Criterion referencing

on comparison with other (based on mastery of the
students) objectives)
Recovery Usually not planned Planned for students who

need assistance
There are no amendments
to the objectives or A different suitable
teaching approach objective is set
Opt for an alternative
teaching approach
Testing Mainly to give grades To evaluate studentsÊ

progress
To identify mastery of
skill
To identify problem
learning areas
To evaluate oneÊs
teaching
Interpretation of failure to Students are weak Teachers have to modify

meet objectives and improve teaching
techniques and
approaches
Course development Materials are chosen first Objectives are stated first,
followed by selection of
Created unsytematically
materials
Selecting materials and Based on priority and Based on objectives and

teaching aids easiness to obtain studentsÊ characteristics
Effectiveness is not Based on theories and
known and secondary studies
Effectiveness is known
beforehand
Learning sequence Based on content logic Based on previous

and the list of topics knowledge and teaching
principles

Teaching strategies According to teacherÊs Selected based on

preferences teaching objectives
Based on priority and Utilise different types of
familiarity strategies such as
behaviourist, cognitive
and constructivist
Based on theories and
studies
Evaluation Usually never takes place Systematically planned

and often
Not systematically
planned
Review of teaching materials Happens only once in a Takes place almost all the
while time
ACTIVITY 2.1
1. Give two examples of situations whereby instruction or learning

takes place.
2. Differentiate between traditional instructional design and
systematic instructional design.
3. Discuss the purpose of giving tests in traditional instructional
design and in systematic instructional design.
2.5 NINE EVENTS OF INSTRUCTION

R. M. Gagne (1916–2002), proposed the nine events of instruction as an
instructional design process. The nine events of instruction are as follows:
(a) Gain Attention

To gain learnersÊ attention, present a good problem, a new situation, use
multimedia and ask questions. This helps to ground the lesson and
motivate learners to remain focused.
(b) Inform Learner of Objectives

The teacher should inform learners of explicit objectives, such as what
learners will be able to accomplish and how they will be able to use the
knowledge.

(c) Stimulate Recall of Prior Knowledge

Remind learners of prior knowledge relevant to the current lesson (facts,
rules, procedures or skills). Show how knowledge is connected, provide
learners with a framework that helps learning and remembering. Tests can
be included.
(d) Present the Stimulus Material

Present information using text, graphics, simulations, figures, pictures,
sound, etc. Chunk information (avoid memory overload, recall information).
(e) Provide Learner Guidance

Presentation of content is different from instructions on how to learn. Use
advanced organisers.
(f) Elicit Performance „Practice‰

Let learners do something with the newly acquired behaviour, practise
skills or apply knowledge. At least use multiple-choice questions.
(g) Provide Feedback

Show the correctness of learnersÊ responses, analyse their behaviour and
perhaps, present a good (step-by-step) solution of the problem.
(h) Assess Performance

If the lesson has been learned. Also, sometimes give general progress
information.
(i) Enhance Retention and Transfer

For example, inform learners about similar problem situations and provide
additional practice. Put learners in a transfer situation. Perhaps let the
learners review the lesson.
These events as shown in Figure 2.2 are intended to promote the transfer of
knowledge or information from perception through the stages of memory.
Gagne, bases his events of instruction on the cognitive information processing
learning theory.

Figure 2.2: GagneÊs nine events of instruction
The systematic process of instructional design enables educators or

instructors to improve their way of delivering subject matter to the recipients.
The practice of the instructional design process can improve the teaching and
learning processes and benefit both teachers and students.
A comparison of the traditional instructional design and the systematic

instructional design shows differences in various components, including the
aims, objectives, learnersÊ awareness of the objectives, previous knowledge
and also the expected achievement.
GagneÊs nine events of instruction Systematic instructional design

Instructional design model Traditional instructional design
Learning and instruction

Topic Learning
3 Theories
and ID
LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Explain the fundamentals of behaviourist learning theory;
2. Explain the fundamentals of cognitive learning theory;
3. Explain the fundamentals of constructivist learning theory;
4. Explain the relationship between instructional design and learning
theories; and
5. Give examples for application of learning theories and instructional
design.
INTRODUCTION
In designing instructional materials, a thorough knowledge of learning theories
is needed. Learning theories may be categorised into three big groups:
behaviourist, cognitive and constructivist.
Often, it is difficult for students to distinguish between all three learning theories
– behaviourism, cognitivism and constructivism. The design of instructional
materials requires the bridging of pedagogy, instructional design and
technology. If students fail to understand the strengths and weaknesses of each
theory, applying it to design an instruction will be difficult.
Research has shown that some designers design instructional materials

based on an inaccurate theory, or worse, no theory at all. No matter how
sophisticated or advanced the technology used to create materials, if these are

TOPIC 3 LEARNING THEORIES AND ID 21
constructed not based on pedagogical and instructional design principles, they

will be worthless. Therefore, in this topic, we will discuss learning theories,
namely, behaviourism, cognitivism and constructivism.
3.1 BEHAVIOURIST THEORY

Behaviourist believes that learning only takes place if there are changes in
behaviour. For example, if a teacher questions a student in class and he or she is
able to answer, this means learning has taken place.
In general, the behaviourist theory centres on the study of observable and

measurable or overt behaviours (Good & Brophy, 1990). It views the mind as a
„black box‰ which reacts to observable and measurable stimulations. This theory
neglects the thinking process which occurs in the mind. Pavlov, Thorndike,
Watson and Skinner were noted for their contributions in the development of this
theory.
3.1.1 Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936)

He developed classical conditioning or stimulant replacements. His famous
experiments involves a dog, food and a bell (see Table 3.1).
Table 3.1: PavlovÊs Classical Conditioning or Stimulant Replacements
Procedure Observation
Ring a bell in front of the dog No traces of saliva observed
Before conditioning
Place food in front of the dog Traces of saliva appeared
Ring the bell a few seconds before
During conditioning Traces of saliva appeared
placing the food in front of the dog
After conditioning Ring the bell (no food) Traces of saliva appeared
Generalisation of Ring a similar sounding sound as
Traces of saliva appeared
stimulations the bell
Stop the stimulus {bell rings and
Termination Saliva stopped
food} temporarily
Response again Place food Traces of saliva reappeared
The dog was able to distinguish
Discrimination Ring a different sounding bell
which sound comes with food
After the dog has been
High level
conditioned, give an uncommon Traces of saliva appeared
conditioning
stimulus (for example, light)

22 TOPIC 3 LEARNING THEORIES AND ID
3.1.2 Edward Thorndike (1874–1949)

Edward Thorndike first experimented on animals before his interest in human
psychology appeared. He proposed the connectionism theory in his publication,
Animal Intelligence, in 1898. This theory states that learning is the development
of connections between stimulus and response (S-R).
He used animals such as cats, dogs, fish and monkeys in his experiments. In one
of his experiments, a cat was placed in a cage where a string could be triggered to
obtain the food. By trial and error, the cat gradually developed a behaviour that
was rewarded with food.
The theory proposed by Thorndike consists of three laws: law of effect, law of
exercise and law of readiness as explained in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2: ThorndikeÊs Three Laws
Laws Description
The connection of S-R strengthens when the response given is
satisfactory.
Law of effect Otherwise, if the response is painful, the connection weakens.

Response satisfactory S-R connection = Strong
Response painful S-R connection = Weak
Exercise refers to the repetition of a chain of S-R.
S-R connection strengthens when there is practical exercise.

Law of exercise Plenty of exercise S-R connection = Strong
Little amount of exercise S-R connection = Weak
Plenty of exercise but no Not necessarily helps increase
response achievement
Refers to the internal preparation of each individual.
Does not refer to maturity or physical growth but readiness in

Law of readiness oneself to act.
A series of responses can be combined to achieve a specified goal;

however, if prevented can create a feeling of dislike.

The principles behind the Thorndike's theory are as follows:

(a) Learning requires practical exercise and reward;
(b) A series of responses can be combined;
(c) Transfer of learning is caused by a situation experienced before; and
(d) Intelligence is the number of functional S-R connections made.
3.1.3 John B. Watson (1878–1958)

John B. Watson is the first American psychologist who applied PavlovÊs ideas.
Like other behaviourists, Watson was involved in animal research before
venturing into research on human behaviour.
Watson believed that humans were born with reflex and emotions such as love
and anger. Other types of behaviour are the product of S-R conditioning.
He demonstrated classical conditioning using a little boy named Albert and a

white mouse (see Table 3.3).
Table 3.3: WatsonÊs Classical Conditioning
Procedure Observation
Albert touches the mouse. Albert is not afraid.
A loud noise is sounded the moment Albert is afraid of the sound; by
Albert touches the mouse. conditioning, he begins to fear the mouse.
The mouse is replaced with another small AlbertÊs fears expand to other small
animal. animals.
The fear is terminated by showing Albert a The fear from conditioning is strong and
mouse without the noise. long-lasting (Harris: 1979, Samelson: 1980,
cited in Brophy: 1990).
3.1.4 B. F. Skinner (1904–1990)

B. F. Skinner conducted an experiment in which a hungry mouse was let loose in
a box, which is now called the Skinner Box. When the mouse pressed a lever,
food emerged. After unintentionally pressing the lever a few times and
discovering that food emerged every time, the mouse learned that:
Pressing the lever (G) = Emergence of food (R)

The act of pressing the lever (G), which operated on its surroundings, is known
as operant. Operants create a response (R) which makes the mouse press the
lever. The mouseÊs behaviour is strengthened and possibly repeated in the same
situation. This learning is called operant conditioning.
Skinner believed in S-R patterns in conditioned behaviour. His theory is about

the change in behaviour that can be observed and not in the process happening
in the mind. The books written by Skinner, Walden Two (1948) and Science
and Human Behaviour (1953), emphasise operant conditioning, not classic
conditioning.
The difference between these two types of conditioning is that in operant

conditioning, the individual may create the response.
Table 3.4 explains the action and response of the SkinnerÊs experiment.
Table 3.4: SkinnerÊs Box
Action Response
Positive reinforcement or reward Rewarded response most probably will be
repeated.
Negative reinforcement Response followed by pain and hardship
will not be repeated.
Destruction or no reinforcement Response which is not reinforced will not be
repeated (ignoring studentsÊ wrongdoings
will terminate the behaviour).
Penalty Painful response will not be repeated.
Experiment Action
SkinnerÊs Behaviour Formation The animal began to make the connection
The trapped animal took a long time to between lever and food.
realise that pressing a lever would produce
food.
Behaviours that led to desired behaviour

would be rewarded:
The animal glanced at the lever Rewarded

The animal moved towards lever Rewarded
The animal touched the lever Rewarded

Positive Reinforcement Sequence

The frequency and strength of the desired
response were improved by the giving of
exciting rewards.
Positive reinforcement was divided into

continuous and scheduled reinforcement.
Continuous reinforcement meant that each
time a desired behaviour occurred,
reinforcement was given to make sure the
behaviour occurred. When the behaviour
occurred, reinforcement did not have to be
100% and could be given in partial portions
(scheduled reinforcement):
Fixed interval Reinforcement given after a specified time
Varied interval Reinforcement given did not have fixed time
Fixed ratio Correct response must be achieved before

reinforcement
Varied ratio Correct response must be achieved before

reinforcement (no fixed intervals)
The underlying principles of this theory are:
(a) Positively reinforced behaviours will be repeated. Intermittent reinforcement

is very effective;
(b) Information is given a little at a time to reinforce the response (shaping);

and
(c) Reinforcement can be generalised and create secondary conditioning.
Examples:
Students are required to respond and receive feedback.
Make sure achievements are rewarded with reinforcements like praises, gifts
and good grades.

3.2 IMPLICATIONS OF BEHAVIOURISM IN

EDUCATION
According to Saettler (1990), behaviourism had begun to influence educational
technology only in the 1960s. He identified six fields which demonstrated
evidence of behaviourism in American educational technology.
3.2.1 Behavioural Objectives

Behavioural objectives state learning objectives in a specified form. Behavioural
objectives can be summarised in the mnemonic ABCD – audience, behaviour,
condition and degree (Shchwier, 1998).
3.2.2 Bloom’s Taxonomy

In 1956, Benjamin Bloom led a group of psychologists to create a thinking
behaviour classification in the learning process. There are six levels in BloomÊs
Taxonomy, ranging from „Knowledge‰ (the easiest) to „Evaluation‰ (most
difficult) as explained in Table 3.5.
Table 3.5: Six Levels of BloomÊs Taxonomy

Levels Descriptions
Knowledge Observe and recall information such as date, location and basic lesson
contents.
Example: List, define, show, group, tabulate, state, name.
Understanding Understand information, translate it into new context, compare and make
predictions.
Example: Simplify, differentiate, compare, discuss, expand.
Application Make use of information, method and concept given in a new situation.
Example: Show, calculate, check, relate.
Analysis Observe patterns, arrange, identify components.
Example: explain, connect, divide, refer.
Synthesis Use an existing idea to generate a new idea, make a generalisation,
summarise.
Example: Integrate, rearrange, design, formulate, rewrite.
Evaluation Compare ideas, evaluate, make selections, confirm evidence.
Example: Evaluate, decide, test, support.

3.2.3 Gagne’s Learning Objectives Taxonomy (1972)

Table 3.6 explains the levels in GagneÊs learning objectives taxonomy.
Table 3.6: GagneÊs Learning Objectives Taxonomy
Levels Descriptions
Verbal information Verbal information is linked to knowledge which requires students
to memorise information.
Also known as declarative knowledge.
Example: Name the capital of Malaysia.
Intellectual skill At a higher level compared to verbal information as it utilises
cognitive processes.
Also known as procedural knowledge.
Divided into three levels – understanding a concept (lowest), use of
rules (intermediate) and problem solving (highest).
Example: A student uses the Pythagoras Theorem, square root and
rules to solve problems.
Cognitive strategy The skill to control own learning and thinking.
Example: Analyse information before answering questions.
Attitude Feelings or trust in oneself that incline a person to perform a task.
Motor skill Any activity that involves one or all parts of the body in
performing a task.
Example: Dancing, sewing, typing and conducting experiments.
3.2.4 Mastery Learning

According to Morrison (1931), mastery learning was created by Morrisson in the
1930s. The formulas used in this method are pre-test, teach, test result, use
procedure, teach and test until real learning is achieved (as cited by Saettler,
1990).
Mastery learning assumes that all students can master the materials provided.
Bloom expanded on MorrisonÊs idea but believed that mastery learning was only
suitable for lower cognitive levels and not appropriate for teaching higher
cognitive levels.

3.2.5 Industrial and Military Approach

In industrial and military training, the behavioural objectives are written
explanation about specific results of behaviour which is observable and
measurable. Mager in (1962) forced teachers to employ behavioural objectives.
Gagne and Briggs, both from industrial and military psychology backgrounds,
suggested a set of instructions to write objectives. In the late 1960s, teachers
prepared their objectives based on behavioural objectives.
3.2.6 Teaching Machine and Programmed Instruction

Skinner was famous for programmed instruction. The following are names of
people/organisations that contributed:
(a) Pressey (1925)

Introduced multiple choice machine.
(b) Peterson
PresseyÊs student who built chemosheets.
(c) US Military
During WWII, the US military developed training materials with strong
instructional design which were needed to train the military personnel.
(d) Crowder
Trained electronic tool function troubleshooting.
(e) Skinner (1965)

Introduced the Skinner Machine. Students answer questions and receive
response (Saettler, 1990).
3.2.7 Individual Learning

Individual teaching resembles programmed teaching and teaching machine. It
was introduced in 1900 and revived in 1960.
Keller Plan by Keller (1963):
(a) Individual Prescribed Instruction (IPI) by Learning Research Centre,

University of Pittsburgh (1964); and
(b) Programme for Learning in Accordance with Needs (PLAN) (1967).

ACTIVITY 3.1
Differentiate between classical conditioning and operant conditioning.

Illustrate your explanation with appropriate examples.
Give examples of appropriate activities/statements for the cognitive

levels in the BloomÊs Taxanomy.
Levels Descriptions
Knowledge Observe and recall information such as date, location and
basic lesson contents.
Example:
State the capital of Thailand
Understanding Understand information, translate it into new context,

compare and make predictions.
Example:
Application Make use of the information, method and concept given

in a new situation.
Example:
Analysis Observe patterns, arrange, identify components.
Example:
Synthesis Use existing idea to generate new idea, make

generalisation, summarise.
Example:
Evaluation Compare ideas, evaluate, make selections, confirm

evidence.
Example:

3.3 BASIS OF COGNITIVE THEORY

If behaviourism focuses on behaviour, cognitive theory, on the other hand,
focuses on the thinking behind the behaviour. The change in behaviour is used as
an indicator of the thinking process in studentsÊ minds.
Edward TolmanÊs observations on the behaviour of mice in a maze triggered the

beginnings of the cognitive theory. He found that mice which came to a dead end
would not take the same path again but instead try to find other ways out of the
maze. This led to the discovery that there were some cognitive processes behind
these behaviours.
Bandura and Walters found that children did not imitate behaviour that had
been reinforced. Sometimes, they used new behaviour models without any need
for enrichment. Observations found to be not parallel with behaviourism caused
Bandura to discard the operand conditioning theory which stated that all
humans must demonstrate behaviour and accept reinforcement before they could
learn on their own. In Social Learning and Personality Development (1963),
Bandura suggested the Social Cognitive Learning Theory.
3.3.1 Jean Piaget (1896–1980)

Piaget was an influential theorist in human knowledge development in the 20th
century. His studies had a great impact on the fields of psychology and
education. His studies focused on the origin and development of human
knowledge.
In childrenÊs mental development, Piaget identified four stages – sensory-motor

(ages 0 to 2), pre-operation (ages 2 to 7), concrete operation (ages 7 to 12) and
formal operation (ages 12 to 15) as shown in Table 3.7.

Table 3.7: PiagetÊs Four Stages
Stage Age Characteristics

Sensory-motor 0–2 Master concrete objects.
Able to control motor movements and learn
about physical objects.
Pre-operation 2–7 Master symbols.
Acquire verbal abilities. Able to name objects
and explain them intuitively.
Concrete operation 7–12 Master classes, relationship, numbers and how-
to to explain an event.
Develop abstract concept.
Formal operation 12–15 Able to think.
Able to explain in a logical and systematic
manner.
According to Piaget, childrenÊs intellectual development undergoes these phases:
(a) Assimilation
Involves association of new learning with background knowledge and pre-
conception.
(b) Accommodation
Involves changes in mental structures to incorporate new information.
Assimilation-accommodation results in formation of schemata.
(c) Equilibrium
Involves deliberation between assimilation and accommodation.
(d) Disequilibrium
Will occur if new information received contradicts information stored in
mental structure.
These will be further explained in Table 3.8.

Table 3.8: PiagetÊs Four Phases of ChildrenÊs Intellectual Development

Phases Description Teaching Principles
Assimilation The relationship of Activities must focus on the problem;
new learning with
background Students must accept that all teaching
knowledge and pre- activities given are important to solve the
conception problem;
Support must be given to students to solve
the problem; and
Acquire studentsÊ difficulties and use them as
stimulation.
Accommodation The change in existing Create activities and surroundings which
mental structure to support and challenge studentsÊ thinking; and
develop new structure
Encourage testing of idea on different views
and contexts.
Equilibrium The balance between Create an authentic task;
assimilation and
accommodation Authentic surroundings means cognitive
demands balance the demands of
surroundings; and
Provide opportunity and reflective support
on learning content and process.
Disequilibrium No balance between Provide opportunity and room for changes.
assimilation and
accommodation
3.3.2 Implications of Cognitive Theory in Learning

The development of cognitive theory led to many studies on the learning process,
types of knowledge (conceptual and procedural) and expert behaviour. Among
some of the implications of the theory on learning are as follows:
(a) Knowledge Structure and Organisation

Cognitive theorists found that the knowledge structure and organisation
between experts and novices are extremely different. Experts are inclined to
build knowledge by chunking and proceeding to the development of
schema. The organisation of knowledge in novices, on the other hand, is
separated and incomplete. Novices often have misconceptions.
(b) Procedural Knowledge and Skills that Can be Used

For example, through problem solving, students use their procedural
knowledge (operational knowledge).

(c) Knowledge-Gathering Skill

Acquiring knowledge through exploration, inductive learning and
discovery learning.
3.3.3 Main Concepts of Cognitive Theory

Following are the main concepts of cognitive theory.
(a) Schema
The concept of schema was proposed by Sir Frederic Bartlett (1932, 1958)
during his studies on memory. Schema is an intrinsic knowledge structure.
A schema is formed when new information is compared with the existing
cognitive structure. Schema can be combined, developed or changed to
accommodate new knowledge.
This concept was expanded by Mandler (1984) and Rummerlhart (1980).

Brandsford and Frank (1971) studied how each individual interpreted
something based on how it was perceived. Other theories related to scheme
were ACT, scripts (Shanks) and mode (Rummelhart and Norman).
(b) Three Stages in Information Processing Model

Input enters the sensory register, is processed in short-term memory and
then transferred to long-term memory for storage.
(i) Sensory Register

Receives input from sensory organs. The information stays about one
to four seconds before being deleted or changed to newer and latest
information. Most of the information does not reach short-term
memory but all information can be traced and can be used to perform
actions, if necessary.
(ii) Short-Term Memory (STM)

Important sensory input is transferred from the sensory register to the
STM. Memory can be kept in the STM for 20 seconds. It can be kept
longer if it is repeated over and over again. The STM can carry up
to seven items. If these are bundled up or chunked together into
meaningful parts, they can be kept longer.
(iii) Long-Term Memory (LTM) and Storage

This stage holds items that are to be used for a longer time.
Information is sometimes forced into the LTM by rote learning and
past learning. Deep processing such as connecting new information
with the information already stored is better for memory retention
and access.
(c) Meaningful Effect

According to Cofer (1971), meaningful information is much easier to learn
and remember (as cited by Good & Brophy, 1990). For example, in learning
about acids, relating acids to everyday use, such as in drinks and
preservatives, will make learning more meaningful.
(d) Serial Order Effect

It is easier to remember items that are at the beginning or end of a list,
compared to items in the middle (unless the information in the middle is
extremely different). For example, it is much easier to remember the first
and last name in a list of studentsÊ names.
(e) Practice Effect

Practice improves memory retention, especially distributed practice,
whereby students relate information with different contexts.
(f) Transfer Effect

One of the basic concepts in learning is transfer. This refers to the ability
to apply what students have learned to different situations. Almost all
learning theories emphasise the concept of transfer.
Behaviourists state that transfer is the generalisation of R-S or interference

(Thorndike and Hull).
Cognitivists see transfer as the restructuring of knowledge and mental

model concept or schema (Ausubel, Brunner, Rummelhart and Norman).
The adult learning theory perceives transfer as a sharing of experiences

(Knowles and Rogers).
What is important in transfer is the ability to apply what we have learned to

different situations or contexts.
(g) Information Processing Effect

According to Craik & Lockhart (1972), words are processed at low sensory
analysis stage or high level semantic analysis to figure out the meanings (as
cited by Good & Brophy, 1990). Words or information which undergo deep
processing are much more easier to remember compared to those which
undergo surface processing.

(h) Effect of Condition/Situation

Learning is much easier to remember if it happens in an existing context
compared to a new context.
(i) Mnemonic Effect

Mnemonic is a strategy used by students to arrange meaningless
information into meaningful ones. For example, the colours of a rainbow
are much easier to remember as VIBGYOR (Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green,
Yellow, Orange and Red).
(j) Effect of Schema

Schema is the mental structure of each student. If the schema contradicts
new information, students will find it difficult to remember the
information. What students remember or interpret depends largely on
earlier existing schemata.
(k) Advanced Organisers

Ausubel, in his theory Subsumption, suggests the use of advanced
organisers in facing the things they are about to learn. Advanced organisers
serve not only as a guideline to the item but can trigger meanings in them.
Advanced organisers act as a connecting bridge between learning materials
and previous knowledge.
They act as a meaningful concept which features information in language

and visual form to students. Their purpose is to activate the existing
cognitive structure in students with limited information presented.
3.4 CONSTRUCTIVISM
The theory of constructivism was pioneered by Jerome Brunner in 1966. The
main theme of the theory is that learning is an active process whereby students
construct knowledge or new concepts based on their experiences. Students are
said to construct knowledge by using their cognitive structures. Cognitive
structures (including schema and mental framework) give meaning and
organisation to the experience and allow students to learn more than the
knowledge provided. In other words, this theory is linked to the epistemology
theory suggested by Piaget. There are many different views of what
constructivism really is. However, in general, constructivism is based on the
following principles:

Individuals construct their own knowledge representation based on their

experiences – therefore, there is no single correct knowledge representation
(Kant, adapted from Von Glaserfeld, 1984; Hawkins, 1994).
Learning occurs when there is disequilibrium between current framework

and new experience or information – Piaget (1929) named this imbalance
as disequilibrium or dissonance. The process of changing the knowledge
representative to occupy new experiences is known as accommodation. Brunner
further expands this concept in his discovery learning theory.
Learning takes place in a social context – interaction between peers is important

in the learning process (Vygosky, 1978).
According to Moshman (1982), constructivism can be classified into three main

types as shown in Table 3.9:
Table 3.9: Three Types of Constructivism
Types of Constructivism Descriptions

Endogenous Emphasise studentsÊ knowledge construction process.
Teachers can facilitate disequilibrium by providing
suitable experiences.
Exogenous Formal teaching allows construction of knowledge
representation that can be accommodated into
experiences students will receive later.
Dialectic Learning occurs through realistic experience which
requires scaffolding (support) from teachers and
collaboration from peers.
Constructivism is based on the idea that we construct our own perspectives

(worldview) from our own experiences and schemes. The focus of constructivists
is to solve problems that are vague.
A study by Bartlett in 1932 became the foundation of what we know today as

the constructivist approach (Good & Brophy, 1990). Constructivists believe
that students construct their own reality or perceived reality based on their
perception of their own experience.

Merill (1991) (as cited by Smorgansbord, 1997) suggested a few assumptions to

this theory as follows:
(a) Knowledge is constructed through experience;
(b) Learning is translating the world into personal views;
(c) Learning is an active process where meanings are constructed through

experience;
(d) Conceptual growth is the product of negotiation of meaning, sharing of a

variety of perspectives and changes of internal representation through
collaborative learning; and
(e) Learning must take place in an authentic situation; evaluation should be

integrated into tasks, not performed as separate units.
3.4.1 Implication of Constructivist Theory in Teaching

The constructivist theory can be acknowledged as the learning theory for
learners. Thus, teachers face the following implications:
(a) Teachers must encourage students to understand content through

discovery learning;
(b) Teachers must actively interact with students;
(c) Teachers should suit teaching to students; and
(d) Teachers must employ the most effective sequence in delivering knowledge.
3.4.2 Learning and Constructivism

Constructivism comes from the word „construct‰ which means to build.
Constructivism is a view of learning which states that knowledge cannot exist
outside of childrenÊs mind, but must be constructed in the mind based on their
real experience.
For that, constructivists stress on the importance of actively constructing

knowledge based on new and previous learning. This is to eliminate any
disagreement of ideas to acquire new understanding.

The knowledge construction process takes place in a social context whereby a

student exchanges ideas with his or her peers. This process takes place either in a
small group or a large class.
Besides that, metacognitive development is also taken into consideration. From

these cognitive processes, students have to learn to plan, evaluate and reflect on
their learning. Students must also realise their own learning strategies and find
ways to improve their learning process.
As we know, children gain experience about their surroundings from birth.

These informal ideas are then brought into the classroom. The purpose of
education is to provide further explanation of these ideas so that they will
become more meaningful. Therefore, it is important for teachers to consider the
initial informal ideas when introducing new concepts. This is to ensure that any
changes or development of ideas possessed by the students are correct.
Important contributions include ideas on schema development and cognitive

learning process by Piaget; hands-on and minds-on discovery learning by
Brunner; mental structure construction by Ausubel; and five domains of learning
outcome discovery by Gagne (Poh Swee Hang, 1997).
3.4.3 Needham’s Five Phase Processing Model

Needham identified five phases in the learning process based on the
fundamentals of constructivism. These phases are shown in Table 3.10.

Table 3.10: NeedhamÊs Five Phases Processing Model
Phases Purpose Example of Activities

Orientation Gain studentsÊ interest and Provide events that
attention; and contradict each other; and
Provide motivation. Give problems for
students to think about.
Elicitation of idea Identify studentsÊ previous Concept mapping; and
ideas.
Q&A sessions that lead to
thinking.
Restructuring of idea Expand or modify previous Hands-on and minds-on
ideas based on scientific activities;
ideas; and
Activities that use science-
Investigate using scientific process skills; and
skills.
Group communication.
Application of idea Apply the idea into new Solve new problems;
situations.
Designs; and
Projects.
Reflection Value how far the ideas Reflective questioning;
have transformed. and
Help students to self
evaluate their changes of
ideas and the processing
skill they have achieved.
3.4.4 Constructivism and Instructional Design

Changes in instructional design from the behaviourist and cognitivist
perspectives differ from changes based on constructivism. Behaviourism and
cognitivism are both objective. Both support the practice of analysing a task or
work, splitting this into easier-to-handle chunks, stating the objectives and
measuring performance based on the objectives. Constructivism, on the other
hand, stresses creating a more open learning experience. Methods and learning
outcomes are much harder to measure and evaluate as they are different for each
individual.

Therefore, in constructivism, to construct knowledge, the surroundings must:
(a) Provide Multiple Reality Representation

Avoid teaching that is too simplified. Provide students with instruction
from multiple perspectives. For example, use histograms and charts to
teach statistics. Look at a task from different perspectives. For example, in
discussing global warming, discuss from other perspectives such as
financial, environmental, political and social.
(b) Present Authentic Task

Provide explanation within context. For example, a science teacher can
teach science discovery by illustrating how scientists work. Students can
discuss with experts via discussion groups or forums on the Internet. Or,
students could use scientific tools that scientists use in real experiments.
(c) Establish Reflective Practice

This can be done by providing discrepant events so that students can reflect
on their own learning. Ask questions such as: Does the movement of
snooker balls represent the motion of particles?
(d) Allow the Construction of Knowledge Based on Content and Context

A teacher must teach topics suitable for studentsÊ level, e.g., in teaching
covalent bondings, what is taught at Form 4 should be different from that
for first-year university.
(e) Support the Construction of Knowledge Collaboratively

This is achieved via social discussion, not competing to be famous or being
the best.
(f) Provide Active Learning Environment

Provide simulation, discovery or games so that students can interact with
the learning software. Use problem-based, project-based or constructivist
strategies.
(g) Ensure the design is Student-Centred

Students are free to choose topics they wish to learn, generate their own
inquiries and plan their own learning.
(h) Encourage Discovery Strategy

Students should be provided with activities that allow them to discover
learning principles.

(i) Provide Activities that Exceed StudentsÊ Ability

With the use of computers and teacherÊs assistance, students will be able to
solve the problems via their zones of proximal developments.
(j) Include Intrinsic Motivation

The satisfaction of solving problems must come from within the learners.
3.4.5 Simulation of Particle – Science Subject

Software Based on Constructivism
One example of the application of the constructivist perspective in computer-
based instructional design is „Simulation of Particles‰ (Rio Sumarni, 1996). This
package contains five modules – random movement, pressure concept, BoyleÊs
Law, CharlesÊs Law and Gas Law.
Among the constructivist characteristics that can be witnessed in this package are
as follows:
(a) Assimilation and accommodation are taught through a discrepant event

in the Particle Movement module. The simulation presented creates
dissonance in studentsÊ mind as they can see the movement of particles and
plot this. StudentsÊ imagination that particles naturally move in zig-zag
pattern can be corrected.
(b) Control is given to students so that they can navigate learning paths. For
example, in this package, students are free to select which module to learn
and the number of particles they want to observe.
(c) An active learning environment is provided via simulation. In this case,

simulation acts as a cognitive tool to trigger learning processes such as
„what if analysis,‰ make prediction, confirm and create hypothesis. This is
especially obvious in the Gas Law module where students can vary
pressure of different volumes at room temperature (as is practised in
school) and highest and lowest temperatures. Students can also predict the
different forms of graph by using PLOT (see Figure 3.1). Besides that,
scaffolding can also be given by the use of simulations.

Figure 3.1: Students predict the shape of the graph

Source: Simulation of Particles developed by Rio Sumarni Shariffudin (1996)
(d) Students are active. This software provides suitable and effective interactivity
with students.
(e) The software can be used individually or in group, which is suitable for
collaborative learning (an important feature in constructivism).
(f) Provide an environment in which students can construct their own

knowledge. For example, in the Simulation of Particle software, students
construct knowledge about the motion of particles by using simulations.
Students can view random particle motion, trace the motion and compare
motion if the number of particles is increased. Figure 3.2 and Figure 3.3
shows examples of simulation of particles developed by Rio Sumarni
Shariffudin.
(g) Provide an environment where students can learn to share knowledge

collaboratively. This can be achieved through forums, chat space or e-mails.
(h) Provide an environment that supports scaffolding of knowledge. The

support can help students know more about the topic than what they are
supposed to know. This can be achieved through the use of hypertext,
simulation and exploration.

Figure 3.2: Particle movement framework

Figure 3.3: A lesson about pressure concept in simulation of particle


3.4.6 Strength and Weaknesses of Behaviourist,

Cognitive and Constructivist Theories
Behaviourism becomes weak if there is no more stimuli suitable for the learner.
Its strength lies in the fact that it is goal-driven and the learner becomes focused
in a task. However, according to cognitive theory, a learner learns a specified
way of solving a task which is a weakness. But its strength is that the learner is
able to do the task perfectly.
The weakness of constructivism can be witnessed if conformity is needed.

Problems will occur if each individual had a view of his or her own. However,
the advantage of constructivism is that it allows students to translate according
to their understands of reality. Therefore, this theory can solve real problems
which usually appear in various forms (Schuman, 1996).
3.5 SUMMARY OF LEARNING THEORIES

A few questions appear as we analyse the three learning theories closely. Which
theory should be used? What approach should be utilised in instructional
design? Maybe we donÊt have to avoid systems approach but it has to be
modified to accommodate constructivist values. A suitable learning situation is
crucial in deciding which approach is most suitable. One must remember that
there are learning situations that require different prescriptive solutions.
(a) The behaviourist approach may guide towards mastery of content

(knowing what), cognitive strategy is useful for problem solving (why) and
constructivist strategy is suitable for ill-defined domains via reflection.
(Ertmer & Newby, 1993)
(b) Tasks that require low-level processing (examples: equations, differentiation,

rote memory) suit strategies related to behaviourism.
(c) Tasks that require high-level processing (examples: classification, rules or

procedural instructions) are usually related to strategies with cognitive
characteristics (examples: organisation of schemes, hypothesising and
solving algorithms).
(d) Tasks that require higher order thinking are usually related top strategies
connected to constructivism.

ACTIVITY 3.2
1. Explain the differences between behaviourist, cognitive and

constructivist theories.
2. Scaffolding and authentic tasks are important principles in the

constructivist theory. Discuss with examples how you could
implement these principles in your classroom.
There are three learning theories discussed in relation to instructional design

– behaviourism, cognitivism and constructivism.
Behaviourism influenced educational technology in the 1960s. The evidence

of behaviourism can be seen in the existence of behavioural objectives and
BloomÊs Taxonomy.
Changes in instructional design from behaviourism to cognitivism are not as

apparent as changes from constructivism.
Behaviourism Constructivism
Classical conditioning Instructional design
Cognitivism Stimulant

Topic Instructional
4 Design
Models
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain various instructional design models;
2. Describe the elements in instructional design models; and
3. Apply instructional design models in designing instruction.
INTRODUCTION
Most instructional design (ID) theories and models rely on a set of steps to
produce an effective result (Hannafin & Peck, 1988). Their features generally
include stages for planning, development and testing. In more abstract terms, an
ID model is a kind of abstract design rule for a given ID approach or a given
pedagogical strategy. Here is an overview of some different theories and models
for ID:
(a) Dick and Carey Model;
(b) Hannafin and Peck Model;
(c) ASSURE Model;
(d) Waterfall Model;
(e) Knirk and Gustafson Model;
(f) Jerrold Kemp Model;
(g) Gerlach-Ely Model;

TOPIC 4 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN MODELS 47
(h) Rapid Prototyping Model;

(i) Gagne-Briggs Model; and
(j) ADDIE Model.
4.1 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN MODELS AND

THEORIES
This subtopic will explain further the instructional design models and theories.
This subtopic will look into the Dick and Carey model, Hannafin and Peck
model, ASSURE model, Waterfall model, Knirk and Gustafson model, Jerrold
Kemp model, Gerlach-Ely model, Rapid Prototyping model, Gagne-Briggs model
and finally the ADDIE model.
4.1.1 Dick and Carey Model

The Dick and Carey Model is a procedural, step-by-step model which depicts a
learning environment through „instructional goals.‰ Its analysis of needs, skills
and learners refines these goals. It consists of one component's output as the
input to the next (see Figure 4.1). Although revision is noted in the model, strict
closure to each phase may be difficult to achieve in practice. It uses a systems
approach for designing instruction, identifies instructional goals in the beginning
and ends with a summative evaluation. It may also be a learner-centred model.
Figure 4.1: Dick and Carey model

48 TOPIC 4 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN MODELS
4.1.2 Hannafin and Peck Model

This model has three phases; needs assessment, design and development and
implementation of instruction. All the phases involve evaluation and revision
(see Figure 4.2).
Figure 4.2: Hannafin and Peck model
4.1.3 ASSURE Model

The ASSURE Model addresses the development of instructional media. It focuses
on the selection and implementation of media within learning activities. It
assumes that instructional issues inherent in the use of media materials, such as
needs assessment, task analysis and assessment of learning, have been addressed.
These model stages denote a linear, input-output nature, with decisions made in
the first stage contributing to decisions in succeeding stages, as follows:
(a) State general characteristics of learners and the specific competencies they
need such as knowledge, skills and attitudes;
(b) State learning objectives in terms of what learners will know or be able to
do as a result of the instruction;
(c) Bridge learners and objectives by selecting existing materials, modifying

materials or designing new materials;
(d) Plan how the materials will be used, gathering the necessary materials
together and using them in instruction;

(e) Provide activities and time for adequate practice and reinforcement of
performance; and
(f) Specify evaluation in terms of learner achievement, evaluation of media

materials and methods, and evaluation of the entire instructional process
before, during and after instruction.
4.1.4 Waterfall Model

The waterfall model is a software development model (a process for the creation
of software) in which development is seen as flowing steadily downwards (like a
waterfall) through the phases of requirements analysis, design, implementation,
testing (validation), integration and maintenance (see Figure 4.3). The term was
introduced by Royce (1970); ironically, Royce himself advocated an iterative
approach to software development.
Figure 4.3: Waterfall model
4.1.5 Knirk and Gustafson Model

This model is simple in design but inclusive of details. It tries to convey this
inclusiveness through circles and arrows (see Figure 4.4). It is a small-scale
model, which means that it can be used for individual lessons or units. One
weakness of this model is that the focus on evaluation and development seems
very late in the process.

Figure 4.4: Knirk and Gustafson model
4.1.6 Jerrold Kemp Model

This model features learner needs and goals at the centre, while describing
instructional resources and support services on the outside (see Figure 4.5). It is a
flexible model addressing any of the components concerned as long as it relates
to learning needs and goals. Interdependence among the elements is represented
by large circles. It is appropriate for a teacher or designer who is comfortable with
the responsibility of judging exactly how to use the model or to adapt it. There is
also focus on content analysis, as there would be in any educational design and
focus on support and service, which is not present in other ID models. The central
focus is learner needs and goals, which are the strengths of this model.

Figure 4.5: Jerrold Kemp model
4.1.7 Gerlach-Ely Model

This model is written for the teacher who is a novice designer but possesses
content expertise and can specify objectives or specific outcomes of instruction. It
prompts teachers to specify entering behaviours or to what extent students
should achieve these objectives (see Figure 4.6). Designing with this model
includes determining an instructional strategy, accomplishing the objectives,
organising students into groups, determining how much time and space to
allocate to activities and selecting instructional materials. It specifies design tasks
to evaluate performance, both for teacher and student, as well as an analysis of
feedback on whether the objectives were met. This model integrates instructional
media into the design process.

Figure 4.6: Gerlach-Ely model
4.1.8 Rapid Prototyping Model

This model is based on studies of designers in action and the notion that the
design process is complex and unpredictable. It was first used in software
development, in which feasibility and current situation are studied, followed by a
continual design and testing of prototype, so that construction and testing are
parallel processes (see Figure 4.7). The designer must address learner needs,
content and context throughout the design, while other models view these issues
as inputs to the system. The involvement of intended users in the prototyping is
one of the strengths of this model. The intentions of this model are complex
instructional situations where no one right way exists to design a response to an
instructional problem, and where flexibility is necessary to respond to unique
situations. It has the appeal of having extended involvement with the intended
user. This is missing in many models.

Figure 4.7: Rapid prototyping model
4.1.9 Gagne-Briggs Systems Model

This model addresses more factors and stages than the previous model. It uses
analysis to determine what the goals should be and designs prescriptive features
to accomplish these goals. Iterative despite its linear look – design phases must be
revisited once new features are designed or new information is uncovered. It
classifies lesson objectives by learning type, allowing the designer to address
a wide range of knowledge. At the lesson level, it addresses the interactions
and tasks involving teachers and students in each activity. There are nine
instructional events that are tailored to the kind of outcome to be achieved and
the model is adapted to web-based instruction.
Refer to Table 4.1 for the explanation of the Gagne-Briggs systems model.

Table 4.1: Gagne-Briggs Systems Model
1 Analysis of needs, goals and priorities

2 Analysis of resources, constraints and alternate delivery systems
System level
Scope and sequence of curriculum and courses delivery system
3
design
4 Course structure and sequence
Course level
5 Analysis of course objectives
6 Performance objectives
7 Lesson plans or modules
Lesson level
8 Selecting materials and media
9 Assessment
10 Teacher preparation
11 Formative evaluation
System level 12 Field testing and revision
13 Summative evaluation
14 Installation and diffusion
4.1.10 ADDIE Model

In the ADDIE model (see Figure 4.8), the analysis stage discovers who are the
learners or audience (audience analysis) and what is the goal or intended
outcome (goal analysis). In the design stage, it lists the contents of the course
(subject matter analysis), steps of instruction (lesson planning-writing objectives)
and also type of media or presentation mode (media selection). The development
of instruction generates lesson plans (different from lesson planning) and lesson
materials.
Figure 4.8: ADDIE model

These are complete with media and materials for instruction as well as
supporting documents. The end result is a course ready for delivery. The
implementation stage is the delivery of the instruction. Two related evaluations
are:
(a) Formative Evaluation

Occurs during and between ID steps to improve instruction before
completed instruction is delivered.
(b) Summative Evaluation

Usually occurs after instruction is completed and implemented.
Why do we need instructional theories and models when we design an

instructional material or process? According to Thompson (2001), instructional
theories and models will guide us as the following:
(a) Speed Up the Process

The instructional theories and models focus the team and serve as the
foundation of project development.
(b) Assist in Communication

Team members need to share expertise, intent, calendars and so forth. By
using ID models, each team member will know when and what to give or
share with the other team member.
(c) Cover All Phases of Good ID

Make sure that all elements of instruction are included, relate to and
support each other.
4.2 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN INSTRUCTIONAL

DESIGN MODELS
There are two main differences between ID models – physical and content. The
physical differences focus on form and phase while the content differences focus
on characteristics, functions and typology. Commonly, there are three types of ID
model forms – vertical, circular and horizontal. Table 4.2 shows the differences
between some of the ID models based on their phases.

Table 4.2: Differences between ID Models Based on Phases

ID Models Phases
Dick and Carey 8
Hannafin and Peck Model 3
ASSURE Model 6
Waterfall Model 6
Knirk and Gustafson Model 3
Jerrold Kemp Model 9
Gerlach-Ely Model 4
Rapid Prototyping Model 4
Gagne-Briggs Model 4
ADDIE Model 5
Gustafson and Branch (2002), mentioned some differences between ID models

based on their characteristics of content. These are shown in Table 4.3.
Table 4.3: Differences between ID Models Based on Characteristics of Content

ID Models Characteristics of the Content
ADDIE A general purpose model, most useful for creating instructional products, but
also applicable for programme design.
Dick and Carey Exemplifies the systematic approach to curriculum and programme design;
applicable across a range of context areas (e.g. K-12 to business to government)
and users (novice to expert); a learner-centred model.
Hannafin and Simple but elegant in the way all three phases are connected to „evaluate and
Peck revise.‰
ASSURE This model assumes that instruction will not be delivered using lecture/
textbook only. It makes it possible to incorporate out-of-class resources and
technology into course materials.
Waterfall The waterfall model is a software development model in which development is
Model seen as flowing steadily downwards through the phases of requirements
analysis, design, implementation, testing, integration and maintenance.
Knirk and A small-scale model that can be used for individual lessons or units; the model
Gustafson is simple in design but inclusive of details and tries to convey this inclusiveness
through circles and arrows.
Jerrold Kemp Most useful for large-scale programmes involving groups of people and
multiple resources; focus on content analysis.
Gerlach-Ely Well-suited to secondary and higher education.
Rapid Useful for large-scale projects; it enables better communication between the
Prototyping designer and users because needs are clearly expressed from the beginning; its
non-linear approach allows for more flexibility in the instruction and can catch
problems early in the development stages.
Gagne-Briggs Model is adapted to web-based instruction; categorise learning outcomes;
organise instructional events for each kind of learning outcome.

According to Gustafson and Branch (2002), functions of content differences

among the ID models are classified into three types – classroom, product and
system. For the typology contents difference, Schneider believes that the term
„instructional design model‰ is overloaded with various meanings. He suggests
that we can find at least six kinds (at least for now):
(a) Models that describe a pedagogic strategy in detail. Examples: Nine events of
instruction (behaviourist/cognitivist), inquiry-based learning (constructivist);
(b) Models that relate to quality of design. Example: Merrill's first principles of
instruction;
(c) Models that provide a method to create a design (see ID method).

Examples: Instructional systems design models like ADDIE. There exist
sub-models for things like defining goals, analysing a domain of
knowledge, evaluation, etc;
(d) Complementary models that will enhance a design. Examples: FEASP

(emotion), self-regulated strategy development model (strategy development),
POME (self-regulation), Felder design model (learning styles);
(e) Change management related models that specifically address the issue of
introducing new pedagogic and associated ID models. Example: activity
theory-based expanded learning; and
(f) Models that describe the functions of a learning environment. Example:

Sandberg learning environment functions.
There is awareness among instructors from both academic institutions and

corporate industries on designing their own teaching and training for students
and workers. They are now more conscious about the importance of ID in
guaranteeing effective teaching and learning, efficiency and productivity. That is
why an instructional designer must really understand the concepts and models
involved in instructional designs before developing them.
4.3 SAMPLES OF ANALYSIS OF PHASES IN

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN
According to Rio, Bahar and Manimegalai (2007), there are five phases in
instructional design. We will discuss these phases in the next subtopics.

4.3.1 Analysis
Refer to Table 4.4 for the explanation of the analysis phase in instructional design.
Table 4.4: The Analysis Phase in Instructional Design
Component Analysis Results/Discussions Decisions

Determination of pre- Learner possesses the Material designed
requisite knowledge (obtain pre-requisite knowledge should not repeat the
from surveys of previous in science, mathematics pre-requisite knowledge.
curriculum, interviews and and basic computer
questionnaires) skills. Use basic software for
delivery such as MS
PowerPoint.
Determination of entry Learners are between 15 Graphics, fonts, icons

behaviour via and 17 years old with used must be suitable for
questionnaires, surveys on different levels of this age group.
performance, interviews achievement.
with teachers and students Since their levels of
achievement are
different, the materials
must use strategies that
suit the levels.
Determination of learning Their learning styles are Strategies that

styles of learners via mostly visual and incorporate visual and
interviews by teachers interpersonal. interpersonal learning
styles are considered.
Delivery devices Schools are equipped Minimum specifications

with the necessary of computers in schools
devices for delivery such are used as a benchmark
as OHP, computers and for instruction delivery.
LCD.
Cost High cost required for A financial account is

hardware, software and needed.
expertise
Possible grants from
various sources.
Time and duration Time management Prepare a Gantt chart to

according to phases of guide time management.
development.

Expertise Experts include project Create a group

manager, instructional comprising these experts.
designer, graphics
designer, evaluator and
software developer.
Work culture Software will be used by Instructional strategy

students. appropriate for
individual instruction.
Students may use the
software in labs or at
home.
Content Must abide by the Refer to Chemistry

curriculum set by the Curriculum.
Ministry of Education.
4.3.2 Design
Refer to Table 4.5 for the explanation of the design phase in instructional design.
Table 4.5: The Design Phase in Instructional Design
Design Components Results/Discussions Decisions

Objectives Use information from Objectives must be
analysis phase to write written in ABCD format.
objectives. (see Topic 7)
Test questions Conduct analysis of Determine the type of

examinations. questions: objective,
subjective.
Test items must be able to
measure achievement of List the questions
objectives. according to objectives to
be measured.
Selection of strategies Based on information Select a teaching strategy

obtained from analysis that could fulfil the
and the appropriate objectives.
strategy selected.

4.3.3 Development
Refer to Table 4.6 for the explanation of the development phase in instructional
design.
Table 4.6: The Development Phase in Instructional Design

Flowchart All the activities intended Specific symbols must be
to be implemented in used for flowchart.
software should be
reflected in the flowchart.
Creating the storyboard Storyboard created for Storyboard may be on

software development. paper or mock-up on
computer screen.
Development of prototype Prototype created for Each part should be

each part of the software. evaluated and modified
until objectives are
achieved.
Production of software After completion of Software is packaged in

prototyping, software CD-ROMs.
and manual will be
produced.
4.3.4 Implementation
Refer to Table 4.7 for the explanation of the implementation phase in instructional
design.
Table 4.7: The Implementation Phase in Instructional Design

Use of software for teaching Used by students for Individualised learning
and learning individualised learning. placed in library and lab.

4.3.5 Evaluation
Refer to Table 4.8 for the explanation of the evaluation phase in instructional
design.
Table 4.8: The Evaluation Phase in Instructional Design

Formative evaluation (via Data collected at each Formative evaluation
interview, observation and stage to improve conducted at each phase
experts) software. to save cost and time.
Summative evaluation (via Conducted at the end of Modifications for future
questionnaires and expert) ID. versions.
ACTIVITY 4.1
1. You are required to design learning materials for your school.
2. Conduct an analysis using the ADDIE model.
The topic discusses several models of instructional designs with different

features and characteristics.
The models are needed when designing instructional materials because these
will serve as a guideline in speeding up the process, assisting in
communication and covering all phases of good ID.
There are two main types of differences among all the ID models – physical
and content.
Physical differences focus on form and phase while content differences focus
on characteristics, functions and typology.
Functions of content differences among the instructional models can be

classified into three types – classroom, product and system.

ADDIE Model Hannafin and Peck Model

ASSURE Model Jerrold Kemp Model
Dick and Carey Model Knirk and Gustafson Model
Gagne-Briggs Systems Model Rapid Prototyping Model
Gerlach-Ely Model Waterfall Model

Topic Theories into
5 Practice
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Apply instructional design model in designing instruction; and
2. Apply appropriate strategies to design instruction.
INTRODUCTION
Most instructors, teachers and educators are probably aware of learning theories,
ID theories and ID models. But do we put theory into practice? Are we ID
practitioners? If so, do we practise the basic phases in the simplest ID model (say
the ADDIE Model) – analyse, design, develop, implement, evaluate – while
designing teaching and learning materials for our instruction?
5.1 PUTTING THEORIES INTO PRACTICE

The table below shows preliminary research data on the ID practices of some
instructors in public institutions of higher education in designing instruction.
With a total sample number of 23, the results indicated that more than 50% of the
instructors were uncertain about their ID practices. About 30.43% agreed that
they practised ID while about 10.13% agreed that they did not know about ID.
The majority (65.2%) did not quite understand ID models and theories, while
only 13% had some idea of the ID concept. Most of the instructors evaluated their
instruction but all were unsure about its design.

64 TOPIC 5 THEORIES INTO PRACTICE
Table 5.1: ID Practice among Instructors in Public Institutions of Higher Education
Disagree Not Certain Agree

Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Frequency Percent
ID Concept
5 21.7 15 65.2 3 13.0
Understanding
Analyse 1 4.3 10 43.5 12 52.2
Design 0 0 23 100.0 0 0
Develop 0 0 20 87.0 3 13.0
Implement 6 26.1 9 39.1 8 34.8
Evaluate 2 8.7 5 21.7 16 69.6
Total Percent – 10.13 - 59.42 – 30.43
We may categorise three types of ID practice among instructors and educators.

First, instruction occurs with no knowledge of theory (based on intuition,
experience or observation). Second, instructors are equipped with the necessary
theory but do not put theory into practice (the theories are at the back of their
minds during instruction). Third, instructors put theory into practice and these
are instructors who understand the learning theory as well as studentsÊ needs
and practise them very well.
The following are examples of instruction resulting from ID practice. For

example, teaching myocardial infarction to nurses using MS PowerPoint. The
usual instructional practice (without theory) is shown in Table 5.2.

TOPIC 5 THEORIES INTO PRACTICE 65
Table 5.2: Traditional Instruction
Activity Slide
Set induction.
Inform students about specific learning outcomes so

that they know what is expected of them.
Present lesson content by showing pictures or video

related to heart attack.
End the lesson and give homework.
However, applying GagneÊs Nine Events of Instruction in teaching myocardial

infarction will be more systematic and may provide a better learning
environment for learners even by using only MS PowerPoint presentation.
Instructors who practise GagneÊs Nine Events of Instruction will conduct the
instruction using the materials shown in Table 5.3.

Table 5.3: ID Using GagneÊs Nine Events of Instruction
GagneÊs Nine
Activity Slide
Events
1. Gain attention Set induction.

(Slide 2)
2. Inform learners Inform students on specific

of objectives learning outcomes so that they
know what are expected of them
(Slide 3)
3. Recall of prior Stimulate recall of prior learning.

learning
Review anatomy and physiology
of the heart as pre-test.
(Slides 4, 5 and 6)
4. Present the Presenting the stimulus –

content/ showing a picture of a person
stimulus suffering from a heart attack,
show slides.
(Slides 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 16, 17 and
18)
5. Provide Play video and show pictures.

learning (Slide 9)
guidance

6. Elicit Elicit performance – pose

performance/ questions and get students to
practice answer, show ECG (interpret and
explain)
(Slides 11 and 12)
7. Provide Provide feedback – praise for

feedback giving correct answers.
(Slides 13 and 14)
8. Assess Assess performance – give score

performance and remedial action where
necessary.
(Slides 27, 28 and 29)
9. Enhance Enhance retention and transfer of

retention and learning – give a scenario and tell
transfer to a person what to do if she or he
practice has a sudden heart attack.
(Slides 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 29
and 30)
Source: GagneÊs Nine Events of Instruction prepared by Ashah Manghanmal, Chong Siew
Mui, Julie S. G. Tan and Liong Joat Ya: Open University Malaysia

Table 5.4 shows an example on how constructivism was integrated into the ID
process in a Physics lesson.
Table 5.4: Integrating Constructivism in ID in a Physics lesson
Subject : Physics
Form : 4A
Time : 9.30am – 10.20am
Duration : 50 minutes
Venue : Physics Lab
Chapter : 5. Light
Topic : Understanding Lenses

Activity 5.4: Lens
(a) Focal Point and Focal Length
Objectives : At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
(a) Explain focal point and focal length; and
(b) Determine the focal point and focal length of a convex lens.
Prior Knowledge : Students have learnt about focal point and focal length for
convex lens theoretically during the previous class.

Delivery:
Content Teacher/Student Activities Teaching Aids/Materials
1. Orientation (i) Teacher shows pictures on Slide 1: Pictures of optical

the slides. Teacher asks devices.
(a) Pictures: several questions about
the slides: Slide 2: Title of the
Telescope
experiment.
Spectacles Name the optical
devices shown in the
Microscope slides.
Magnifying What type of material
glass is used in the optical
devices? (Answer:
Camera
Lens)
(b) Concave lens only What type of lens is
used in spectacles used? (Answer:
for correction of Convex lens)
short-sightedness.
(ii) Teacher tells students
today they will carry out
an experiment on convex
lens.
2. Generating the Idea (i) Teacher calls three Mahjong paper: Ray diagram
students to state the for a convex lens
(a) Focal point, F is a characteristics of convex
common point on lens.
the principal axis
where all rays (ii) Teacher shows a ray
parallel to the axis diagram of a convex lens
converge to it after on a piece of mahjong
passing through a paper. Teacher calls two
convex lens. students to determine the
focal point and focal Slide 3, 4: Definition of focal
(b) Focal length, f is the length. point and focal length
distance between
the focal point and (iii) Then, teacher asks another
the optical centre. two students to define
focal point and focal
length.

3. Structuring the Idea (i) Teacher shows the Slide 5, 6, 7: Steps to carry out
Procedures to carry out problem of the experiment
an experiment: experiment on the
slide. Teacher calls one
(a) Aim
student to state the aim
(b) Apparatus/ Material of the experiment.
(c) Apparatus setup (ii) Teacher shows the
apparatus needed. She
(d) Procedures
calls students
(e) Safety precaution randomly to name the
apparatus.
(iii) Teacher asks students

to read the procedures
while teacher shows
the steps.
(iv) Teacher lets students

carry out the
experiment.
(v) Teacher reminds

students to cooperate
with their classmates
and be careful when
dealing with electrical
connection. They are
given 15 minutes to
carry out the
experiment.

4. Application of the Idea (i) After students have Mahjong paper: Results and
finished conducting Observation
(a) Results: the experiment, teacher
asks them to keep all Group 1 2 3 4 5 6
Lens P Q R
the apparatus and sit Lens P Q R
Focal
20. 10. with their own group. Focal
length, f 15.0
0 0 Then, teacher calls length, f
(cm)
each group to write (cm)
Focal
0.2 0.1 their results on the Focal
length, f 0.15
0 0 length, f
(m) mahjong paper.
(m)
Power =
10. (ii) Then, teacher asks Power =
1/f (in m) 5.0 6.7
0 1/f (in m)
(D) three students
(D)
randomly to draw the
(b) Observation: ray diagram for convex
lens based on their
observation.
(iii) Teacher discusses the

results and observation
of the experiment and
relates it to the theory.
(iv) Teacher asks students

to conclude the
experiment.
(Conclusion: The
thicker the convex lens,
the shorter the focal
length.)
5. Reflection (i) Teacher asks students

what will happen to
(a) Conclusion: The focal length if we
thicker is the convex increase the thickness
lens, the shorter is its of a convex lens.
focal length.
(ii) Then, teacher asks
(b) Power of lens = students what we can
1 obtain when we
measure the value of
f (m)
1
in m.
f

NeedhamÊs Instructional Model Applied in Teaching and Learning
NeedhamÊs Instructional Model and Action

Slide Display
Example
Title: Probability
Target group: Upper Six
Subject: Mathematics S
Model Applied: NeedhamÊs Instructional
Model
Analysis –
Rationale:
1. For students to understand the concept
and function of probability.
2. For students to know when it is suitable
to apply in a real situation.
Objectives:
1. Calculate the probability of an event.
2. Understand the meaning of mutually
exclusive events.
3. Use the formula P (A B) = P (A) + P
(B) – P (A B).
For details on NeedhamÊs Model, see Topic 6.

Orientation: Motivate students, attract

attention, display task to enhance further
thinking.
In the first phase, students will be given two

situations with two different ideas and
concepts. It also connects students with
problems and makes them think more
critically.
Situation 1
A card is drawn randomly from a pack of 52
cards. Find the probability that it is:
1. A king
2. Black
3. Yellow
4. An even number
5. An ace
Situation 2
If F and G are two events and P(F) = 0.4(G) =
0.3 and P(F∩G) = 0.6, find:
1. P(F∩G)
2. P(F∩G)
3. P(FUG)
Elevate ideas: Bring forward existing ideas

from students.
In this second phase, the teacher conducts

the two situations above with the concept of
probability. The teacher will:
1. Conduct a question and answer session
to trigger higher order thinking in
students.
2. Explain concepts and functions.
3. Get students to deliver a particular
concept map.

Restructuring ideas: Develop new ideas or

modify existing ideas.
1. Teacher conducts a session with a
selected student to show how to start a
conversation.
2. Students observe and restructure their
former ideas or knowledge.
Restructuring ideas: Develop new ideas or

modify existing ideas.
1. A display of some of the basic questions
that can be asked to start a conversation.
2. Students communicate to draw new
ideas.
To know studentsÊ understanding of concepts

and applications, a few questions are
constructed:
Task 1
A population of 100 women is divided into
three categories: working women (A), degree
holders (B) and married women (C), as
shown in the Venn diagram.
(a) She is working.
(b) She is working and with a degree.
(c) She is not married but working and with
a degree.
Task 2
There are three societies in a school. They are
the English Language Society (E), Malay
Language Society (M) and Science Society (S).
Information regarding a student joining these

societies is as follows:
P(E) = 0.4, P(E M) = 0.65, P(E S) = 0.8,
P(E M) = 0.15, P(E S) = 0.2., P(M S) = 0.2
and P(E M S) = 0.95

A student is selected at random from the

school. Find the probability that the student
is:
(a) A member of the Malay Language
Society.
(b) A member of all the three societies.
(c) Not a member of any society.
Task 3
A company has 100 salespeople; 40% of them
are males and the rest are females. Sixteen of
the male salespersons are bachelors.
From all the female salespersons, 36 are

married. A salesperson is selected at random
from the company. If it is known that the
salesperson selected is single. What is the
probability that the salesperson is male?
Task 4
Analysis of 80 applications for a vacancy
shows that 3/4 of the applicants are males,
and from all the male applicants, 1/3 are
degree holders. From all the female
applicants, half are degree holders. Assume
that each applicant has an equal chance of
getting the job.
(a) Find the probability that the successful

applicant is a male with a degree.
(b) If it is known that the successful

applicant is a degree holder, what is the
probability that the applicant is a female?

Applying idea: The idea developed prior to

this is applied in a new situation.
1. They are given time to complete the task.
2. After finishing, students should present
their answers using the whiteboard and
then share how they got the answer.
3. Sit among peers and think how to solve
the problem given.
Reflection: Evaluate how far the lesson has

been modified using a past idea or idea
before the lesson started.
1. Students have to present the answer
among their peers.
2. Students should explain how they got
the answer.
3. Students are required to answer all
questions from their peers.


Applying Problem-based Learning Strategy (MasterÊs Students, Sabah, 2008)
Problem-Based
Activities Slide
Learning Steps
Define the Teacher will give a table

Problem and the data to students.
Students will be asked to
draw the best fit line in
the geometer sketchpad
software.
Teacher divides students

into groups of six,
presents the problem and
theory needed to solve
the problem, discusses
the problem and clarifies
unfamiliar terms.
Propose Students form

hypotheses hypotheses based on
group discussion,
previous knowledge and
any information acquired
up to that point. Students
need to know the best fit
lines and how to draw
them.
Gather and Students decide what

evaluate resources and actions are
information needed to solve the
problem.
Determine as a group,
their individual tasks,
and set time lines for
members to report to the
whole group.
Students may explore

print, Internet and
multimedia sources to
acquire data. Teacher
may provide the
websites to explore and
gather the information.

Synthesis and With the knowledge of

solutions best line fit and the
geometerÊs sketchpad
software, students
develop solutions,
generate possible
solutions, decide which
is best and present it
based on the
requirements set by the
teacher.
Discussion Groups present their

solutions.
They may include video

and multimedia, graphic
displays, photographs,
artwork, as well as
written and oral
components. Discuss
what questions remain
and experience of the
PBL process. Students
identify their learning
resources and share their
results. Teacher conducts
peer/self, formative and
summative assessment.

ACTIVITY 5.1
Instructional design models may be used as a guide to design
instruction either traditionally or by using technology. Select ONE
model that you think is appropriate in order to design an instruction for
classroom use. You may select any topic/subject as an example to
support your answers.
This topic presents examples of learning materials designed using some of the
instructional design models.
The materials are also designed by integrating aspects or elements of learning

theories into it.
GagneÊs Nine Events of Instruction NeedhamÊs Instructional Model

Topic Teaching and
6 Learning
Strategies
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the meaning of teaching strategies;
2. Explain behaviourist, cognitive and constructivist teaching strategies;
3. Apply various teaching strategies in instruction;
4. Discuss the concept and importance of thinking skills;
5. Discuss types of thinking skills;
6. Discuss how learning problems can be overcome by understanding
thinking skills;
7. Accurately explain the use of thinking tools in improving thinking skills
and;
8. Discuss three types of thinking tools.
INTRODUCTION
In this topic, we will look at teaching and learning strategies that can be used in
instructional design based on the learning theories. We will discuss several
elements of thinking skills, and how learning problems could be overcome.
Finally, we will discuss the types and the use of thinking tools.

82 TOPIC 6 TEACHING AND LEARNING STRATEGIES
6.1 TEACHING AND LEARNING STRATEGIES

A strategy is a tool or method used to accomplish a task. For example, we may
use a crane to lift heavy objects or an electric mixer to bake a cake. A teaching
strategy is a method or technique to enhance learning performance.
Strategies are goals intended to facilitate a performance. Strategies are processes

that when matched to task requirements, improve performance.
Table 6.1 shows some examples of teaching strategies.
Table 6.1: Teaching Strategies
Teaching Strategy Definition

Brainstorming A learning event in which a group of learners spontaneously
contribute ideas. Example: A group of students giving their opinions
on the danger of smoking.
Computer Computer-based representation of real situations or systems.
Simulation Example: Using acid-base titration to determine end-points. Or a
simulator for pilots to train before being allowed to pilot an aircraft.
Cooperative A learning technique in which learners are members of an
Learning interdependent problem-solving group in which they collaborate,
share and delegate responsibilities, practise with others of varying
abilities, and practise communicating with others.
Demonstration A learning event in which an individual demonstrates how to do
something.
Dialogue Journals Logs or notebooks used by more than one person for exchanging
experiences, ideas, or reflections – used most often in education as a
means of sustained writing interaction between students and teachers
at all educational levels and in second language and other types of
instruction. Example: A logbook to keep track of studentsÊ
supervision.
Discovery An inquiry-oriented learning event in which the learner discovers.
Learning Example: An experiment with acids and bases to discover their
characteristics.
Discussion Oral, and sometimes written, exchange of opinions – usually to
analyse, clarify or reach conclusions about issues, questions or
problems.
Drill and Practice A learning event in which a learner repeats a skill in order to fix it in
his or her mind.
Experiential Learning by doing – Includes knowledge and skills acquired outside
Learning of book lecture learning situations through work, play and other life
experiences. Experiential education includes adventure education,
environmental education and service learning.

TOPIC 6 TEACHING AND LEARNING STRATEGIES 83
Field Trip A learning event that typically takes place outside school grounds.
Game Typically a competition or contest that involves demonstration of
understanding of content or skill.
Guided Design Reasoning-centred instructional method developed by Charles E.
Wales and Robert A. Stager that uses small-group techniques and a
prepared outline of decision-making steps to guide students through
the process of resolving open-ended problems.
Hands-on A learning event that engages learners in a practical application of
content and skills.
Inquiry Also referred to as scientific inquiry; refers to activities in which
learners develop knowledge and understanding of how scientists
study the natural world.
Laboratory A learning event that involves practising science skills and using
scientific equipment.
Lecture A learning event in which one person explains a topic to the rest of the
group or class, and this audience takes notes and listens.
Model and A learning event in which an educator and/or learner models or
Simulation simulates a natural or physical phenomenon.
Multimedia Integration of more than one medium in a presentation or module of
Instruction instruction.
Peer Coaching A learning event in which one learner helps another learner.
Peer Response A learning event in which one learner gives written or verbal feedback
to another learner.
Play Typically refers to the manner in which a lot of early learning occurs.
Presentation Typically refers to when a student explains or shows some content to
a learning audience; similar to a lecture.
Problem Solving Occurs when learners work to determine the solution to a question
raised for inquiry.
Role Playing The deliberate acting out of a role (possibly a role that one would not
normally occupy), as part of group learning session directed towards
understanding that role or the situations.
Simulation and The use of avatars in actual or hypothetical social processes; usually
Games includes gaming and may be all-man, man-computer, or all-computer
operations.
6.2 DIRECT INSTRUCTION

Direct instruction (DI) is a popular behaviourist instructional strategy for
classroom teaching initially developed in the 1960s by Siegfried Engelmann.
It grew out of the work of Siegfried Englemann and Carl Bereiter with
disadvantaged children (Bereiter and Engelmann, 1966).

This method is somewhat related to mastery learning, but it is more explicit

regarding curriculum design and effective planned instructional delivery (lesson
planning). Some call this method „teacher proof‰ provided that the teacher is
willing to learn a teaching script developed by professional instructional
designers. Direct instruction is available as commercial instructional programmes
that include materials and teacher training/ in-classroom coaching.

Features
The following are features of direct instruction:
(a) Scripted Lesson Plans. Such lesson plans relieve the teacher from time-
consuming preparation tasks. These are explicitly tested examples and
sequences made by professional instructional designers.
(b) Signal-based teachers. Teachers frequently send signals to learners to which

they should respond.
(c) Skill focused: Skills are taught in sequence until students have them
automated.
(d) Appropriate pacing: Teacher-directed instruction followed by small

collective or individual learning/repeating activities. Pacing of different
teaching methods is rather fast but children must have space to respond.
(e) Frequent probing/testing and assessments with appropriate corrective

feedback/differential praise.
(f) Direct instruction is not just drill and practice. Learners can engage in more
complex tasks during certain activities.
Kenny (1980) lists the following features:

(a) Goals are clear to the students;
(b) Time allocated for instruction is sufficient and continuous;
(c) Content covered is extensive;
(d) StudentsÊ performance is monitored;
(e) Questions are at a low cognitive level and produce many correct responses;
(f) Feedback to students is immediate and academically oriented;
(g) The teacher controls the instructional goals;
(h) The teacher chooses material appropriate for the studentÊs level;
(i) The teacher paces the teaching; and

(j) Interaction is structured but not authoritarian.
Koslov et al. (1999) identified the following typical phases of a lesson (see also
GagneÊs Nine Events of Instruction).
(a) Attention and Focus: Short wake-up.
(b) Orientation or Preparation: Teacher presents goal of the lesson and

demonstrates how the lesson builds on prior work.
(c) Model: Teacher demonstrates concepts, propositions, strategies and/or

operations. This can include repetitions, variations with different examples
in order to help generalisation. Teacher also can ask short questions and
accept focused questions from learners.
(d) Lead: Teacher organises some guided practice. Firstly, all together (choral
responding) and then more individually. If necessary, he goes back to the
model.
(e) Test: Students have to practise individually (written).
(f) Feedback: Students are corrected (using positive rewards)
(g) Error correction: Persistent errors are identified and if necessary, teacher
has to start over with model/lead/test.
(h) Additional material: Learners are engaged with different materials where
the same strategies have to be applied to a common feature (more
generalisation).
(i) Problem solving and strategy discrimination skills are introduced in future
lessons (once students master a certain vocabulary of basic strategies).

More generally, there is probably wide consensus in the instructional design
community that the structure of programme sequences should lead to shifts from
overt to covert problem solving, from simple contexts to complex contexts that
include irrelevant stimuli, from immediate to delayed feedback, from teacher-
oriented presentation to the learner as chief form of information, etc (Kenny,
1980).

6.3 INDIRECT INSTRUCTION

Indirect instruction is more student centred. It involves student involvement in
observing, investigating, drawing inferences from data, or forming hypothesis.
6.3.1 Needham Model

One example of the indirect instructional strategy is the Needham Model.
Needham has identified five phases in the learning process based on the
fundamentals of constructivism. These phases are shown in Table 6.2.
Table 6.2: NeedhamÊs Five Phases in Learning Process
Phases Purpose Example of Activities

Orientation Gain studentsÊ interest and Provide events that contradict
attention. each other.
Provide motivation. Give problems for the

students to think about.
Elicitation of Identify studentsÊ previous Concept mapping.

Idea ideas.
Q&A sessions that lead to
thinking.
Restructuring Expand or modified previous Hands-on and minds-on

of Idea ideas based on scientific ideas. activities.
Investigate using scientific Activities that utilise science-

skills. process skills.
Group communication.
Application of Apply the idea into new Solving new problems.

Idea situation.
Designing projects.
Reflection Value how far the ideas have Reflective questioning.

transformed.
Help students to their change
of ideas and the processing
skill that they have achieved.

6.3.2 Laurillard Conversational Framework

Laurillard (1993, 2002) claimed there are four main aspects of the teaching-
learning process and that different educational media can be analysed (and used)
in terms of these dimensions.
This framework can be considered both learning theory and a practical

framework for designing educational environments. Higher education, according
to Laurrillard, is much about acquiring „ways of seeing the world.‰ Associated
pedagogic strategy has to consider different forms of communication and
associated mental activities: discussion, adaptation, interaction, reflection.
Design of Learning Environments

LaurillardÊs framework includes four important components:
(a) TeacherÊs concepts;
(b) TeacherÊs constructed learning environment;
(c) StudentÊs concepts; and
(d) StudentÊs specific actions (related to learning tasks).
Figure 6.1: LaurillardÊs conversational framework
Each (larger) pedagogical scenario should include all four kinds of activities
(communication forms) that happen in eight kinds of „flows‰ in the model.

(a) Discussion
between the teacher and the learner.
(i) TeachersÊ and learnersÊ conception should be mutually accessible; and
(ii) Both should agree on learning objectives.
(b) Adaptation
of the learnersÊ actions and of the teacherÊs constructed environment.
(i) Teacher must adapt objectives with regard to existing conceptions;

and
(ii) Learners must integrate feedback and link it to his own conceptions.
(c) Interaction
between the learner and the environment defined by the teacher.
(i) Teacher must „adapt to world,‰ that is, create an environment

adapted to the learning task given to the learner; and
(ii) Teacher must focus on support for the task and give appropriate
feedback to the learner.
(d) Reflection
of the learnerÊs performance by both teacher and learner.
(i) Teacher should support the learner to revise his conceptions and to
adapt the task to learning needs; and
(ii) Learner should reflect at all stages of the learning process (initial
concepts, tasks, objectives, feedback, ...)
Learning Styles Model

The Felder design model is an instructional design model based on learning style
consideration. While some learning style proponents argue that pedagogical
designs (in particular, electronic learning environments) should accommodate
different learning paths, Felder (in the context of class teaching) argues that it is
sufficient to incorporate a variety of teaching modes.

Felder-Silverman model
According to Felder (1996, 1993), this model classifies students along the
following dimensions:
(a) What type of information does the student preferentially perceive?
(i) Sensing learners (concrete, practical, oriented towards facts and

procedures) or
(ii) Intuitive learners (conceptual, innovative, oriented towards theories

and meanings).
(b) Through which modality is sensory information most effectively perceived?
(i) Visual learners (prefer visual representations of presented material--

pictures, diagrams, flow charts) or
(ii) Verbal learners (prefer written and spoken explanations).
(c) With which organisation of information is the student most comfortable?
(i) Inductive learners (prefer presentations that proceed from the specific
to the general) or
(ii) Deductive learners (prefer presentations that go from the general to

the specific).
(d) How does the student prefer to process information?
(i) Active learners (learn by trying things out, working with others) or
(ii) Reflective learners (learn by thinking things through, working alone).
(e) How does the student progress towards understanding?
(i) Sequential learners (linear, orderly, learn in small incremental steps)

or
(ii) Global learners (holistic, systems thinkers, learn in large leaps).

6.3.3 Active Learning

What is meant by active learning?
According to E. Boyer (1990):
„Great teachers stimulate active – not passive – learning, and they encourage
students to be critical, creative thinkers, with the capacity to go on learning
after their college days are over.‰
According to Bonwell and Eison (1991), active learning involves:
(a) Less emphasis on transmitting information and more on developing

studentsÊ skills;
(b) Higher-order thinking (analysis, synthesis, evaluation);
(c) Activities (e.g. reading, discussing, writing); and
(d) Greater emphasis on studentsÊ exploration of their own attitudes and

values.
According to Meyers and Jones (1993):
(a) Research literature suggests that students must do more than just listen.
They must read, write, discuss or be engaged in solving problems.
(b) Most important, to be actively involved, students must engage in such

higher-order thinking tasks as analysis, synthesis and evaluation.
Thus, active learning is:
(a) A class teaching and learning technique that involves students in learning
activities other than passively listening to lectures;
(b) Can be defined as instructional activities relating students to doing things

and then reflecting on what they are doing or what problems they are
solving;
(c) Can occur in class or outside of class (e.g. computer simulations, Internet
assignments or discussion, independent study research).
(d) Can be used with all levels of students from first year to graduate level.

6.3.4 Cooperative Learning

Cooperative Learning (CL) is an instructional paradigm in which teams of
students work on structured tasks (e.g. homework assignments, laboratory
experiments or design projects) under conditions that meet five criteria: positive
independence, individual accountability, face–to-face interaction, appropriate use
of collaborative skills and regular self-assessment of team functioning (Johnson,
Johnson, and Smith, 1998).
Models used in Cooperative Learning

Below are some models in cooperative learning:
THINK-PAIR-SHARE
THINK
Assign a topic.
Students think.
PAIR
Students move to assigned partners.
„Please move to your partner that we assigned earlier.‰
Students discuss with partners.
SHARE
Teacher calls on students to share with class.
„Student #4, Derick, what did you and your partner say about how to best
solve word problems?‰
(a) Modification: Timed Pair Share

(i) If you want to prevent one person from monopolising the conversation,
set a time limit and students take turns talking.
(b) Modification: Rallyrobin

(i) If the discussion is supposed to generate a list from the pair of
students, the students can take turns writing.
(c) Modification: Think-Write-Pair-Share

(i) Slows pace of discussion. All students write their ideas so teacher can
monitor the participation.

(d) Managing Student Behaviour

(i) Assign partners to avoid issues of popularity.
(ii) Change partners to allow students to experience each otherÊs
communication styles.
(iii) Require quiet think time.
(iv) Monitor discussions.
(v) Ask students to share what their partner said to emphasise that
listening skills are important.
NUMBERED HEADS TOGETHER

Place students in groups of four.
Number students in each group 1–4.
Present information to students.
Require students to think about answer in groups and develop a consensus.
Call on number 1, 2, 3 or 4, and ask any student with that number to raise
their hand.
Call on one student or several students for answers.
Modification: Involving the Class

(a) After students present their answers, you can call on the entire class to
show agreement or disagreement. Every student must answer.
„Who agrees with this answer? Show me a thumbs-up sign if you agree or
thumbs down if you think another answer is correct.‰
(b) If you want justification, ask „Why?‰
JIGSAW
Students are part of a learning group and research team.
Students meet in their learning group and define goals.
Each student from the group joins a separate research team to research their
part of the goal.

Students return to the learning group to share results and teach group
members.
The learning group shares with entire class.
Modification: Individual Experts

(a) Instead of joining a research team, students work independently and
become an „expert‰ before sharing with the learning group.
„Each of you will now become an expert in your topic. Here are the
resources you can use⁄‰
GROUP INVESTIGATION
Teacher introduces a unit.
Students list topics to be investigated.
The learning group chooses a topic.
The learning group determines subtopics for members to investigate.
Members prepare report on subtopic for learning group.
Subtopics combined into information on topic.
The learning group presents their topic to class.
Managing Student Behaviour

(a) Coach learning groups on equitable distribution of subtopics and workload.
(b) Listen to students as they respond to the reports presented by individuals.

Encourage sensitivity and demonstrate examples of respectful disagreement.
„I sense that you are displeased with your team-mateÊs research. Talk to me
about what you would have done with that subtopic. We will figure out
how we can work with him.‰
6.3.5 Problem-based Learning

Problem-based learning (PBL) is the process of acquiring new knowledge based
on recognition of a need to learn. In problem-based learning, small groups of
students are presented with contextual situations and asked to define the
problem, decide what skills and resources are necessary to investigate the
problem and then provide possible solutions (Duch, Groh and Allen, 2001).
Therefore, ill-structured problem-based learning has been chosen as the

instructional material strategy. Ill-structured Problem-based Learning provides
students with opportunities to learn in situations that are similar to those they
will encounter in the real world. Students work together in small groups guided
by tutors who are responsible for ensuring that the learning objectives for each
case are identified.
Savery and DuffyÊs (1994) model of the PBL process proposes some steps that a
facilitator could follow:
(a) Facilitator identifies or designs an ill-structured problem or task relevant to

the learner.
(b) Facilitator presents the problem to the learners.
(c) Learners, in their own groups, collaboratively:

(i) Generate working ideas or possible;
(ii) Identify available information related to the problem;
(iii) Identify learning issues;
(iv) Identify resources to look up or consult;
(v) Assign tasks to the various group members;
(vi) Gather information; and
(vii) Propose solution(s).
Steps two through five may be repeated and reviewed as new information
becomes available and redefines the problem.
ACTIVITY 6.1
Teaching/learning strategies are selected in the design phase when
designing instructional materials for effective instruction. The strategies
chosen may be based on behaviourist, cognitive or constructivist
perspectives depending on the learning outcomes. Discuss and design
using a specific teaching/learning model, for example, the Needham
Model, Problem-based Learning Model (constructivist) or GagneÊs Nine
Events of Instructions (cognitive), a lesson plan for classroom use. You
may include some snapshots of your storyboard.

6.4 THINKING SKILLS

The statement by Rene Descartes (1596–1650), „I think, therefore I am,‰ expresses
the meaning of thinking for us as humans. Our brain is the most important thing
we have but people usually do not bother to think about thinking. According to
De Bono, thinking skills are not about intelligence or high IQ. „Intelligence is like
the horsepower of a car while thinking is the driving skills with which an
individual drives his or her intelligence‰ (De Bono, 1995, p. 6).
So, what are thinking skills? Alvinoo, in his 1990 „Glossary of Thinking-Skills
Terms,‰ offers a set of definitions which is widely, though not universally,
accepted by theorists and programme developers. These include (Cotton, 1991):
(a) BloomÊs Taxonomy

This is a popular instructional model developed by prominent educator
Benjamin Bloom. It categorises thinking skills from the concrete to the
abstract – knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and
evaluation. The last three are considered higher-order skills.
(b) Cognition
This focuses on mental operations involved in thinking; the biological/
neurological processes of the brain that facilitate thought.
(c) Creative Thinking

This is a novel way of seeing or doing things that is characterised by
four components – fluency (generating many ideas), flexibility (shifting
perspectives easily), originality (conceiving something new) and elaboration
(building on other ideas).
(d) Critical Thinking

The process of determining the authenticity, accuracy or value of
something; characterised by the ability to seek reasons and alternatives,
perceive the total situation, and change oneÊs view based on evidence. It is
also called logical thinking and analytical thinking.
(e) Infusion
Integrating thinking skills instruction into the regular curriculum; infused
programmes are commonly contrasted with separate programmes, which
teach thinking skills as a curriculum in itself.

(f) Metacognition
This is the process of planning, assessing and monitoring oneÊs own
thinking; the pinnacle of mental functioning.
(g) Thinking Skills

This is a set of basic and advanced skills and subskills that govern a
personÊs mental processes. These skills consist of knowledge, dispositions,
and cognitive and metacognitive operations.
(h) Transfer
This is the ability to apply the thinking skills taught separately to any
subject.
6.4.1 Importance of Thinking Skills

Why do we need thinking skills? According to Teacher Net of United Kingdom
(2008), thinking skills will lead to:
Children building their own internal planning systems;
Developing attention;
Increased perception;
Enhanced memory skills;
Intellectual development; and
Motivation.
They also think that thinking skills will help to prevent overload due to the
quantity of knowledge in the curriculum and solve the problem of difficulty in
learning. Curriculum Development Centre Malaysia (2008) gave five reasons
why we should develop thinking skills:
(a) We need to produce Malaysian citizens who can think skilfully in order to
achieve the goals of Vision 2020;
(b) As stated in our National Philosophy of Education, we need to develop

individuals who are intellectually, spiritually, emotionally and physically
balanced and harmonious;

(c) One of the objectives of the Integrated Curriculum for Primary Schools
(KBSR) is to develop pupilsÊ ability to think critically and creatively as well
as make decisions and solve problems;
(d) Thinking skills help in the better understanding of a language; and
(e) Thinking skills are also lifelong skills.
6.4.2 Categories of Thinking Skills

Although various definitions and types of thinking skills have been proposed in
the world of education, most of them are similar as they contain the following
terms (Kizlik, 2008):
(a) Thinking
Thinking refers to the process of creating a structured series of connective
transactions between items of perceived information.
(b) Metacognition
Metacognition refers to awareness and control of oneÊs thinking, including
commitment, attitudes and attention.
(c) Critical Thinking

Critical thinking refers to reasonable, reflective thinking that is focused on
deciding what to believe or do. Critical thinkers try to be aware of their
own biases as well as be objective and logical.
(d) Creative Thinking

Refers to the ability to form new combinations of ideas to fulfil a need, or to
get original or otherwise appropriate results by the criteria of the domain in
question.
Kizlik (2008) listed other terms of thinking skills based on the functions of
instruction. He stated that instruction is a conglomeration of decisions and
activities that are made and carried out in order to procure the desired outcomes
for learners. Some of these decisions and activities are as follows:
Activating prior knowledge;

Analysing skills;
Attention;
Attitudes;

Classifying;
Commitment;
Comparing;
Composing;
Comprehending;
Concept formation;
Conditional information;
Core thinking skills;
Creative thinking;
Critical thinking;
Curriculum;
Decision making;
Declarative information; and
Defining problems.
In this topic, we will only discuss three of the most important and common
thinking skills – critical and creative thinking, problem solving and decision
making.
6.4.3 Critical and Creative Thinking

Curriculum Development Centre Malaysia (PPK, 2008) noted that critical
thinking skills are required in order to skilfully assess and analyse data and
information. Making an analysis means breaking up data and information into
chunks and studying each chunks in more detail.
Skilful analysis involves the skills of comparing and contrasting, classifying,

arranging and sequencing, identifying facts and opinions, identifying biased
statements, giving causes, predicting, making inferences and generalisations,
interpreting and summarising.
Creative thinking skills are the skills of generating many, varied and new ideas.
The skills involved in making inventions and innovations may be classed under
creative thinking skills. PPK suggested a model for critical and creative thinking
skills as shown in Figure 6.2.

Figure 6.2: Model of critical and creative thinking skills
Based on the model of Critical and Creative Thinking Skills as shown above, PPK
(2008) created the types of thinking skills as shown in Figure 6.3.
Figure 6.3: Types of thinking skills

6.4.4 Problem Solving

Foshay and Kirkley (2003) stated that for much of the 20th century, educators
have devoted their attention to defining and teaching problem-solving skills. In
the early 1900s, problem solving was viewed as a mechanical, systematic, and
often abstract (decontextualised) set of skills, such as those used to solve riddles
or mathematical equations. These problems often have correct answers based on
logical solutions with a single correct answer (convergent reasoning).
However, under the influence of cognitive learning theories, problem solving

shifted to represent a complex mental activity consisting of a variety of cognitive
skills and actions. Garofalo and Lester (1985) stated that problem solving
included higher-order thinking skills such as „visualisation, association,
abstraction, comprehension, manipulation, reasoning, analysis, synthesis,
generalisation – each needing to be managed and coordinated.‰
There are various problem-solving models now. One example of a general

problem-solving model in the 1960s and 1970s is BransfordÊs IDEAL model:
(a) Identify the problem;

(b) Define the problem by thinking about it and sorting out relevant
information;
(c) Explore solutions by looking at alternatives, brainstorming and checking
out different points of view;
(d) Act on the strategies; and
(e) Look back and evaluate the effects of your activity.
The problem-solving model given by Kreger (2002) consisted of seven steps:
(a) Read and analyse the problem scenario;

(b) List what is known;
(c) Develop a problem statement;
(d) List what is needed;
(e) List possible actions;
(f) Analyse information; and
(g) Present findings.

Cognitive research done in the last 20 years has led to a different model of
problem solving. Today, we know problem solving includes a complex set of
cognitive, behavioural and attitudinal components (Foshay and Kirkley, 2003). In
1983, Mayer defined problem solving as a multiple-step process where the
problem solver must find relationships between past experiences (schema) and
the problem at hand and then act upon a solution. Mayer suggested three
characteristics of problem solving:
(a) Problem solving is cognitive but is inferred from behaviour;
(b) Problem solving results in behaviour that leads to a solution; and
(c) Problem solving is a process that involves manipulation of or operations on

previous knowledge (Funkhouser and Dennis, 1992).
Figure 6.4 (Gick, 1986) shows a problem-solving model which is frequently used,
according to Foshay and Kirkley (2003):
Figure 6.4: Problem solving model
6.4.5 Decision Making

According to the Oxford Dictionary (2004), decision is a choice or judgement that
a person makes after thinking and talking about what is the best thing to do; and
decision making is the process of deciding about something important especially
in a group of people or in an organisation.
So, when do we need to make a decision? Some conditions must exist before we
can claim that a decision is required. First, there must be two or more possible
consequences of a taken action. Secondly, there are values added as the result of
the taken action. Thirdly, there are variations in effectiveness of the taken action.

How to make a good decision? Decision making consists of complicated stages

owing to its characteristic as a process leading to an event. Since decision making
is a process, we must be clear on what the problem is. Then, we need to list all
possible alternatives and ask ourselves what we are going to do. Then, we must
state the factors that we have to weigh in making the decision. There are many
types of frameworks or processes to simplify the process of making decisions.
The most common decision making consists of five stages, as presented in the
Figure 6.5:
Figure 6.5: Decision-making process
The five stages of decision making are:
(a) Define the problem;

(b) Analyse the problem;
(c) Identify available alternatives;
(d) Choose the best alternative after appraising all the alternatives; and
(e) Implement the alternative in the situation.
ACTIVITY 6.2
1. What do you understand by the term thinking skills?
2. List the steps in a simple problem-solving model.

6.5 THINKING TOOLS

Thinking tools are used to assist learners in organising their thinking. There is a
significant relationship between the type of tool and the way that a skill, concept,
process or disposition is best learned. In this module, we will discuss three types
of thinking tools – mind map, graphic organiser and CoRT I.
6.5.1 Mind Map

A mind map is a diagram used to represent words, ideas, tasks or other items
linked to and arranged radially around a central key word or idea. It is used to
generate, visualise, structure and classify ideas, and as an aid in studying,
organisation, problem solving, decision making and writing (Wikipedia, 2008).
Basically, a mind map is an image-centred diagram that represents semantic or

other connections between portions of information. According to Buzan (2002), a
mind map is the ultimate organisational thinking tool. Figure 6.6 shows the uses
and users of mind maps. It is usually used for learning, brainstorming, memory,
visual thinking and problem solving. The target group of mind map users
includes educators, engineers, psychologists and people in general.
Figure 6.6: Uses and users of mind map
According to Wikipedia (2008), some of the earliest mind maps were developed
by Porphyry of Tyros, a noted thinker in the third century. He graphically
visualised the concept categories of Aristotle. Ramon Llull also used structures of
the mind map form. But it was British popular psychology author Tony Buzan
who popularised the use of mind maps.
The characteristics of mind maps are as follows:

(a) Use key words or images;
(b) Use a lot of colours;

(c) Use interesting forms, shapes, styles and patterns;

(d) Use arrows or codes; and
(e) Are very creative and delightful.
6.5.2 Roles of Mind Maps

According to Buzan (2002, p 9), a mind map will:
(a) Give an overview of a large subject or area;
(b) Enable you to plan routes or to make choices and will let you know where
you are going and where you have been;
(c) Gather large amounts of data in one place;
(d) Encourage problem solving by allowing you to see new creative pathways;
and
(e) Be enjoyable to look at, read, muse over and remember.
According to Buzan (2002), those who use mind maps will be more creative, save
time, solve problems, concentrate, organise and clarify their thinking. They will
remember better, study faster and more efficiently, thereby passing exams with
good grades. In short, mind maps make studying a breeze. Mind maps also
enable people to see the whole picture, plan, communicate, survive and save
trees.
Simply, a mind map is used as a:

(a) Technique of writing notes for speeches, briefings, lectures or reading
materials;
(b) Technique of forming the framework for writing reports, essays or

presentations;
(c) Technique of writing synopses or summaries after a literature review;
(d) Tool for presentations (more simple and interactive); and
(e) Guideline to remember something without referring to the original

material.

6.5.3 How to Do a Mind Map

Four important things are required in order to create a mind map (Buzan, 2002):
(a) Blank unlined paper;
(b) Coloured pens and pencils;
(c) Your brain; and
(d) Your imagination.
Buzan suggests using the following foundation structures for mind mapping
(Wikipedia, 2008):
(a) Start in the centre with an image of the topic, using at least three colours;
(b) Use images, symbols, codes and dimensions throughout the mind map;
(c) Select key words and print using upper or lower case letters;
(d) Each word/image must be alone and sitting on its own line;
(e) The lines must be connected, starting from the central image. The central
lines should be thicker, organic and flowing, becoming thinner as they
radiate out from the centre;
(f) Make the lines the same length as the word/image;
(g) Use colours – your own code – throughout the mind map;
(h) Develop your own personal style of mind mapping;
(i) Use emphasis and show associations in your mind map; and
(j) Keep the mind map clear by using radial hierarchy, numerical order or
outlines to embrace your branches.
The following is a simple way to do a mind map:
(a) Write the title in the centre of the paper. Form a unique shape;
(b) Draw a few lines that match the title and write the important subtitle on the
drawing lines; and
(c) Create a few characters in categories at the end of each line.

Figure 6.7 shows types of television programmes.
Figure 6.7: Mind map on types of television programmes
6.5.4 Graphic Organiser

Graphic tools and organisers help students to organise their ideas and present
information. They also help students to clarify their thinking and to process,
organise and prioritise information. Visual organisation of information supports
students by revealing patterns and relationships. Consequently, they can
understand concepts by describing and remembering the relationships between
different ideas and concepts (LTAG, 2006).
Graphic organisers can help to motivate, increase recall, assist understanding,

create interest, combat boredom and organise thoughts. So, what is a graphic
organiser? According to Gotoscience.com (2008), a graphic organiser is a:
(a) Visual representation of knowledge;

(b) Semantic map;
(c) Structured overview;
(d) Concept map;

(e) Semantic organiser;

(f) Story map;
(g) Scaffolding;
(h) Way of structuring information into organisational patterns;
(i) Way to facilitate pre-reading, post-reading, pre-writing, revising, discussing
and reasoning;
(j) Way to promote active learning;
(k) Highly effective tool for improving social interaction and collaboration;
(l) Framework for what is to be learned; and
(m) Way to access studentsÊ previous experience and knowledge.
6.5.5 Guidelines to Help Students in Creating Graphic

Organisers
Gotoscience.com (2008) provides some guidelines to help students in creating
graphic organisers. These guidelines are given below:
(a) Discuss with students what are graphic organisers and how to use them;
(b) Show students examples and non-examples of graphic organisers;
(c) Use a completed graphic organiser to teach a lesson or fill in a graphic

organiser while teaching a lesson;
(d) Let students help the teacher fill in a blank on the overhead projector;
(e) Give students a partially completed graphic organiser. The teacher has the
same graphic organiser on the overhead. Teacher and students fill in
together or students may fill in by working in small groups or individually;
(f) Students are given a blank graphic organiser to fill in by working in small
groups or individually;
(g) Give students opportunities to create their own graphic organiser. Let them
design their own format. They may work individually or in small groups;
and
(h) Let students present their graphic organiser to the class to teach a mini-
lesson or to explain why they chose a particular format.

6.5.6 Types of Graphic Organisers

There are many types of graphic organisers used to illustrate the prior
knowledge of a student or class about a topic or section of text, such as a star, a
tree, a Venn diagram or a flowchart. The process of converting a mass of data,
information or ideas into a graphic map gives the student increased
understanding and insight into a topic. Thus, in choosing a graphic organiser, we
must know the functions of each type of organiser. Table 6.3 shows some
examples of graphic organisers and their functions.
Table 6.3: Examples of Graphic Organisers
Comparing Decision
Describing Classifying Sequencing Causal
Contrasting Making
Brainstorming Double Cell Hierarchy Squirrels

Web Diagram Diagram Web
Money Web
Webbing Research
Cycle
Cluster
Diagram
Desktop
Folder
System
Concept Map Simile – School

is ⁄
Concept
Mapping
Venn KWHL Thinking

grids
Matrix Venn
Expanded
Comparison
Matrix
Desktop Linear
Folder String
Flow Chart System
Expanded
Linear
String
Domino
Effect
Cited from: http://www.graphic.org/goindex.html

Besides knowing the functions of each type of graphic organiser, we need to

identify our purpose or the skills we want our students to develop. Generally,
graphic organisers can be used to develop the following skills:
(a) Comparing;
(b) Categorising;
(c) Explaining;
(d) Investigating;
(e) Predicting;
(f) Making assumptions;
(g) Decision making; and
(h) Problem solving.
The daily practice of the majority of teachers during the teaching and learning
process is to use a verbal organiser. A verbal organiser involves putting key
information in text form on a piece of paper. The difference between a verbal
organiser and a graphic organiser is that a verbal organiser will state the
information in text form or sentences while a graphic organiser presents
information in figures with some key words. Figure 6.8 shows how a verbal
organiser and a graphic organiser have been applied for the purpose of
comparing. Figure 6.9 shows how a verbal organiser and a graphic organiser
have been applied for the purpose of categorising.

Figure 6.8: Graphic and verbal organisers for comparisons
Figure 6.9: Graphic and verbal organisers for categorisation

6.5.7 CoRT
CoRT is the short form for Cognitive Research Trust, which was proposed by
Edward de Bono, a cognitive researcher. He was the proponent of lateral
thinking. He also advocated the teaching of thinking as a skill. According to de
Bono, there are six parts in a CoRT lesson:
(a) CoRT I – Breadth;

(b) CoRT II – Organisation;
(c) CoRT III – Interaction;
(d) CoRT IV – Creativity;
(e) CoRT V – Information and Feeling; and
(f) CoRT VI – Action.
However, in this topic, we will only discuss tool CoRT I. CoRT I consists of seven
techniques to guide us in the thinking process. These techniques are shown in
Figure 6.10:
Figure 6.10: Seven techniques in CoRT I
6.5.8 CoRT I
Below are the details of CoRT I techniques:
PMI (Plus, Minus, Interesting) – The treatment of ideas;
CAF (Consider All Factors) – The factors involved;
C & S (Consequence and Sequel) – Focus on the consequences;

AGO (Aims, Goals, Objectives) – Focus on the purpose;
FIP (First Important Priorities);
APC (Alternatives, Possibilities, Choices) – Focus on alternatives; and
OPV (Other PeopleÊs Views) – The other people involved.
(a) PMI
P stands for Plus, which refers to good things about an idea and why you
like the idea. M stands for minus, which refers to bad things about an idea
and why you do not like it. I stands for interesting, which refers to what
you find interesting about an idea. The steps of using PMI are:
(i) Listen to the issue or problem;

(ii) Say: „LetÊs do a PMI‰;
(iii) Give the good points;
(iv) Give the bad points;
(v) Give the points which are neither good nor bad, but are interesting;
and
(vi) Make a decision based on the collected information.
(b) CAF
CAF is the short form for Consider All Factors. You use CAF when you
have to choose, make a decision or think about something and there are
many factors that you have to consider. If you leave out some of these
factors in making a decision, it might seem right at the time but later turn
out wrong. Thus, before making a decision, you could see what factors have
been left out. The steps of CAF are:
(i) Listen to the issue or problem;

(ii) Say: „LetÊs do a CAF‰;
(iii) State all the factors that have to be considered;
(iv) Make a judgement for each factor; and
(v) Make a decision.

(c) C&S
C&S means Consequences and Sequels. This technique helps us to identify
the effect if we take some actions. There are four types of consequences:
(i) Immediate consequences;

(ii) Short-term consequences (1–5 years);
(iii) Medium-term consequences (5–25 years); and
(iv) Long-term consequences (over 25 years).
The steps of C & S are:
(i) Listen to the chosen action;

(ii) Say: „LetÊs do a C & S‰;
(iii) State the immediate consequences;
(iv) State the short-term consequences (5 years);
(v) State the long-term consequences;
(vi) Repeat C & S for other alternative actions; and
(vii) Evaluate the consequences and make a decision.
(d) AGO
AGO stands for Aims, Goals and Objectives. According to De Bono (1973),
AGO can help your thinking if you know exactly what you want to achieve.
It also helps you to understand other peopleÊs thinking if you can see their
objectives. The steps of AGO are:
(i) State the issue or problem;

(ii) Say: „LetÊs do an AGO‰;
(iii) Start the discussion session;
(iv) Remind yourself or all the members of group discussion by repeating
„What are our AGO?‰; and
(v) Continue until the decision is made.

(e) FIP
FIP stands for First Important Priorities. This technique helps you to pick
out the most important points, the ones you have to give priority to and
deal with first after doing the PMI, CAF, AGO and C & S. The steps of FIP
are:
(i) Make the decision according to priority. Voice out the issue or
problem;
(ii) Say: „LetÊs do a FIP‰; and
(iii) List all the important things.
(f) APC
APC stands for Alternatives, Possibilities and Choices. This technique trains
us to search for more alternatives and choices before we make a decision. It
also trains us to think together with the choices and possibilities we have.
The steps of APC are:
(i) Voice out the problem;

(ii) Say: „LetÊs do an APC‰;
(iii) Generate as many alternatives as you can; and
(iv) Choose and make the decision.
(g) OPV
OPV stands for Other Points of View. Many thinking situations involve
other people, who may have very different viewpoints. This technique is
very effective when a discussion cannot end with a decision. However,
when we use this technique, we must be open minded and listen to other
peopleÊs opinions and ideas because they could be our guide in making
decisions. The steps of OPV are:
(i) State the problem;

(ii) Mention the alternatives actions available;
(iii) Identify the individuals whose priorities could be affected because of
the taken alternative;
(iv) Ask the individuals for their opinion on the alternative that will be
taken;
(v) Decide after investigating the viewpoints of the individuals; and
(vi) Repeat the process if the decision is not applicable.

6.5.9 Question and Questioning

Effective questioning is considered a vital component of adult education and an
integral part of teaching in the medical profession. Questioning can do the
following (UAB, 2008; cited from www.uab.edu):
(a) Clarify concepts;

(b) Reinforce student understanding;
(c) Arouse curiosity;
(d) Emphasise key points;
(e) Stimulate interest; and
(f) Promote higher-order thinking in students.
The process of skilful questioning includes (UAB, 2008; cited from

www.uab.edu):
(a) Establishing an appropriate environment by creating a climate that is

conducive to learning;
(b) Using the right mix of questions;
(c) Accurately phrasing questions;
(d) Allowing sufficient time for responses; and
(e) Using probes to further explore studentsÊ responses.
There are many types of questions and questioning skills. In this topic, we will
only discuss BloomÊs Taxonomy questions. According to the taxonomy, there are
six levels of questions, as shown below:
(a) Basic Order Question: Knowledge;

(b) Basic Order Question: Understanding/Comprehension;
(c) Middle Order Question: Application;
(d) Middle Order Question: Analysis;
(e) Higher Order Question: Synthesis; and
(f) Higher Order Question: Evaluation.

Table 6.4 below shows the definition of each level and the trigger words or
activities that could be used for that particular level.
Table 6.4: Trigger Words or Activities According to BloomÊs Taxonomy
Levels Definition Trigger Words or Activities

Knowledge Ability to remember Tell, Recite, List, Memorise,
something previously Remember, Define, Locate
learned
Comprehension Demonstrate basic Restate, Give Example,

understanding of Explain, Summarise,
concepts and curriculum Translate, Show symbols,
Edit
Translate to other words
Application Transfer knowledge Demonstrate, Use guides,

learned in one situation maps, charts etc., Build,
to another Cook
Analysis Understand how parts Investigate, Classify,

relate to a whole Categorise, Compare,
Contrast, Solve
Understand structure
and motive
Note fallacies
Synthesis Re-form individual parts Compose, Design, Invent,

to make a new whole Create, Hypothesise,
Construct, Forecast,
Rearrange parts, Imagine
Evaluation Judge value of Judge, Evaluate, Give

something vis-à-vis opinion or viewpoint,
criteria Prioritise, Recommend,
Critique
Support judgment
Cited from: http://www.hoover.k12.al.us/dves/Enrichment/new_page_2.htm

Below are examples of each level:
(a) Knowledge
Name the states in Malaysia.
(b) Comprehension
Match the vocabulary with the correct pictures.
(c) Application
Sketch the face of the thief as described in the story.
(d) Analysis
Compare animals and plants; in what ways are they similar and different?
(e) Synthesis
Design your own instruction for Lesson 1 in English Language class.
(f) Evaluation
Defend the results of your research.
ACTIVITY 6.3
Mind map is one of the powerful thinking tools nowadays.
(a) Discuss how mind maps can help in the thinking process.
(b) Design a mind map on the importance of critical and creative

thinking.

Some examples of teaching strategies that are based on behaviourist or

constructivist principles are Nine Events of Instruction and Direct Instruction.
Other examples of Constructivist strategies are Needham Model, LaurillardÊs

Conversational Framework, Active Learning, Cooperative Learning and
Problem-based Learning.
This topic discusses various definition, importance and categories of thinking

skills.
There are three most important thinking skills discussed in the topic – critical
and creative thinking, problem solving and decision making.
There are various problem solving models but the general one is BrainsfordÊs
IDEAL model.
The most common decision-making method consists of five stages – define,

analyse, identify alternatives, choose and implement.
There are three types of thinking tools discussed in the topic – mind map,
graphic organiser and CoRT I.
Also discussed were questions and questioning techniques based on BloomÊs

Taxonomy.
Active Learning IDEAL model

Cooperative Learning LaurillardÊs Conversational Framework
CoRT I Mind map
Critical and creative thinking Problem solving
Decision making Problem-based Learning.
Graphic organiser Questioning techniques

Topic Components
7 of Instruction
LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Explain the characteristics of and various other names for learning
outcomes;
2. Describe the functions of learning outcomes;
3. Identify the domains of learning outcomes; and
4. Develop effective learning outcomes.
INTRODUCTION
Why do we need to develop good learning outcomes? There are many purposes
for developing them. Good learning outcomes will lead to more learning, better
instruction, higher learner retention of learning, and even help students develop
their own organisational, critical and creative thinking skills. So, clearly defined
learning outcomes are a must for every teacher.
7.1 DEFINITIONS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF

LEARNING OUTCOMES
Learning outcomes have been defined in different ways, such as the following:
(a) „Intended change brought about in a learner.‰ (Popham, et al., 1969)
(b) „A statement of what students ought to be able to do as a consequence of

instruction.‰ (Goodlad, in Popham et al., 1969)

120 TOPIC 7 COMPONENTS OF INSTRUCTION
(c) „Explicit formulations of ways in which students are expected to be

changed by the education process.‰ (Bloom, 1956)
(d) „What the students should be able to do at the end of a learning period that
they could not do beforehand.‰ (Mager, 1962)
(e) "An objective is a description of a performance you want learners to be able

to exhibit before you consider them competent. An objective describes an
intended result of instruction, rather than the process of instruction itself."
(Mager, 1975)
(f) „Properly constructed education outcomes represent relatively specific

statements about what students should be able to do following instruction.‰
(Gallagher and Smith, 1989)
Characteristics of effective outcomes as described by Westberg and Jason (1993)

in Collaborative Clinical Education are:
(a) Consistent with overall goals of the school;

(b) Clearly stated;
(c) Realistic and practical;
(d) Appropriate for learners' stages of development;
(e) Appropriately comprehensive;
(f) Worthy, complex outcomes;
(g) Not treated as if they were etched in stone; and
(h) Not regarded as the only valuable outcomes.
7.1.1 Alternative Names for Learning Outcomes

In educational psychology, we define learning as a "change in behaviour." This is
a little confusing but if a student could not answer a question on a pre-test, then
received instruction and answered the question correctly on a post-test, it shows
a change in behaviour and that learning is considered to have occurred. Other
names used for instruction outcomes include the following (Florida State
University, 2008):
(a) Learning objectives;

(b) Instruction objectives;
(c) Enabling outcomes;
TOPIC 7 COMPONENTS OF INSTRUCTION 121
(d) Terminal outcomes;

(e) Educational outcomes;
(f) Curriculum outcomes;
(g) Performance outcomes;
(h) Operational outcomes;
(i) Behavioural outcomes;
(j) Intents;
(k) Aims; and
(l) Competencies.
7.2 PURPOSE AND FUNCTION OF LEARNING

OUTCOMES
According to Florida State University, the purpose and function of learning
outcomes are to:
(a) Guide teachers in designing instruction;

(b) Guide teachers in evaluation/test design (e.g. written tests, OSCE);
(c) Guide learners in learning focus;
(d) Guide learner in self assessment;
(e) Inform others about what we value;
(f) Cause careful thinking on what is to be accomplished through instruction;
(g) Help relationships between teachers and learners because with explicit
outcomes, the instructor is viewed in a less adversarial role because
students are not forced to guess what is to be learned;
(h) Enhance possibility of creating focused independent learning materials;
(i) Make teaching more directed and organised;
(j) Communicate to colleagues what you are teaching, thus enhancing
collaboration and teamwork with colleagues;
(k) Help facilitate situations in which we want students to demonstrate
competency (The outcomes can be specified in such as way as to specify
competency);

(l) Aid in programme evaluation;

(m) Encourage teachers to think carefully about what is important;
(n) Avoid unnecessary repetitions in teaching;
(o) Bridge the gap between vague but relevant and important institutional
goals and actual instruction;
(p) Provide visibility and accountability of decisions made by teachers and
learners;
(q) Provide models for the creation of outcomes by students;
(r) Help students make decisions regarding prioritising; and
(s) Provide feedback to learners as outcomes are accomplished.
7.3 ELEMENTS OF LEARNING OUTCOMES

A learning outcome is a statement describing a competency or performance
capability to be acquired by the learner (Arreola, 1998). There are four elements
essential to ensuring clear statements of outcomes.
(a) Audience
An outcome must mention the target group of learners.
(b) Behaviour
An outcome must describe the competency to be learned in performance
terms. The choice of a verb is all important here. Frequently used terms
such as „know,‰ „understand,‰ „grasp‰ and „appreciate‰ do not meet this
requirement. If the verb used in stating an outcome identifies observable
student behaviour, then the basis for a clear statement is established. In
addition, the type or level of learning must be identified for a description of
the types of learning and their levels (Arreola, 1998).
(c) Conditions
An outcome should describe the conditions under which the learner will be
expected to perform in the evaluation situation. What tools, references, or
other aids will be provided or denied should be made clear (Arreola, 1998).

(d) Degree/Criterion
An outcome should make clear how well a learner must perform in order to
be judged adequate. This can be done with a statement indicating a degree
of accuracy, a quantity or proportion of correct responses or the like
(Arreola, 1998).
These four elements can be stored for easy retrieval by remembering the
mnemonic acronym ABCD (A = audience; B = behaviour; C = conditions; D =
degree).
Example:
„At the end of this lesson, Form 1 Science students will be able to measure the
length of an object with the aid of a ruler correctly.‰
Audience – Form 1 Science students.
Behaviour – Measure the length of an object.
Condition – With ruler.
Degree/Criterion (implied) – Measure the length of an object correctly.
7.4 THREE DOMAINS OF LEARNING

OUTCOMES
There is more than one type of learning. A committee of colleges, led by
Benjamin Bloom, identified three domains of educational activities (Florida State
University, 2008):
(a) Cognitive: Mental Skills (Knowledge)

(i) Refers to intellectual learning and problem solving.
(ii) Cognitive levels of learning include: knowledge, comprehension,

application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation.
(iii) Example of outcome: The student should be able to explain the

characteristics of the amoeba cell.
(b) Affective: Growth in Feelings or Emotional Areas (Attitude)

(i) Refers to emotions and value system of a person.
(ii) Affective levels of learning include: receiving, responding, valuing,

organising and characterising by a value.
(iii) Example of objective: The student will demonstrate commitment to a

group project through cooperation among the group members by
submitting the project report on time.
(c) Psychomotor: Manual or Physical Skills (Skills)

(i) Refers to physical movement characteristics and motor skill
capabilities that involve behaviours requiring certain levels of
physical dexterity and coordination.
(ii) These skills are developed through repetitive practice and measured
in terms of speed, precision, distance, procedures or execution
techniques. Psychomotor levels include: perception, set, guided
response, mechanism, complex overt response, adaptation and
origination.
(iii) Example of outcome: The student will be able to use a scientific

calculator to solve trigonometric problems.
7.4.1 Cognitive Domain

Bloom's Taxonomy of the Cognitive Domain (Bloom, 1956) consists of six
learning levels – knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and
evaluation. The cognitive domain is focused on intellectual and knowledge
development by enhancing studentsÊ thinking.
(a) Knowledge represents the lowest objective level. The need to achieve this
level is recalling or recognising information that has been learnt. Examples
of behaviour for this level are: to define, to list, to state and to identify.
According to Bloom et al (1956), examples of activities for this level are –
multiple-choice test; recounting of facts or statistics; recalling a process, rule
or definition; and quoting a law or procedure.
(b) Comprehension is the level of recalling or recognising information. To

achieve this objective level, students must show the ability to interpret, to
translate and to explain a topic in their own words. Examples of behaviour
for this level are: to report, to explain, to conclude and to comment.
According to Bloom et al (1956), examples of activities to measure the
achievement of this level are – to explain or interpret the meaning of a
given scenario or statement; to suggest a treatment; reaction or solution to a
given problem; and create examples or metaphors.

(c) Application refers to the application of information that has been learnt in a
different situation. Examples of behaviour for this level are: to count, to use,
to translate and to illustrate. According to Bloom et al (1956), examples of
activities to show attainment of this level are – put a theory into practice;
demonstrate; solve a problem; and manage an activity.
(d) Analysis is the ability to identify relationships between variables in a

system and to restructure the system with the variables given. Examples of
behaviour for this level are: to compare, to categorise, to analyse and to
examine. According to Bloom et al (1956), examples of activities to show
attainment of this level are – identify constituent parts and functions of a
process or concept; de-construct a methodology or process; make
qualitative assessment of elements, relationships, values and effects; and
measure requirements or needs.
(e) Synthesis is the level to show the ability to integrate new and bigger parts
from small parts. This ability needs students to analyse the elements of a
piece of information and identify the relationship between each element.
From here, the students will be able to detect the explicit and implicit
structures that form the relationship between each element. Examples of
behaviour for this level are: to create, to design, to develop and to relate.
According to Bloom et al (1956), examples of activities to show attainment
of this level are – develop plans or procedures; design solutions; integrate
methods, resources, ideas or parts; create teams or new approaches; and
write protocols or contingencies.
(f) Evaluation is the highest objective level in the cognitive domain. The
needed ability to achieve this level is to make decisions based on rational
and certain criteria. Examples of behaviour for this level are: to choose, to
criticise, to summarise and to justify. According to Bloom et al (1956),
examples of activities to show attainment of this level are – review strategic
options or plans in terms of efficacy, return on investment or cost-
effectiveness, and practicability; assess sustainability; perform SWOT
analysis in relation to alternatives; produce financial justification for a
proposition or venture; calculate the effects of a plan or strategy; and
perform a detailed cost risk analysis with recommendations and
justifications.

7.4.2 Affective Domain

The second domain in Bloom's Taxonomy, the Affective Domain, consists of five
levels – receive, respond, value, organise or conceptualise values, and internalise
or characterise values. The Affective Domain is focused on feelings and emotions
to shape the students attitude.
(a) Receive is a level where students are willing to hear and willing to accept
the new experience. Examples of behaviour for this level are: to ask, to
focus, to listen and to acknowledge. According to Bloom et al (1956),
examples of activities to achieve this level are – listen to teacher or trainer;
take interest in session or learning experience; take notes; turn up; make
time for learning experience; and participate passively.
(b) Respond means students react and participate actively in a chosen

phenomenon. Examples of behaviour for this level are: to react, to respond,
to clarify and to present. According to Bloom et al (1956), examples of
activities to achieve this level are – participate actively in group discussion;
active participation in activity; interest in outcomes; enthusiasm for action;
question and probe ideas; and suggest interpretation.
(c) Value is the level where students attach values and express personal
opinions. Examples of behaviour for this level are: to justify, to confront, to
argue and to criticise. According to Bloom et al (1956), examples of activities
to achieve this level are – decide worth and relevance of ideas and
experiences; and accept or commit to a particular stance or action.
(d) Organise or conceptualise values is the level where student are able to
organise and develop a value system. Examples of the behaviour for this
level are: to develop, to formulate, to relate, and to compare. According to
Bloom et al (1956), examples of activities to achieve this level are qualify
and quantify personal views, state personal position and reasons, and state
beliefs.
(e) Internalise or characterise values means students are able to adopt a belief
system and philosophy. Examples of behaviour for this level are: to act, to
solve, to display and to practice. According to Bloom et al (1956), examples
of activities to achieve this level are – self-reliant; and behave consistently
with the personal value set.

7.4.3 Psychomotor Domain

The psychomotor domain emphasises on skills development relating to manual
tasks and physical movement, and also concerns and covers modern social skills
such as communications and operating high-technology equipment. This domain
consists of five levels, which are imitation, manipulation, precision, articulation
and naturalisation.
(a) Imitation is the level where students are able to copy, observe and replicate
the action of another. Examples of the behaviour for this level are: to follow,
to repeat, to adhere, and to replicate. According to Bloom et al (1956),
examples of activities to achieve this level are – watch teacher or trainer and
repeat action, process or activity.
(b) Manipulation means reproduce activity from instruction or memory.

Examples of behaviour for this level are: to build, to execute, to implement
and to perform. According to Bloom et al (1956), examples of activities to
achieve this level are – carry out task from written or verbal instruction.
(c) Precision is the ability to execute skill reliably and independently and to
solve problems. Examples of behaviour for this level are: to show, to
control, to complete and to demonstrate. According to Bloom et al (1956),
examples of activities to be trained to achieve this level are – perform a task
or activity with expertise and high quality without assistance or instruction;
and able to demonstrate an activity to other learners.
(d) Articulation means to adapt and integrate expertise to satisfy a non-

standard objective. Examples of behaviour for this level are: to solve, to
combine and to modify. According to Bloom et al (1956), examples of
activities to achieve this level are – relate and combine associated activities
to develop methods to meet varying and novel requirements.
(e) Naturalisation means to automate and develop unconscious mastery of an

activity, as well as related skills, at a strategic level. Examples of behaviour
for this level are: to specify, to invent, to design and to manage. According
to Bloom et al (1956), examples of activities to achieve this level are – define
aim, approach and strategy for use of activities to meet strategic need.

ACTIVITY 7.1
1. Discuss what is a learning outcome.
2. Discuss the differences between domain of learning outcomes.
Learning outcomes are important as it will lead to better learning and help
students to develop their critical and creative thinking skills.
Good learning outcomes have their own characteristics and serve many
purposes.
There are four elements that determine the clarity of learning outcomes –
audience, behaviour, conditions and degree/criterion (ABCD).
There are three domains of learning outcomes – cognitive (knowledge),

affective (attitude) and psychomotor (skills).
ABCD Learning outcomes

Domains of Learning Outcomes

Topic Instructional
8 Media
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Discuss categories of instructional media;
2. Discuss the purpose of using instructional media; and
3. Identify factors in selecting instructional media.
INTRODUCTION
During the process of teaching and learning, instructional media is often used as
a channel of communication that carries information from a sender to a receiver.
According to Newby et al (2000), media that carry messages with an instructional
purpose are considered instructional media. Generally, there are two important
roles of instructional media:
(a) Facilitation of student learning; and

(b) Evaluation.
8.1 CATEGORIES OF INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA

Media can be classified in different ways. For example, these can be classified in
terms of physical characteristics and sensory channels:
(a) Media Categories (Physical Characteristics)

(i) Print – Text;
(ii) Still Visual – Photograph, drawing;
(iii) Motion Visual – Film, video (including digital video);

130 TOPIC 8 INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA
(iv) Audio – Tapes, recordings (including digital audio); and

(v) Real object – Display, demonstration.
(b) Media Categories (Sensory Channel)

(i) Audio – TeacherÊs voice;
(ii) Visual – Chalkboard, drawings;
(iii) Audio/visual – Videotape; and
(iv) Tactile, kinaesthetic – Working models.
(Cited from: http://www.quasar.ualberta.ca/edit573/modules/module13.html)
Hoban and Zissman (1937) categorised media based on the learning experience
as shown in Table 8.1 below:
Table 8.1: Media Based on Learning Experience
Media Experience
Text;
Abstract
Figure;
Map;
Drawing; Concrete
Film/video;
3D model;
Real object;
Experiment/demonstration;
Computer (simulation); and
Real situation.
Figure 8.1 shows Edgar DaleÊs „Cone of Experience‰ (1969). It organises learning
experiences according to the degree of concreteness that each possesses.
According to Dale, teachers could create an effective learning process for abstract
concepts if they have concrete information to interpret the abstract concepts.
Thus, this cone is a practical model that could be used for media analysis in the
process of selecting instruction materials.

TOPIC 8 INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA 131
Figure 8.1: DaleÊs cone of experience
Categories of instructional media as shown in Table 8.2 below are based on the
physical characteristics of the media:
Table 8.2: Categories of Instructional Media
Type of Media Example

Still visual Transparency, slides, microfilm
Motion visual Film, video
Graphic media Drawing, poster, cartoon, graph
Still graphic Photograph, postcard
3D media Model, puppet, diorama
Notice boards Blackboard, white board, flannel board, bulletin board
Audio media Cassette, CD-ROM, computer, web
Printed media Module, textbook, newspaper, magazine, pamphlet, brochure

8.2 PURPOSE OF USING INSTRUCTIONAL

MEDIA
Media can be used to support one or more of the following instructional activities
(cited from: http://ctl.sdsu.edu):
(a) Gain Attention

A picture on the screen, a question on the board, or music playing as
students enter the room all serve to get studentsÊ attention.
(b) Recall Prerequisites

Use media to help students recall what they learned in the last class, so that
new material can be attached to and built upon it.
(c) Present Objectives to Learners

Hand out or project the dayÊs learning objectives.
(d) Present New Content

Not only can media help make new content more memorable, it can also
help deliver new content (a text, movie or video).
(e) Support Learning through Examples and Visual Elaboration

One of the biggest advantages of media is to bring the world into the
classroom when it is not possible to take the student into the world.
(f) Elicit Student Response

Present information and pose questions to students, getting them involved
in answering the questions.
(g) Provide Feedback

Media can be used to provide feedback on a test or class exercise.
(h) Enhance Retention and Transfer

Pictures enhance retention. Media help students visualise a lesson and
transfer abstract concepts into concrete, easier to remember objects.
(i) Assess Performance

Media is an excellent way to pose assessment questions for the class to
answer. Students can also submit mediated presentations as classroom
projects.

8.3 FACTORS OF INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA

SELECTION
The effectiveness of the teaching and learning process depends upon the media
selected to enhance studentsÊ communication to the content. Each medium has its
strengths and weaknesses. Thus, when selecting media, the learning environment
should take place to create a successful learning experience.
According to Mappin et al (1998), the basis of media selection models are the
factors affecting media choice. These factors include:
(a) Instructional method;

(b) Type of learning task (subject matter);
(c) Learner characteristics;
(d) Practical constraints;
(e) Teacher preference;
(f) Physical attributes of media (sensory channels); and
(g) Physical environment.
Smith and Ragan (1999) suggested the following factors to consider when
selecting instructional media:
(a) Learning Task and Conditions

The learning task along with the instructional conditions that facilitate the
learning of this task.
(b) Learners
The characteristics of the learners.
(c) Context
The learning context and other practical matters that influence the
appropriateness of the medium.
(d) Media Attributes

The attributes of the potential media (what each potential medium can and
cannot do with regard to factors above).

Gagne, Briggs and Wager (1992) provided the following practical factors to
consider in media selection:
(a) What size of group must be accommodated in one room on a single

occasion?
(b) What is the range of viewing and hearing distance for the use of the media?
(c) How easily can the media be „interrupted‰ for pupilsÊ responses or other
activity and for providing feedback to learners?
(d) Is the presentation „adaptive‰ to learnersÊ responses?
(e) Does the desired instructional stimulus require motion, colour, still
pictures, spoken words or written words?
(f) Is the sequence fixed or flexible in the medium? Is the instruction repeatable
in every detail?
(g) Which media are the best for incorporating most of the conditions of
learning appropriate for the objective?
(h) Which media provide more of the desired instructional events?
(i) Do the media under consideration vary in probable affective impact for
learners?
(j) Are the necessary hardware and software items obtainable, accessible and
storable?
(k) How much disruption is caused by using the media?
(l) Is a backup easily available in case of equipment failure, power failure, film
breakage and so on?
(m) Will instructors need additional training?
(n) Is a budget provided for spare parts, repairs and replacement of items that
become damaged?
(o) How does cost compare with probable effectiveness?

The factors in selecting instruction media can be summarised as follows:
(a) Instruction objective;

(b) Student;
(c) Methods/strategies; and
(d) Practical.
These four factors will be discussed in detail in the following subtopics.
8.3.1 Instruction Objectives

Table 8.3 below shows the relationship between instruction objectives and
instruction media as stated by Gagne, Briggs and Wager (1992).
Table 8.3: Relationship between Instruction Objectives and Instruction Media
Objectives Exclusions Selections

Intellectual Exclude media with features that Select media that provide
Skills are not interactive. feedback to learner responses.
Cognitive Exclude media with features that Select media that provide
Strategies are not interactive. feedback to learner responses.
Verbal Exclude only real equipment or Select media able to present
Information simulators with no verbal verbal messages and elaboration.
accompaniments.
Attitudes Exclude only real equipment or Select media that are able to
simulators with no verbal present a realistic picture of a
accompaniments. human model and the modelÊs
message.
Motor Skills Exclude media with no provision Select media which make it
for learner responses and possible for students to directly
feedback. practise a skill and provide
informative feedback.

8.3.2 Students
Knowing students is another aspect that we should focus on when selecting
instructional media. According to the ASSURE model, there are three important
aspects which must be included in studentsÊ analysis:
(a) Common characteristics of students such as age;

(b) Special needs: Visual aids may be used to help those who are weak in
reading, etc; and
(c) Learning styles.
8.3.3 Methods/Strategies
According to Elton (1977), teaching and learning could be divided into three
categories:
(a) Group teaching;

(b) Individual teaching; and
(c) Group learning.
Based on the categories of teaching and learning, Elton suggests the media
suitable for each category of teaching and learning as shown in Table 8.4.
Table 8.4: Media Suitable for Each Category of Teaching and Learning
Categories of Teaching and

Examples TeachersÊ Role
Learning
Group teaching Conservative lecturing, Traditional sender,
expository learning, TV, executive of instruction
radio and film. process
Individual teaching Long-distance learning, Publisher and manager of
computer-based learning, learning resources,
mediated self-instruction facilitator and tutor
Group Learning Tutorial, seminar, group Manager and facilitator
assignment, projects, games
and simulation, self-help
groups

8.3.4 Practical
The following questions will guide us in selecting instructional media in terms of
practicality:
(a) Is the instructional media easy to obtain?

(b) If it is easy to obtain, is it user-friendly?
(c) If it is hard to obtain, what is the cost and time needed?
(d) Will the administrator approve it?
8.4 DESIGNING INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA

The steps in designing instructional media are:
(a) Forming Ideas

Ideas could be formed through experience, reading, observation and others.
The ideas should emphasise on leading students to solve their learning
problems.
(b) State the Objectives Clearly

Write the learning outcomes clearly. We must be clear on what is the
knowledge or skill that our students will acquire at the end of a lesson.
(c) Student Analysis

Analyse students in terms of their background, prior knowledge, learning
capacity, basic skills, linguistic ability, attitude and learning style. This
analysis will help teachers in selecting the instruction explanation methods,
predicting the time frame of the instruction process, selecting the level of
vocabulary used, and identifying the methods and studentsÊ involvement
level during the learning process.
(d) Collect and Arrange the Materials

Identify resources through research, conduct literature review on the
content aspect, arrange the flow of main ideas, and prepare a simple
synopsis.
(e) Transform Ideas into Visual Aids

Transfer ideas in abstract form into visual aids in concrete form. Visual aids
in graphic style will enhance studentsÊ learning and help them to memorise
the learning content.

(f) Planning for Student Involvement

StudentsÊ active involvement in the learning process will enhance the
effectiveness of an instruction. There are various methods that could be
used during the learning process like asking simple questions, allowing
them to make conclusions or give opinions, and forming groups to have
discussions and make decisions.
(g) Revise the Planning

The planning should be revised to make sure it will assist the learning
process and lead the students towards better performance.
(h) Issuing the Media

After you are satisfied with the planning, the next step is issuing the media.
ACTIVITY 8.1
1. Discuss the purpose of using instructional media.
2. Discuss the factors involved in selecting instructional media.
Instructional media can be categorised in terms of physical characteristics and

sensory channels.
The physical characteristics of instructional media are print, still visual and
motion visual.
The sensory channels of instructional media are audio, visual, audio-visual

and tactile/kinaesthetic.
Some factors and purpose of using instructional media are discussed in the
topic.
There are also some explanations on steps in designing instructional media.

Instructional media Physical characteristics

Instructional objectives Sensory channel

Topic Educational
9 Technology
in Schools
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain current trends in schools;
2. Describe the e-learning model and pedagogy for schools;
3. Define three main learning strategies of smart schools;
4. List five objectives of the Malaysian Smart School;
5. Design a mind map that identifies the existing barriers in
technology integration;
6. Reflect and discuss some best practices of different countries;
7. Describe four items in the Malaysian Smart School teaching and
learning components;
8. Specify the five skill areas that Smart School teachers were re-
trained in;
9. Describe the four main uses of technology in a Smart School;
10. Provide a conceptual framework for technology integration in
Malaysian schools; and
11. Evaluate the processes of this technology implementation.

TOPIC 9 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN SCHOOLS 141
INTRODUCTION
Imagine a school where 40 pupils in a classroom surf the Web for relevant
material for topics they have chosen to investigate. These 40 pupils, both
physically and virtually, wander around their city or town collecting data on
their living environments, input that data into their laptops and send it to a
repository where others can share and make use of that information. The pupils
download up to the minute photographs which come from their online friends
and paste these into their multimedia presentations on the culture of another
country. They also connect to medical specialists in hospitals from whom they
download up to the minute vital statistics on patients and paste them into MS
Excel spreadsheets as part of a science project.
TodayÊs rapid advancement and technological development has opened up a

new and exciting world that, just a few years ago, seemed unimaginable. With
the click of a mouse, technology continues to change the way we live, learn, work
and interact every day.
Think how technology fits into the scheme of revolutionising education.

Questions about education and the role of technology are important not only for
teachers and students but also for all Malaysians, both present and future
generations. The education system has an impact on all citizens, and the
information revolution has the potential to move us closer to the goal of
education as a lifelong process.
9.1 CURRENT TRENDS IN SCHOOL

What are our plans for boosting performance and standards in schools? Do we
aim to put learners in the driverÊs seat, shaping opportunities which are open to
all learners and fit around their particular needs and preferences?
Students in todayÊs connected classrooms are no longer confined to their school

buildings. Instead, they have at their fingertips the opportunity to explore the
world and take in vast amounts of information along the way. We are only just
beginning to realise the potential of technology in helping to improve student
learning and increase academic performance.
Perhaps, in no other area do we hope to benefit more from the influx of

technology in our society than in our countryÊs educational system. Successful
integration of technology in our schools has the potential to transform the way
our children learn, creating new and challenging opportunities to enhance their
academic performance.

142 TOPIC 9 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN SCHOOLS
So, how does technology offer innumerable methods of enhancing teaching and
learning in schools?
ACTIVITY 9.1
To get a better understanding of current trends in using technology in
the classroom, do an Internet search for three articles on this subject.
Read them and explain three trends that are changing the educational
landscape in schools today, and some of the challenges that may occur
as a result of these changes.
Trends Challenges
1.
2.
3.
„E-learning is to classroom learning as cell phones are to a payphone at the bus

station.‰
Trainersoft
The quote above summarises the major force for change in school practice. In
short, teachers worldwide are changing their traditional teaching methods and
beginning to understand the enormous potential being offered to their
curriculum through the largest information source known to man, the Internet
and the World Wide Web.
Traditionally, every classroom was an island unto itself, with the teacher
instructing, assessing and remediating children who had limited contact with
other students, even within the same school. Do you think this scenario has
changed now with students connected to the Internet? Like any new educational
technology, the impact of the Internet on learning depends on how it is used.
Let us study Figures 9.1 and 9.2 which show how e-learning is implemented in
schools. Proceed with Activity 9.2 after that.

Figure 9.1: E-learning model for schools

Source: cde.athabascau.ca

Figure 9.2: E-learning pedagogy for schools

Source: http://www2.warwick.ac.uk
ACTIVITY 9.2
The following are some links which showcase examples of e-learning

solutions by or for schools. Analyse how these examples execute the
e-learning model and pedagogy that are illustrated in Figures 9.1 and
9.2. Discuss and explain your views in class.
Example 1: http://www.christophercolumbusawards.com
Example 2: http://thinkquest.org
Example 3: http://webquest.sdsu.edu
Example 4: http://www.mff.org/mmc
Example 5: http://www.weatherclassroom.com
Example 6: http://www.epals.com
Example 7: http://www.ancientchina.co.uk
From these examples, we hope you have experienced the imaginative use of ICT
to engage more learners in the excitement of learning. Borrowing ideas from the
world of interactive games and simulation, we can motivate even reluctant
learners to practise complex skills and achieve much more than they would
through traditional means.

9.2 CURRENT TREND IN MALAYSIA: THE

SMART SCHOOL CONCEPT
We have studied current trends in schools from a global perspective. What about
Malaysia? Are we at par with other schools worldwide through the
empowerment of our teachers and students with free self-paced and web-based
content combined with best practices for advancing student achievement and
performance?
I believe you will agree that it is undeniable that ICT is changing how we learn.
At the very least, computers – once a novelty – have become a fixture in
classrooms across the country and come with broadband access. Let us walk
down memory lane to understand how these initiatives started.
Let us look at Figure 9.3 which shows the history of the smart school concept.
Figure 9.3: History of the Smart School concept

The implementation of ICT in Malaysian schools started with a Computer in

Education (Komputer Dalam Pendidikan) programme in 1992. The programme
involved the construction of computer laboratories together with basic
necessities, without looking at schoolsÊ preparedness. The programme focused on
basic aspects such as electricity supply, maintenance of security and the schoolsÊ
financial allocation for maintenance of ICT hardware and payments for
multimedia and electricity bills.
After the programme, the use of ICT in the teaching and educational process was
expanded haphazardly such as the development of Smart Schools which began
operation in 87 pilot schools during the 1999 academic year, followed by the
Teaching and Learning of Science and Mathematics in English programme in
2003 and finally, the launch of the School-Net broadband infrastructure project in
2004. A School-Net website was set up by the Ministry of Education to support
this initiative.
9.2.1 Smart School Concept

The Smart School concept in education is one of the most discussed topics among
educators and trainers in Malaysia. Smart Schools aim to produce knowledge
workers for the nationÊs high-tech industries in the 21st century.
As such, the school experience is meant to build up a highly competent

workforce that is able to create new products and processes. Interestingly,
the former Director-General of Education, Tan Sri Murad Mohamad Noor,
commented in New Sunday Times (5 May 2005) that the educational system in
national schools at the moment was like „patching an old shirt, at the end of the
day you still have an old shirt with new patches.‰ What did he mean? Before we
ponder this question, why donÊt we study the Smart School concept?
When ideas about the Smart School were projected to the Malaysian public,
people started imagining classrooms packed with computers, Internet, video
conferencing equipment and all the latest communication technologies. Do you
think this is a misconception? However, it cannot be denied that what
distinguishes Smart Schools from other schools is the use of technology to
support and enhance teaching-learning. With the aid of multimedia technology,
self-accessed, self-paced and self-directed learning can be practised.

ACTIVITY 9.3
Define the following learning strategies. In addition, explain the impact
of these strategies on studentsÊ ability to develop their strengths to a
level of excellence and become a generation of inventors and
innovators, in relation to the objectives of the Malaysian Smart School.
Self-accessed means
_______________________________________________
Impact:
__________________________________________________________
Self-paced means
_________________________________________________
Impact:
If the technology is there, then of course it is wise to use it. On the other hand,
what is the most important idea in the Malaysian Smart School concept? Read
and study the information and study Figure 9.4 to gain a better understanding of
the Malaysian Smart School concept.
Figure 9.4: Smart school objectives

Source: The Smart School Blueprint

The Malaysian Smart Teaching and Learning Components comprise curriculum,

pedagogy, assessment and materials (content). See Figure 9.5.
Figure 9.5: Smart school teaching and learning components
Briefly, the curriculum contains the following elements:
(a) Knowledge, skills and language acquisition across the curriculum.

(b) Values inculcation towards the development of a good and holistic
individual.
(c) Analytical thinking and the ability to make decisions and solve problems.
(d) Creativity and the ability to generate new and innovative ideas.
(e) Proficiency in language, networking skills and has a global outlook.
(f) Integration of knowledge, skills and values for the Information Age,
including ICT competency.
The pedagogical approach will certainly encourage independent learning and

improve learning outcomes for children, through varied learning strategies to
ensure basic competencies and overall development. More exciting lessons and
shared activities will engage even „hard to reach‰ learners because the
curriculum caters to all learning styles. But how well can a teacher carry out
these lessons and activities in a Smart School classroom? Hence, one of the first
steps that the Ministry of Education took was to retrain teachers in five skills
relevant to the Smart School curriculum. The skills are:

(a) Learning Skills;

(b) Creative and Critical Thinking;
(c) Facilitating;
(d) Assessment and Evaluation; and
(e) Technological Competence.
Figure 9.6: Malaysian smart school concept

Source: The Smart School Blueprint
For assessment purposes, there is a movement towards a learner-centred and

criterion-based school level assessment and use of various multiple approaches
and instruments to arrive at a more holistic, complete and meaningful picture of
a studentÊs abilities. In the long term, a studentÊs performance in school-level
assessment will be combined with a centrally administered examination for the
final performance report.
Finally, the learning materials provided will fulfil curriculum and teaching-
learning needs and challenge thinking, motivate learning, and encourage active
participation. Although the materials available will consist of both conventional
and electronic materials, the Smart Schools will focus on utilising technologies
for the following purposes (see Figure 9.7).

Figure 9.7: Utilisation of technology in Smart School
You should now comprehend that the Smart School will reinvent school
processes and policies. Based on this understanding, let us review once again the
concern expressed by the former Director-General of Education, Tan Sri Murad
Mohamad Noor.
ACTIVITY 9.4
What is your overall perception of the Malaysian Smart School concept?

Write your perception and argue for or against the comment made by
Tan Sri Murad Mohamad Noor:
The educational system in national schools is like „patching an old

shirt, at the end of the day you still have an old shirt with new patches‰.
SELF-CHECK 9.1
1. What are the five objectives of the Smart School?
2. What are the four Smart School Teaching and Learning

components?
3. Smart School teachers had to be re-trained in five skills. What are

these?

9.3 THE USE OF TECHNOLOGIES IN

CLASSROOMS
The first question that usually comes to mind is „Why teach with technology?‰
IsnÊt that the wrong question? The correct question is, „Why are we teaching?‰
„If youÊre heading in the wrong direction, technology wonÊt help you get to the
right place.‰
Steve Ehrman
According to Ehrman, teaching and learning is our core business. It is about

changing studentsÊ knowledge, aptitudes, abilities and attitudes. Everything else
must add value to it.
So how can technology add value? Do you think technology increases efficiency,
effectiveness, and reach? I think you will say yes but please read on.
Admittedly, we know there are barriers that schools face in seeking to integrate
technology into their curriculum. And we want to examine the barriers schools
face in implementing a successful technology-rich learning environment and
what needs to be done to help teachers and administrators overcome these
obstacles. Do you know what these obstacles are?
ACTIVITY 9.5
Brainstorm and prepare a mind map that identifies the existing barriers
that obstruct the integration of technologies in the curriculum of
schools. Next, select a classroom in either a primary or secondary school
as your case study and complete the worksheets provided to plan the
integration of technologies in the school curriculum.
The stages of technology integration in schools are described in Figure 9.8. Study
it carefully and relate it, if you can, to how technology has been integrated in
your own organisation.

Figure 9.8: A conceptual framework for integrating technologies

Source: http://www.icbl.hw.ac.uk
9.4 BEST PRACTICES

The Malaysian Government had plans for the broad implementation of the Smart
School concept nationwide. This was to be finalised by 2010. The government is
serious about introducing technology in all schools in the shortest possible time.
In his speech during the launch of the Multimedia Super Corridor (MSC) Next
Leap event on 3 July 2004, the then Prime Minister, Tun Abdullah Haji Ahmad
Badawi said the following:
The Smart School programme will be re-modelled and its implementation fast-
tracked to enable more schools to benefit, at lower cost to the government. Smart
Schools will have access to the Internet through the SchoolNet programme,
which is already at an advanced stage of implementation. Advanced teaching
and learning materials developed through the Smart School Pilot programme
will be utilised for teaching, while the Smart School Management System will be
used to improve administration processes.

What are some of the issues that we should bear in mind for the broad
deployment of the Smart School programme? Let us now explore best practices
in other countries so that we can learn from their success stories of integrating
technologies in their school curriculum.
Worksheet 1: Comprehensive Needs Assessment Chart

Worksheet 2: Technology integration planning chart and sample plan

Source: http://www.ncrel.org

9.4.1 Case Study in Korea

Korea has established an Educational Information Sharing System to facilitate the
production and distribution of educational content. It aims to maximise the
sharing and use of scattered educational information held by 16 municipal and
provincial offices of education (educational and science research institutes) across
the nation. Called Edunet, it includes teaching and learning materials, training
materials and education administration materials. By systemising and
standardising educational contents and establishing a communal usage system of
educational contents, the system becomes a one-stop access centre. Access to
educational contents is made easier through a comprehensive search system
which is made possible by sharing a standardised Metadata Database.
Figure 9.9: KoreaÊs educational information sharing system

Source: http://www.logosnet.net
Through this service, the teacher and student will save time in obtaining teaching
and learning materials by having access to different services at once. They can
also find the information more easily by specifying terms such as class, subject,
grade, semester, chapter and unit.
Imagine how this nationwide educational information sharing service prevents

the development of already existing contents. It greatly reduces the cost of the
production and distribution of educational information.
High-quality resources include:
(a) Multimedia contents, lesson plans and a reference site for teachers; and
(b) A variety of interesting online textbooks, animations and digital books for
students.

9.4.2 Case Study in Australia
Figure 9.10: Australian learning architecture for schools

Source: www.educationau.edu.au
A key infrastructure priority in the Australian education system is a Learning

Architecture that supports teachers, students and administrators to effectively
plan, design, deliver, assess and report (see Figure 9.10).
In Australia, the scope of formal learning is shifting from the compulsory

years to lifelong learning, and from age-based and classroom-based cohorts to
distributed, local and global communities. There are closer links between schools,
homes, communities, industry and the VET and tertiary sectors, bringing a shift
from organisational processes to processes focused on learners.
Networked technologies are connecting learners with experts, teachers and other
learners beyond their school while supporting collaborative and cooperative
learning. This connectivity also offers teachers online access to relevant student
and administrative data and curriculum resources. This enables teachers to
individualise instruction and to report on student achievements, increases
curriculum choices and pathways, breaks barriers of geographic isolation,
extends instructional and assessment methods and increases access to specialist
support.
The purpose of a Learning Architecture is to provide a planned enterprise ICT

framework comprising hardware, software and people. Developing a system that
enables the school sector to share information and software applications
internally and with external organisations. The application of information and
communication technologies to the processes that support learning promises
to deliver improved learning outcomes and administrative and management
efficiencies. Learner-centric processes are now possible across education
systems through a Learning Architecture designed to interface curriculum and
administrative systems, (see Figure 9.11).
The Learning Architecture requires standards that support:
Figure 9.11: Standards that support the learning architecture
Standards are important due to the critical need to achieve an integrated and
interoperable system. Teachers, administrators and students become frustrated
with lack of cohesion between systems. In many cases this raises the
technological barrier to use. Teachers and students require a system that is user-
friendly and meets current pedagogy. For example, after entering the studentÊs
name once, this information is reused across a number of systems: in a class list,

in an assigned group for online activities, to access the digital library and to be
reused within the assessment and reporting system. Besides, by logging in once,
teachers can plan lessons online and at the same time seamlessly discover
resources from a local educational repository.
9.4.3 Case Study in England, United Kingdom

Since 1998, a majority of English schools have become much better equipped
with ICT and use the technology more effectively. Virtually every school is
connected to the Internet, most at broadband speed. Most also have electronic
interactive whiteboards to enliven lessons. Many schools provide laptops for
pupils. In some areas, every home in the community is connected to the school.
This means that parents can play a greater role in school life and their childrenÊs
learning. Learners are supported in all aspects of their education, through a
combination of teachers and tutors, effective technology and well-equipped
classrooms and libraries.
ICT enables learning to be tailored to the needs of the student. They can learn
where and when they want to, at a pace and in a style that best suits their needs.
Learning shouldnÊt be confined to the classroom or school hours. Hence, students
will be able to access online support when they need via a single point of access
to all their course materials – a personal online learning space. They should be
able to contact digital libraries, talk online to fellow students or gain online
tutorial support when they are not in school.
Parents and guardians find it easier to engage with and support their childrenÊs
learning by opening school-based Internet systems, bridging the gap between
school and home, making available secure access to pupil information, learning
activities and e-mail-based communication.
Finally, there is a concerted effort by the digital content industry, innovative

educators and education researchers together, to demonstrate what the next
generation of e-learning could be. The British Department of Education is
working closely with agencies and private corporations like Becta, NESTA
Futurelab, the subject associations and industry to improve the range and quality
of digital content for every subject. For example, Curriculum Online provides
teachers with easy access to multimedia resources from 600 companies as well as
cultural and heritage sites. The BBC Digital Curriculum, from early 2006, will
provide substantial extra content. Broadband has also made it easier to access
resources such as the Pathé News archive, supported the Regional Broadband
Consortia (RBC).

Innovative technologies can help motivate many pupils, including those with
special needs or who are turned off by traditional lessons. The government
stimulates innovation by encouraging the development of highly interactive
software, drawing on the expertise of the games industry, among others.
Figure 9.12: UKÊs e-strategy to transform learning

Source: http://www.dfes.gov.uk
The focus is to shift from presenting content to engaging learners in productive

learning activities (see Figure 9.12). All curriculum subjects will need to develop
learnersÊ skills, from basic to advanced. E-learning clearly supports the
development of ICT skills but it also offers a highly interactive environment for
practising aspects of other generic skills, such as observation, textual analysis,
communication and data interpretation. E-learning innovation must be focused
on the learning activities that support both skill learning and understanding.
ICT supports assessment playing a more formative role – assessment for

learning, not just for judging. The English school system has piloted a wide range
of applications of e-assessment: immediate feedback to learners and teachers,
online tests, personalised diagnostics, online assessment and accreditation of
e-skills and inclusion of e-skills in the assessment of all curriculum topics.

The English school system has three priorities:
(a) Ensure wider use of existing resources across the sectors and get better
value from earlier investments;
(b) Engage educators in improving teaching, learning and assessment through

more innovative e-learning resources, productive activities and
assessments; and
(c) Modernise the curriculum in the light of changes in technology, using e-

learning especially to tackle difficult areas and prepare people for life and
work in the 21st century.
9.4.4 Case Study in Singapore

SingaporeÊs ICT initiatives began in 1991 with the launch of the IT2000
Masterplan. According to this Masterplan, Singapore is to be transformed into an
intelligent island, where ICT permeates every aspect of the society – at home,
work and play. ICT was first piloted by the Ministry of Education as a tool to
assist studentsÊ learning with the introduction of Accelerating the Use of ICT in
Primary schools (AICTP). The AITP project, implemented in six pilot-schools in
mid-1995, introduced multi-media teaching in key subjects at the primary school
level. Students in the pilot schools spent about 10% of the curriculum time using
ICT. The evaluation of the pilot schools found the programme helped most
pupils in their learning. The more academically-inclined students used ICT to go
beyond curricula objectives and became more independent learners, while the
less academically-inclined ones showed greater interest in their studies,
encouraged by hands-on lessons, and were able to attain the curricula objectives.
The StudentÊs and TeacherÊs Workbench (STW) was implemented in six pilot
secondary schools in Singapore in 1996. It provided a central repository of
educational resources and lesson packages for teachers. STW was only
introduced for the secondary one level with a fully ICT-based Science
curriculum. The evaluation of the project indicated that it had succeeded in
motivating students to learn Science. The project was then extended to Science at
secondary two in the six pilot schools, with the STW being used for 30% of the
curriculum time for the subject.
The JCNet, on the other hand, was a research and development project on the use
of the Internet and was implemented in two Junior Colleges in 1997.

The ICT Masterplan II was launched in April 1997 and one of its agenda was the
integration and expansion of the scope of these three major pilot initiatives
(AITP, STW, and JCNet projects). It took into account the lessons learnt from
these initiatives. For example, several features of the STW had been incorporated
in the Masterplan, such as the development of Digital Media Repositories
(DMRs) of resources for use by teachers and the involvement of private sector
content providers in the project. In the course of implementing the ICT
Masterplan in all secondary schools, further lessons were drawn from the STW
project to decide on how such an initiative could be extended to other schools.
The Ministry of Education then launched eduMALL and Singapore ONE@

Schools, the two main developments in the Masterplan II for Information
Technology in Education, in 1998. The eduMALL is a one-stop web-based
solution which provides a focal point for ready access to online information
services and educational resources. The eduMALL contains three features –
eduLibrary, eduPlex and TeachersÊ Network – which provide a platform to
teachers to conduct professional dialogue, learning and collaboration. Its fourth
feature, Shops, is a service area for educators, as well as members of the public, to
source for educational software and to communicate their feedback on the
various products.
Schools are also connected to Singapore ONE, the worldÊs first nationwide
broadband network via the Singapore ONE@Schools. The project has provided
high-speed information access and facilitated the delivery of multimedia-
intensive and content-rich educational materials to teachers and students. They
have faster access to government services, news-on-demand, distance learning,
video conferencing capability and fast Internet.
With the eduMALL and Singapore ONE@Schools, a communication channel for

IT is well established among schools, the ministry and software industry. Both
the eduMALL and Singapore ONE@Schools provide schools with better support
for the use of IT in teaching and learning, as well as improve connectivities
between the schools and the world.
In addition, the ICT CORE Training for all schools was completed by May 2001,
where the teachers were trained in basic ICT competencies in the use of the word
processor, spreadsheets and the Internet (http://sam11.moe.gov.sg/tn/).

Besides the training, Ministry of Education provides other types of support, such
as ICT competitions to motivate the schools. Some of the ICT competitions that
have been organised so far are the National Software Competition, ThinkQuest –
Singapore, Singapore ThinkQuest Junior, I-Micro Award, Learn@ and Schools
Video Award. For example, Singapore ThinkQuest Junior is an educational
website design competition organised by the ministry and co-hosted by
MediaManager Pte Ltd.
It encourages students aged nine to 11 to take a meaningful interest in computers

and technology, and to take advantage of the Internet as a constantly growing
source of information and as a powerful collaborative tool by designing and
creating educational websites in teams of two to six members, guided by their
teacher coaches. Opportunities have also been provided for schools to be
involved in a collaborative effort with schools in other countries. Some of the
international collaborations were with schools in Japan, the United Kingdom and
Chile. For details, visit http://www.moe.gov.sg/compass/home.html.
Another excellent initiative is the collaboration with Microsoft to test, develop,

research and showcase innovative infocomm technologies in education.
All these initiatives are supposed to fulfil the six intended outcomes for ICT
integration in Singapore schools stated in SingaporeÊs Masterplan II for IT in
Education which are:
(a) Pupils use IT effectively for active learning.

(b) Connections between curriculum, instruction and assessment are enhanced
using IT.
(c) Teachers use IT effectively for professional and personal growth.
(d) Schools have the capacity and capability in using IT for school
improvement.
(e) There is active research in IT in education.
(f) There is an infrastructure that supports widespread and effective use of IT.
In order to achieve these intended outcomes, the Ministry of Education has

identified five key programmes, along with several projects within these
programmes. Read about these programmes at http://www.moe.gov.sg/
edumall/.

ACTIVITY 9.6
After studying best practices in other countries, reflect on each

countryÊs implementation of educational technologies in their
respective school curriculum. What do all these implementations mean
for learners and teachers?
Will the learners have more opportunities to develop the skills they
need for participating fully in a technology-rich society? Will the
learners have more choices about where, when and how to study?
What about teachers? What type of benefits, if any, did teachers gain
from the implementation? Could teachers improve their teaching skills
with the integration of technology applications and processes?
ACTIVITY 9.7
Based on the lessons learned in other countries, evaluate the

implementation of educational technology in Malaysian schools.
Refer to the following website and read the article:
http://www.editlib.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=Reader.ViewAbstract&
paper_id=16373 (this article is available via OUM Digital library)
You can also refer to this document, School Technology and Readiness
(STaR) Chart, available at: http://www.iste.org/ (under Resources).
The wider availability of new technology means that we have both the
opportunity – and the responsibility – to explore new approaches to teaching and
learning. The familiar and effective teaching methods of listening, reading,
writing and class discussion will of course remain important. But our teaching
institutions ought to be advancing beyond the traditional formats that are still so
prevalent. Of course, the critics of ICT could reasonably argue that the teacher
who makes his or her subject come alive for their class is more effective than a
computer programme that is merely an electronic page-turner. And the
technology is still not perfect. A computer crash doesnÊt help any lesson.

But we do not argue for a complete switch to new technology. Traditional

teaching methods and e-learning can and should complement each other. The
new technologies are capable of creating real energy and excitement for all age
groups. Used well, they should motivate, personalise and stretch.
ACTIVITY 9.8
The use of technology as a resource to support student learning has

meant both opportunities and challenges for teachers. We know that
change is a constant factor in education, especially in the last decade,
and many of us perceive change to be initially burdensome. Some
teachers comment on the innovation of technology as adding to an
already heavy workload, while others refer to it as an educational
bandwagon that will probably just go away in time.
Please read the paper by David J. Staley about adoption of digital

technologies in classrooms at: http://www.educause.edu/ir/library/
pdf/eqm0432.pdf. What is your opinion on the value of technology in
schools?
1. Discuss your opinion in the myVLE online forum.
2. Locate and report other similar papers that may contribute to the
discussion.
The current trend in schools is to use technology to boost performance and

standards.
Challenges exist as schools implement technology.
There is enormous potential when students are connected to the Internet.
An e-learning model for schools is useful to ensure successful

implementation.
The e-learning pedagogy for schools incorporates increasing pedagogical

richness.

To appreciate the Malaysian Smart School, we need to understand the

objectives, the Smart Teaching and Learning components, the five skills
teachers need to be re-trained and the four main areas of technology
utilisation in the school.
We need to understand how best to have technology add value to schools.
There are several best practices that we can learn from.
We need to be able to evaluate the implementation of technology in

Malaysian schools.
Malaysian Smart School objectives Malaysian Smart School concept
OUM DIGITAL LIBRARY

Pflaum, W. D. (2004). Technology Fix: The Promise and Reality of Computers
in Schools. Vancouver: Association of Supervision and Curriculum
Development. Part 1: Commitment and Focus [available at eBrary].
Cavanaugh, C. (2003). Development and management of virtual schools: Issues

and trends. New York: Idea Group Incorporated. Chapter 3: Managing the
Virtual Schools – The Canadian Experience.
OUM LIBRARY
Roblyer, M. D. (2003). Integrating educational technology into teaching (3rd ed.).
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education
Lever-Duffy J., & McDonald, J. B., & Mizell, A. P. (2005). Teaching and learning
with technology (2nd ed.). NY: Pearson Education.

INTERNET RESOURCES
Malaysian Smartschool Project Website (1999). Retrieved on December 20, 2005,
from http://www.ppk.kpm.my.
Technology in Schools: Suggestions, Tools and Guidelines for Assessing

Technology in Elementary and Secondary Education (2003). A research
paper for National Forum on Education Statistics produced by U.S
Department of Education: Office of Educational Research. Retrieved on
December 20, 2005, from: http://nces.ed.gov.

Topic Technologies
10 of the Future
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain future technological trends in education;
2. Discuss the application of these technologies in education;
3. Analyse the strengths and weaknesses of these technologies; and
4. Identify the changing roles of students, instructors and institutions
when adopting these technologies.
INTRODUCTION
All costs related to computers and networking are constantly dropping, and soon
these technologies will become ubiquitous, surrounding us with intelligent
devices. Currently, we think of computers as full-featured desktops or portables
that are designed for flexibility and power. These will soon be in the minority as
computer technology becomes ubiquitous and is increasingly found in portable
phones, televisions, handheld computers, cars, cameras, wristwatches, household
appliances, games and even pens.
Each person will eventually own several smart devices, and the low-cost access
to networks, using wireless channels, will enable easy access to communication
over the Internet.
As prices drop, computation and communication technologies will also converge

and diverge. As a result, organisations throughout the world are combining new
technologies and methodologies to create new and quite different learning
experiences for both individuals and institutions. Future technologies have the
potential to change the fabric of learning through four ways:

168 TOPIC 10 TECHNOLOGIES OF THE FUTURE
(a) Global Delivery

The capacity to provide learners with the same learning experiences,
regardless of physical location on the globe or whether or not they are
working at a desk with computers.
(b) Continuous Delivery

The capacity to provide learners with an ongoing continuous set of
learning, knowledge, and performance experiences, rather than a one-shot
event of learning.
(c) Rapid Learning Development

The capacity to shorten the development time from concept to delivery.
(d) Just Enough

The ability to deliver exactly what is needed, by the learner, at that
moment, rather than a set of contents that is based on an average set of
needs, or even worse, the needs of the slowest learners.
(Downes, 2003)
Hence, it is crucial for us to outline some of the issues, challenges and questions
facing schools and higher institutions of education as they consider the use of
future technologies in the support of teaching and learning such as:
(a) What are the types of future technologies that may have an impact on
education?
(b) How could these technologies improve learning outcomes?
(c) What are the changing roles of students, faculty members, and the
institution itself owing to the adoption of these technologies?
These are some of the questions we will try to answer together in this chapter by
studying the latest top trends in learning technologies.
10.1 HANDHELD TECHNOLOGIES: MOBILE

AND WIRELESS LEARNING
There is little doubt that in the future, learning solutions and services will be
integrated into a whole host of mobile technologies. These devices can take the
form of handheld computers or personal digital assistants, mobile phones
including the new smartphones, audio players (such as the Apple iPod), video
players, tablet PCs and even wearable devices. They can be connected through a
desktop, a laptop or a network, either wired or wireless.

TOPIC 10 TECHNOLOGIES OF THE FUTURE 169
According to a study conducted on behalf of the European Commission in 2005

(Source: http://www.m-learning.org/), mobile and wireless technologies have
been identified as the most significant changes expected in higher education. For
example, the present generation of school children are immersed in wireless
technology, commonly in the form of mobile phones that transmit text messages
with photos or video. With dropping prices and increasing utility, it is almost a
foregone conclusion that not too far into the future, all students will have a
mobile phone.
According to this study, two distinct potential markets are evolving:
1. Learning services for people on the move (people in jobs that require them
to continuously move, people learning and receiving information while
visiting sites and buildings, certain types of full-time and part-time
students needing individualised learning education, on the move and while
on external projects).
2. Learning services for people who are without infrastructure and fixed
access, in rural or remote areas and learners in developing economies.
Klopfer, Squire, Holland and Jenkins (2002) described five properties of

handheld or mobile technologies that produce unique educational affordances
for these two potential markets. The five properties are shown in Table 10.1.
Table 10.1: Five Properties of Handheld or Mobile Technologies that

Produce Unique Educational Affordances
(a) Portability Can take the computer to different sites and move around
within a location.
(b) Social Interactivity Can exchange data and collaborate with other people face
to face.
(c) Context Sensitivity Can gather data unique to the current location,
environment and time, including both real and simulated
data.
(d) Connectivity Can connect handheld devices to data collection devices,
other handhelds devices, and to a common network that
creates a true shared environment.
(e) Individuality Can provide unique scaffolding that is customised to the
individualÊs path of investigation.

As a result, the m-learning environment will change teaching and learning in six
main ways (see Figure 10.1).
Figure 10.1: Five main ways m-learning changes teaching and learning
Source: Prensky, 2004
As a result, the m-learning environment will change teaching and learning in six
main ways:
(a) Ubiquity
Faculty and students have access to course information 24 hours a day,
365 days a year, wherever they are on campus.
(b) Project Sophistication

Student projects created will tend to be more sophisticated.
(c) Compatibility
Students have access to the same hardware and software as do faculty.
(d) Emphasis on Learning and Teaching

Overcoming equipment problems allows greater time and resources to be
devoted to pedagogy.

(e) Savings
Replacing desktop computers with laptops and hard-wired networks with
wireless ones saves money.
(f) Standardisation
A standard platform maximises access and minimises the need for technical
support.
(Prensky, 2004)
10.1.1 Application of Mobile Technologies in

Education
Mobile technologies are hotbeds of feature innovation – the major features being
voice, short messaging service (SMS), downloadables, graphics, browsers and
camera functions (still and video), besides other new features.
Most mobile technologies have some kind of graphic display and the latest ones
come with far more graphic power and can crisply display words, pictures and
animation. Besides, mobile technologies have memories (or memory card slots)
that accept downloaded programmes and content. Hence, diverse applications
combining elements of voice, text, graphics and even specially designed
spreadsheets and word processors can be downloaded to phones, with additional
content added as needed.
Currently, Short Text Messages (SMS) provide timely „learning‰ reminders but
in schools, SMS can also be used to conduct pop quizzes or spelling or math tests,
to poll studentsÊ opinions; to make learners aware of current events for class
discussion, and even to tutor students by offering mobile delivered test-
preparation questions at specific user-preferred times.
For many disciplines, it is estimated that the volume of information doubles

every five years or in about the amount of time it takes to complete a degree
(Noblitt, 1995). This implies that information must remain extremely accessible.
This is only possible with access to both computers and networks that permit
students to integrate electronically-stored information into their work in an
intuitive, convenient manner. Student mobile computing offers the only viable
approach to providing this level of access. Having a browser built into mobile
devices puts a dictionary, thesaurus and encyclopaedia into the hands of every
student. It gives them instant access to Google and other text search engines,
turning their mobile phones into research tools.

Mobile devices with camera or video are suitable for scientific data collection,
documentation, and visual journalism, allowing students to gather evidence,
collect and classify images, and follow progressions over time. This feature
extends the devicesÊ learning possibilities even farther into television journalism
(most TV news clips are less than 30 seconds) as well as creative movie-making.
Finally, as communications devices, these technologies would allow students to

collaborate in new and interesting ways. Students can literally see what is going
on around the world including, potentially, participating in learning activities
conducted in the classrooms of other countries.
10.1.2 A New Model for Learning: Mobigogy

Mobigogy is a new learning model that attempts to integrate pedagogy and
andragogy into a personalised learning philosophy for the digital age. While
other learning theories are constructed from a belief in a linear, chronological
change in an individualÊs learning preferences, mobigogy identifies learning
preferences in terms of how learning is gained rather than what and from whom.
Mobigogy recognises the networked individual as the central element of all
learning methods.
The comparison between mobigogy and the other learning models is explained
in Table 10.2:
Table 10.2: Comparison between Mobigogy, Pedagogy and Andragogy
Mobigogy Pedagogy Andragogy

Continuous Compulsory Voluntary
Learner-directed Teacher-centred Learner-orientated
education as democracy Minimal control by Education as freedom
Life experience is learning learner Assimilation of learning
Enables network thinking Training for life with life experience
Dynamic learning Encourages convergent Encourages divergent
Supported in learning thinking thinking
communities Rote learning Active learning
Seeking knowledge from Dependency on educators Learning and teaching
shared life events Learning roles are blurred
acknowledging living as Uncertainty about the
Imparting of information
learning object oriented outcome, whatever the
opens vistas for
recognition curriculum content
continuing learning and
peer learning
Source: http://www.trainer.org.uk

10.2 SEARCH TECHNOLOGIES

The Technology Behind GoogleÊs Great Results
As a Google user, you may be familiar with the speed and accuracy of a Google
search. How exactly does Google manage to find the right results for every query
as quickly as it does? The heart of GoogleÊs search technology is PigeonRank™, a
system for ranking web pages developed by Google founders Larry Page and
Sergey Brin at Stanford University.
Similar to GoogleÊs search technology, PigeonRank, is big business on the Net.

The most highly visited sites are often started off by helping people find
something on the Web. Some information is incredibly easy to find on almost all
search sites. Other questions cannot be answered at all using just Internet
resources. Some searches will continue to be extremely difficult. The new
technological approaches may be able to help with some kinds of searches. If
nothing else, they can help give us greater insight into the search process. For
example, when youÊre looking for magazines or journal articles, search engines
can be helpful, but other specialised search tools are often a better alternative –
particularly in the academic, scholarly and sci-tech. areas.
10.2.1 Specialised Search Tools

The following are examples of specialised search tools targeted at the academic
area:
Figure 10.2: Examples of specialised search tools

(a) Google Scholar

Provides either a summary or, occasionally, the full text of „scholarly‰
articles and books. While the search page and the search results look similar
to the regular Google search engine, youÊre searching a different index of
materials. Many of the search result items link to article citations and
abstracts provided by the publisher or an aggregator. You can purchase a
copy of the full text of the article directly from the publisher or aggregator –
most cost $10 to $30 per article. A relatively small number of citations
include links to a free, full-text copy of the article. The search results page
also provides information on the number of citations to each article within
the Google Scholar database. This is sometimes a useful way of gauging an
articleÊs impact within that discipline.
(b) Scirus
Includes both summaries of scientific/technical journal articles and selected
science-oriented web pages. You can also choose to search only articles or
only websites. If you click the link to an article from the search results
screen, you will be taken to a web page through which you can purchase a
PDF copy of the full text. In the case of web material, you can click through
to see the full text of the item. The search results page also includes
suggested words and phrases that can help you narrow your search.
(c) PubMed
A well-known database built and maintained by the US National Library of
Medicine and the National Institutes of Health. This is a very in-depth
collection of medical research, dating back to the 1950s. There are links
within selected article summaries that will take you to a free, full text
archive.
(d) CiteSeer and SMEALsearch

Provide access to summaries of scientific and business literature,
respectively. What is particularly intriguing about these two databases is
that they let you look for articles that reference a particular article, thus
letting you track down articles related to your topic. Individual records list
the articles that cite that record („Cited by:‰) as well as a list of „Similar
documents‰ and „Related documents‰, calculated by analysing the articles
themselves. These two databases are built by specialised search engine
spiders that scour the web for full-text articles, so you can download the
full text of any of the articles retrieved in CiteSeer or SMEALsearch.

(e) OAIster
An index to academically-oriented „digital resources‰ available for free
from close to 600 libraries and other organisations. These digital resources
range from images at the Library of Congress to audio files, reference books
such as dictionaries, articles from online journals and electronic books. You
can search for any word within the document, or you can limit your search
to the document title, author, subject or type of material (audio, video, text
and so on). The search results page includes a description of each item,
along with a link you can click to get a copy of the item.
10.2.2 Application of Search Technologies in the

Future
It is predicted that the biggest challenge in the next several decades will be, how
to effectively and efficiently dig out a machine that apprehends information and
knowledge layer from unorganised and unstructured Web data. As a result, new
search technologies will bring the current Web search to the next level by
applying data mining, machine learning and knowledge discovery techniques to
information analysis, organisation, retrieval and visualisation.
Bergman (2004) suggested that since the Web is huge, heterogeneous and
dynamic; advanced Internet search calls for the development of a large-scale
search platform. This platform is required to efficiently store, parse, index and
search billions of Web pages and other types of documents. The mined
information and knowledge will greatly improve the performance of current
Web search. For example, the search platform will enable students to do a one-
stop search of multiple online databases as well as extract page layout structure
to improve link analysis and relevance ranking.
These search technologies would be capable of handling data at Web scale and
quickly adapt to newly available topics to cope with the dynamic nature of the
Web. In contrast with the current Web search methods that essentially do
document-level ranking and retrieval, the new paradigm would enable Web
search at the object level. To achieve this, the search engine would automatically
discover important sub-topic structure for a query to better organise the search
result, and then identify the trend and bring knowledge and intelligence to the
users (Bergman, 2004).
The goal of the next generation of search and retrieval technologies is for users to
efficiently and effectively find their intended content from the vast amount of
information on the Internet.

10.3 BLOG AND VLOGGING

Blog is a shortened term for „weblog,‰ a special genre of webpage that is
organised around one or more authors who „post‰ regularly to a site with
new content or ideas. Weblogs are usually organised by postings made in
reverse-chronological order.
The main features of a blog as a publishing tool are shown in Figure 10.3:
Figure 10.3: Main features of a blog
10.3.1 Characteristics of a Blog

Here are the characteristics and features of a blog that makes it different from a
normal website.


Table 10.3: Characteristics of a Blog
Characteristics of a Blog
Blog postings appear in chronological order and generally show the exact time of
posting. Where there are multiple authors associated with a blog, it will also state
who has made the posting.
Postings often have comments from those who want to respond to them.
Postings are uniquely addressable through a permalink.
As a blog generally displays only a set number of postings, e.g. 10, there are a number
of ways of accessing the older postings, through the archives:
By the monthÊs calendar;
By the previous months or weeks; and
By category (set up by the author of the blog).
There are links to other external sites or blogs (often in a „blogroll‰).
There is usually a syndication link which provides a way for readers to keep up to
date with new blog postings (more about this in What is RSS?).
Blogs became an increasingly popular medium at the turn of the 21st century.
Sites such as Blogger.com and LiveJournal.com allow anyone to sign up for their
own blog, free of charge. Today, there are millions of blogs available online, with
thousands of new blogs appearing for the first time each day. The demographics
for bloggers point to many being written by individuals between the ages of 13
and 29.
10.3.2 Characteristics of a Vlog

A Vlog (or video blog) is a blog that contains video content. Vlogs primarily
feature video shorts instead of text. Vlogging is becoming more common as
equipment becomes cheaper and supporting software and hosting and
aggregation sites become more prevalent. Both Yahoo and Google feature video
sections and many MP3 players, such as the hugely popular iPod support video.
Anyone with access to a video-capable camera and a computer equipped with a
high-speed connection can create a vlog and publish and distribute it online.

10.3.3 Blogging/Vlogging Benefits for Students

Effective communication is not only an important life skill that requires
development throughout a studentÊs education, itÊs also an increasingly
important expectation the public has for their schools. Recent research conducted
at the RMIT in the Faculty of Arts and Communication has explored the range of
potential applications of blogging technology in education and training for
student communication, learning content delivery, student mentoring,
professional development, collaboration and knowledge management.
(a) Reflective or Writing Journals

A way to communicate and record an individualÊs or a groupÊs experiences,
observations, advice, impressions, opinions, analysis, notes and comments
across a whole range of subjects – news, politics, travel, economics,
journalism, computer programming. Research has uncovered examples
where students who are normally quiet in classes flourish through
electronic writing.
(b) Assignment Submission and Review

Blogs document learning and collect information for self-analysis and
reflection. Fulwiler, T. (1987) suggested that there needs to be critical
reflection in the student journals as it is not sufficient to simply document
or describe. The learner needs to articulate the connection between new
information and what they already know. The publication of blogs by
students may, in fact, help them retain information and encourage
understanding of concepts being discussed.
(c) Dialogue for Groupwork

A shared learning activity that encourages comment and cross-referencing
by other students. Students who blog, design videos and pour their
knowledge into these social tools foster discussion and collaboration as well
as showcase their work. Hence, blogging is extremely useful not just as a
personal publishing tool, but also in building a well-networked community
of people.
(d) Other Options

(i) Knowledge management;
(ii) E-portfolio; and
(iii) Share course-related resources.

10.3.4 Blogging/Vlogging Benefits for Educators

Blogging allows teachers to use Web technology as a pedagogical tool for the
following purposes:
(a) As Course Tools

Blogs seem to be a natural way for educators to maintain a class/course
Web page to provide a whole teaching and learning environment, so that
they can post daily news about the course, link to assignment materials, etc,
and students can contribute to class discussions. As an added benefit,
parents at home can also visit these same websites and reinforce Internet-
based content at home. One site for classroom blogs, schoolblogs.com, lists
more than 1,200 worldwide.
(b) As Resource Tools

Educators/teachers can keep notes on their own teaching and ideas. These
blogs can either be kept private or shared. New blog sites for teachers have
sprung up, like Educational Bloggers Network (www.ebn.weblogger.com).
(c) Other Options

(i) Content-related blog as professional practice;
(ii) Networking and personal knowledge sharing;
(iii) Instructional tips for students;
(iv) Course announcements and readings;
(v) Annotated links; and
(vi) Knowledge management.
(d) Personalising learning is a complex task in a classroom filled with about

35 students. Personalising learning is about teaching our students how
to become learners and find ways to slowly shift the responsibility of
providing content and questions from ourselves to our students so that we
can spend our time doing the much more valuable tasks of helping them
achieve this goal. It is a complete shift, from teacher as content provider to
teacher as director and supporter of learning.

Blogs are useful for personalising learning in a number of ways:
1. They can be a source of ideas or information for you about a subject.

2. They can be used to disseminate your own ideas or information about a
subject.
3. They can create a community or network of like-minded individuals.
10.4 PODCASTING AND VODCASTING

Podcasts can deliver educational content for listening or viewing on your
computer and iPod, freeing learning from constraints of the physical classroom.
A podcast is audio or visual content that is automatically delivered over a
network via subscription. A podcastÊs content can be anything conveyed by an
audio or video file.
Once subscribed, podcasts can be regularly distributed over the Internet or

within your schoolÊs network and accessed with an iPod, laptop or desktop
computer (both Macs and PCs).
There is a wide-range of educational content being developed for and delivered

by podcasting. These can be anything from curriculum-related presentations to
professional development communities, where educators distribute content and
best practices between members.
VODcasting (also called „vlogging‰) – the „VOD‰ stands for „video-on-demand‰

– is almost identical to podcasting. The difference is that the content is video
versus audio, and the content is more likely to be played on a laptop than a
personal media assistant (PMA) due to their newness and relative expense.
Vlogs are often distributed through RSS feeds. Video content distributed in this
way is sometimes called a vodcast or a vidcast.
What is RSS?
According to the website Webopedia, RSS stands for Really Simple Syndication
(or Rich Site Summary), an XML format for syndicating Web content. It is a
useful way of keeping readers up to date with news and announcements on a
blog (or indeed, any website). Syndicated web content includes such data as
news feeds, events listings, news stories, headlines, project updates, excerpts
from discussion forums or even corporate information. In plain English, RSS is an
alternative means of accessing the vast amount of information that now exists on
the world wide web. Instead of the user browsing websites for information of

interest, the information is sent directly to the user. RSS can automatically output
a file so that other websites can import and use this knowledge via a news
aggregator. (A software which allows syndicated news content (such as RSS
feeds) to be brought together and displayed. Aggregators can be built into web
browsers, website management systems or as stand-alone applications).
RSS has evolved into a popular means of sharing web content between sites
(including the BBC, CNET, CNN, Disney, Forbes, Motley Fool, Wired, Red
Herring, Salon, Slashdot, ZDNet, and more).
„RSS defines an XML grammar (a set of HTML-like tags) for sharing headlines
and news on the web. Each RSS text file contains both static information about
your site, plus dynamic information about your new stories, all surrounded by
matching start and end tags. Each story is defined by an <item> tag, which
contains a headline TITLE, URL, and DESCRIPTION.‰
Here is an example of what RSS feed might look like.
...
<item>
<title>RSS Resources</title>
<link>http://www.webreference.com/authoring/languages/xml/rss/</link>
<description>Defined in XML, the Rich Site Summary (RSS) format has
quietly become a dominant format for distributing headlines on the
Web.
Our list of links gives you the tools, tips and tutorials you need
to get
started using RSS. 0323</description>
</item>
...
Each RSS channel can contain up to 15 items and is easily parsed using Perl or other open
source software.
Source: http://www.webreference.com
10.4.1 Factors for the Explosive Growth of Podcasting

(a) Internet activity is pervasive.
(b) Broadband has grown very rapidly, which makes it far easier to consume
large media objects.

(c) The multimedia personal computer can be more or less be taken for
granted.
(d) The distinction between streaming and downloading of media content has
begun to blur – people can now have the experience of streaming while
enjoying the simplicity of downloading.
(e) Finally, there is the iPod phenomenon and the rapid adoption of portable
MP3 playback devices – up to 11 million devices in the United States alone.
10.4.2 Compelling Uses for Podcasting in an

Educational Setting
(a) Audio recordings of textbook text, made available for students by the
chapter, would allow students to „read‰ or review texts while walking or
driving to class; this is especially useful for auditory learners.
(b) Instructors can easily create a podcast of daily assignments and lectures
from class, and publish it for all of their students.
(c) A Campus „iTunes Music Store‰ where students could download recorded
files like interviews with external resources – an instructor could interview
a scientist or an expert in a subject and add that recording to the RSS feed
for the class.
(d) Students can likewise create and publish content and deliver it to their
teachers or other students. Students could record and post project audio
and video interviews which could be automatically downloaded to an
instructorÊs laptop or MP3 player for review.
(e) Students could also forward audio of their pronunciation dialogues for
language lessons. They could even swap these with peers for peer review
before turning in the final form to the instructor.
(f) Archived recorded oral reports, and recorded meeting and conference
notes.

Case Study I: Universities

The Duke iPod First-Year Experience, as the programme was called, was evaluated by
the universityÊs Center for Instructional Technology, which released a report in June
2005. The report found the iPods were used in the following ways:
Course content dissemination tool: portable access to content such as lectures,

songs, historical speeches, and foreign language content distributed in various
ways, including podcasting;
Classroom recording tool: capturing lectures, class discussions, guest speakers,

and verbal feedback;
Field recording tool: capturing field notes, interviews, environmental sounds, and
audio data; and
Study support tool: repeated listening and repetition of audio content.
Source: http://www.duke.edu
Among the benefits of the iPod use that the report listed were the convenience of
portable digital content, reduced dependence on physical materials and lab or
library locations and hours, greater student engagement and interest, and
enhanced support for individual learning preferences and needs.
Case Study II: Schools

The kind of podcasting activities for secondary pupils and the match to three areas of
the National Curriculum for ICT at Key Stage 3 (11-13 year olds) in England (UK) are
set out in Table 10.4.
Table 9.10: Podcasting and the National Curriculum for 11-13 Year Olds (England)
Podcast Activity ICT Knowledge, Skills and Understanding
Design and plan a podcast Finding things out
Consider focus, content and format of audio To consider systematically the information
material required and to discuss its use
Identify and acquire the sources of audio How to obtain information suited to the
material to include within a podcast purpose by choosing appropriate sources,
using and adapting search techniques and
questioning the value of the results
Prepare scripts and plan recordings of audio How to collect, enter, analyse and judge
material (talk, music, SFX) quantitative and qualitative information and
check its accuracy
Source: http://recap.ltd.uk

There are many other possible uses for podcasting, and, eventually, vodcasting in
learning. Podcasting and vodcasting are not fads; they are portable and on-
demand in nature compared to traditional broadcast distribution models like
television. This distribution technology will create demand for better bandwidth
and storage for the multimedia content produced, recorded, and archived by
students and instructors, intensifying the need for a centralised content
management infrastructure within an educational institution.
10.5 VIRTUAL WORLDS

10.5.1 Artificial Intelligence: Virtual Learning
Companions
Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a range of computer applications that are

designed to simulate human intelligence and behaviour.
AI systems are designed to make evaluations, draw conclusions, and provide

recommendations, like a human. AI systems for education demand programmes
that are interactive and responsive to human needs. One such example is the
virtual Learning Companion (LC).
The concept of LC was first introduced by Chan T. K. in his Ph.D. thesis in 1988.
According to Chan & Baskin (1990):
A virtual learning companion is a computer simulated character which has

human-like characteristics and plays a non-authoritative role in social
learning environment.
VygotskyÊs Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) refers to distance between the

actual and potential development of a learner with assistance of others. Things
that can be done independently by a student are indicative of actual development
of the student and problems solved collaboratively with the LC are indicative of
potential development of the student.

So how does collaboration with the LC with multiple roles help the studentÊs
potential development?
Chan (1990) described three types of learning activities with virtual companions.
(a) The first one is „computer as a co-learner‰. Here, the companion is at the
same knowledge level as the learner. They solve problems together but they
may also be in competition. The virtual teacher or tutor does not intervene
in this case.
(b) The second form of learning activity is the „learning companion system‰. A
virtual teacher is added to facilitate the human and virtual studentsÊ
learning. Students and companions solve in parallel problems set by the
teacher and then compare and discuss their various solutions.
(c) The third form of learning activity is „learning by teaching‰. In this

scenario, companions have a weaker level of knowledge than students, and
so students have to teach the companions by giving them examples or
information.
The learning companion may act as a motivating factor for the students to learn,
as mentioned by Dillenbourg & Self (1992), „What one expects from our partner
partially determines oneÊs motivation to learn.‰ Consequently, studentsÊ
expectations from the LC will determine the LCÊs roles and performance. In
many ways, depending on its role, the LC may assist, encourage, simulate or may
even be provocative. This promotes different learning benefits to students.
10.5.2 Virtual Reality

Virtual reality provides multisensory environments for learners to interact in a
context. Students can immerse themselves physically in different environments
and experience life on a different intellectual plane. Myron Krueger (1993, p.152)
defines virtual realityÊs instructional value saying, „⁄the body can be employed
as a teaching aid⁄.The theme is not Âlearning by doingÊ in the Dewey sense, but
instead, Âdoing is learningÊ⁄.‰
In a virtual reality (VR) environment, the user becomes an active participant in a

virtually real world. Freedom of navigation and interaction are essential for a
computer environment to be characterised, as a VR environment system must.

It offers an extension of our normal experiences, thus allowing as many degrees

of freedom as possible to perform a given task (Whitelock, 2000). For instance,
VRML (virtual reality modelling language), a 3-D graphics language, is currently
used on the WWW. If you download the pages containing VRML, you will be
able to view sceneries and objects which you can rotate, including walking
through simulated rooms such as the library at the OUM main campus.
There are many types of VR systems, which are generally classified according to
the types of technology employed to implement the system. Those systems
include simulators and emulators, telepresence systems, CAVE systems, fully
immersive systems, augmented systems and desktop and Internet VR systems
(text-based VR and graphic-based VR).
Depending on the level of the userÊs participation and interaction with the virtual
environment, VR applications are also subdivided into three categories (see
Figure 10.4).
Figure 10.4: Three categories of VR application
(a) Passive
Learners have minimal control over the training event.
(b) Explorative
Enables learners to explore and construct their own learning.
(c) Interactive Environments

Allows the learners to immerse themselves in the subject matter.
(Whitelock, 2000)

The power of VR technology provides several possible ways to facilitate learning.

It allows students to:
(a) Visualise abstract concepts.

(b) Observe events at atomic or planetary scales.
(c) Visit an environment and interact with events that distance, time or safety
factors make unavailable.
(d) Master, retain and generalise new knowledge when they are actively
involved in constructing that knowledge in learning by doing situation.
(e) Develop participatory environments and activities that can only exist as
computer-generated worlds (things and places with altered qualities).
(f) Interact with a model that is as motivating or more motivating than
interacting with a real thing.
The type of VR technology applied mostly for educational purposes are

simulators or simulated environments. According to Randy Hinrichs (2004),
group manager for Learning Research at Microsoft, this focus on context and the
application of knowledge in lifelike settings makes simulation a valuable
addition to learning curricula. Games and simulations, he says, allow faculty and
students to experience a broader range of situations firsthand.
„In these simulated worlds students are able to learn more effectively by
assuming a different role, perspective, objective, even a different gender or age,
and they can begin to explore what they think that character would most likely
do,‰ says Hinrichs (2004). „If the human and artificial intelligence models built
into the simulated environment are accurate, it allows students to learn pretty
effectively what it would be like to be President Lincoln or to be a woman in
colonial Williamsburg and think about how to solve problems that they might
have faced. It gives them a perspective they wouldnÊt have experienced just by
sitting in the classroom.‰

Source: http://coe.sdsu.edu
According to learning experts, this kind of role play can help students achieve
one of the primary goals of education – self reflection, or the ability to analyse
situations objectively, and empathise with somebody cohen making decisions.
With all the benefits of VR technology, still there is not a lot of classroom use.
Busy classroom teachers do not want another instructional tool forced on them
without appropriate provisions for training, preparation, implementation and so
forth (Auld, 1999). Teachers must understand the VR implications and formulate
a vision of where they want to go with it to enrich their own curriculum and their
studentsÊ learning. School administrators must figure out the optimal application
of virtual reality for each situation, while at the same time not falling into the trap
of buying new technology for the sake of having new technology. Full of promise
and excitement, using virtual reality in schools is a great challenge but one that
must be pursued (Sykes, 1999).

Even though teachers and administrators should learn the value of VR in

classrooms, there are many reasons that limit its use, which are:
(a) Teachers do not know how to implement the VR applications in their

classrooms.
(b) The considerable gulf between educators and those who create the software
and hardware they use.
(c) The cost of VR hardware and software.
(d) The shortage of training workshops to train teachers on how to create and
use the new technologies in their classrooms.
Although these reasons are limiting the use of VR in the classrooms, they are not
impossible to overcome.
10.6 CONNECTIVISM AND WEB 2.0

E-learning as we know it has been around for more than a decade. During that
time, it has emerged from being a radical idea – the effectiveness of which was
yet to be proven – to something that is widely regarded as mainstream. It is the
core to numerous business plans and a service offered by most colleges and
universities.
And now, e-learning is evolving with the World Wide Web as a whole and it is
changing to a degree significant enough to warrant a new name: E-learning 2.0.
Connectivism is a learning theory for the digital age. According to George

Siemens (2004), learning has changed over the last several decades.
The theories of behaviourism, cognitivism, and constructivism provide an

effective view of learning in many environments. They fall, short, however, when
learning moves into informal, networked and technology-enabled arena. The
principles of connectivism are shown in Table 10.4:

Table 10.4: The Principles of Connectivism
(a) Learning is a network forming process

(b) Capacity to know more is more critical than what is known
(c) Learning rests in aggregating diverse, often opposing, views
(d) Content is often the by-product of the learning process, not the starting point
(e) Connections, not content, are the beginning point of the learning process. Learning
can reside in non-human appliances
(f) Knowledge can rest within our network, not only internally in ourselves
(g) Ability to see connections (pattern recognition) between ideas and concepts critical
to learning
(h) Currency (up-to-date knowledge) is the intent of properly created learning networks
(i) Decision-making is in itself a learning process
Gonzalez (2004) describes the challenges of rapidly diminishing knowledge life:
„One of the most persuasive factors is the shrinking half-life of knowledge.

The „half-life of knowledge‰ is the time span from when knowledge is
gained to when it becomes obsolete. Half of what is known today was not
known 10 years ago. The amount of knowledge in the world has doubled in
the past 10 years and is doubling every 18 months according to the American
Society of Training and Documentation (ASTD). To combat the shrinking
half-life of knowledge, organisations have been forced to develop new
methods of deploying instruction.‰
When we think of learning content today, we probably think of learning objects,

usually described as chunks or little bits of content that are designed, developed,
put together, sequenced, organised and deployed as courses, according to
specific International Standards. Today, e-learning mainly takes the form of a
course divided into modules and lessons, supported with quizzes, tests and
discussions, and in many systems today, integrated into the college or
universityÊs student information system.
This content-centric learning model is delivered either completely online or

blended with traditional lectures, led by an instructor, following a specified
curriculum to be completed at a predetermined pace.

However, the nature of the Internet, and just as importantly, the people using the
Internet, has begun to change. Called the „n-generation‰, these new users have
the ability to absorb information quickly, in images and video as well as text,
from multiple sources simultaneously. They expect instant responses and
feedback. They prefer „on-demand‰ access to media, and expect to be in constant
communication with their friends.
George Siemens argued that „the changing demographics of the student

population and the more consumer/client-centred culture in todayÊs society have
provided a climate where the use of student-centred learning is thriving.
Learning is characterised not only by greater autonomy for the learner, but also a
greater emphasis on active learning, with creation, communication and
participation playing key roles, and on changing roles for the teacher, indeed,
even a collapse of the distinction between teacher and student altogether.‰ He
believes that „we derive our competence from forming connections with other
learners.‰
This has led to the creation of online communities or communities of practice like
the free and open-source software community, and the popularity of blogs and
other social networking sites such as Facebook and Wikis. According to Wenger
(1998), a community of practice is characterised by „a shared domain of interest‰
where „members interact and learn together‰ and „develop a shared repertoire
of resources.‰
Furthermore, via e-portfolios, students will have their own personal place to
create, showcase and share their own work. Even more importantly, these sites
could be connected to each other through the mechanism of RSS, a simple XML
format that allows bloggers to send their content to a network of readers (called
„subscribers‰).
Tim Berners-LeeÊs original vision of the World Wide Web as a communications

or social network is becoming a reality. Web 2.0 is a vision of the Web in which
information is broken up into „microcontent‰ units that can be distributed over
dozens of domains. But rather than being a technological revolution, this social
revolution will enable and encourage the active participation of students.
Through social network sites, students can now discuss a wide range of topics
with peers worldwide instead of only discussing pre-assigned topics with their
classmates.

Source: http://www.oreillynet.com
What will happen in the near future is that online learning software will cease to
be a type of content-consumption tool, where learning is „delivered,‰ and
becomes more like a content-authoring tool, where learning is created.
Thus, connectivism emphasises that learning is a social event and occurs in

groups. In the Information Age, we need to make connections by forming
communities in a society that is driven by technology. We can no longer afford to
isolate ourselves from the community if we wish to continuously learn and
upgrade our skills and knowledge.
Of course, there are some issues that we should consider when we want to use
these new technologies.
10.7 CONCLUSION
Invasion of privacy is one important issue to consider – such as capturing
indecent photographs or videos of other people. Many teachers are concerned
that the cameras of mobile phones could be used to take pictures without the
knowledge of youngsters, which could then be transmitted to other phones and

Internet sites. It has also been found that some students used their mobile devices
to retrieve information on demand during exams. Educators, of course, refer to
this as „cheating.‰
Many students are attached to their mobile devices since they find the technology
useful for fun and exciting activities. A study conducted by the South Korean
Ministry of Education defined nearly one-third of teenage mobile phone users as
„addicts,‰ claiming that they suffered various levels of stress resulting from
excessive use. In a survey of 1,100 mobile phone users aged 14 to 19, it was found
that 40 percent of them sent over 1,000 text messages every month, and a similar
percentage of them claimed to have sent text messages or played video games on
their handsets during classes.
Hence, educators may have to adjust the rules of test-taking and other
educational practices in a way that fosters studentsÊ ingenuity and creativity in
using these devices as learning tools and within positive educational contexts. As
these sorts of adjustments happen, new norms and ethics will have to emerge
around technology in classrooms.
Manuel Castells (2001) described how new global, urban networks were likely to
emerge, beyond the current geo-political institutions. For example, since the
advent of Google as a popular search engine, learning behaviours have changed
significantly. Students are required to adopt a more proactive and responsible
role in their own education. In fact, students will assume more of the role of the
„instructor,‰ guiding their own learning. Educational institutions should
promote educational or training delivery that is more convenient, cheaper and
laden with more value than that of traditional learning institutions. These
institutions should offer a low-cost entry point and the use of technology in
delivery to encourage lifelong learning.
Next, learning is doomed to fail in the future if the learning model appears to be
technology-directed. The educational community is, quite reasonably, moving at
a tortoiseÊs pace, and the marketers of consumer-based technologies are the hare.
In order to ensure we are still running towards the finish line, however,
educators must stay within sight of the hare. That does not mean immediately
trying to behave like hares as we extend the analogy, although that is what many
of us seem to be doing. Instead, we must build new and sound learning methods.
Besides new models of learning, Viscusi (2002) says that more challenging than
the technologies themselves is changing the mindset of faculty, staff and
administration to embrace new ideas in mobile learning. „The faculty will always
be a generation behind our students,‰ Viscusi says candidly. The faculty and
staffÊs willingness (or unwillingness) to embrace a new technology „affects how
they teach, and how they design learning programmes.‰ Mainstream growth of

the application of technologies in education will depend on how successful all

the major players in the education and training systems are at removing cultural
and organisational barriers that continue to stand in the way of change of this
kind.
Educators should also bear in mind that these technological devices are not
powerful enough to be studentsÊ only learning tool. This is, of course, true – and
students will no doubt use whatever tools to do the job, provided that they work
well together. It would seem that the only correct answer to the question of what
students can learn with a technological tool is, „anything,‰ if we educators
„design it right.‰
SELF-CHECK 10.1
Circle the correct answer.
1. Learning will change in four ways due to rapid changes in

technology today, which are:
(a) Providing „just enough‰ content, focusing on making

connections or „networking‰ for meaning-making, rapid
development of content, and teachers supporting students to
be pro-active learners.
(b) Rapid development of content, students becoming

independent of teachers, providing content according to
specific needs of students and encouraging convergent
thinking.
(c) Providing „just enough‰ content, focusing on making

connections or „networking‰ for meaning-making, learning
and teaching roles are blurred and learning is technology-
driven.
(d) Creating communities of practice, development of course-

based content, encouraging peer learning and lifelong
learning.
(e) Students developing their own content via blogs, teachers

becoming directors of learning instead of content providers,
encouraging rote learning and increasing uncertainty about
the outcome of learning.

2. Currently, mobile and wireless technologies have features that

enable the following learning activities:
(i) Short quizzes for test preparation;

(ii) Search for information and collection of data;
(iii) Immerse students in an artificial reality within a context; and
(iv) Visual documentation.
The answer is:
(a) i, ii and iii

(b) iii and v
(c) i, ii and iv
(d) ii, iii and v
(e) All of the above
3. Artificial intelligence is a range of computer applications designed

to:
(a) Provide collaborative software for video-conferencing.

(b) Set up databases for large workgroups, including
educational institutions.
(c) Simulate human intelligence and behaviour.
(d) Mimic the Microsoft Office suite of products.

4. A few obstacles that we may face when we want to implement

these technologies are:
(i) Abuse of technology by students.

(ii) The learning model is technology-driven.
(iii) The cultural and organisational barriers toward the adoption
of these technologies.
(iv) The lack of new delivery methods to deploy instruction.
The answer is:
(a) i, iv
(b) iii and iv
(c) ii, iii and iv
(d) ii, and iii
(e) all of the above
ACTIVITY 10.1
Do a research handheld computers on the Internet and create a list of

five uses of pocket PCs in the traditional classroom. For each item, give
details on how and when you would use this technology in teaching
and learning.
Sophisticated technological devices will influence the nature of education

over the next decade.
Educators must evolve their current practices in teaching and learning when
applying these technologies.
The high-performance computing and communications technologies

available range from mobile and wireless devices to enablers of virtual
worlds and highly efficient search technologies.
These technologies make knowledge utilities, virtual communities, shared

collaborative environments and sensory immersion a part of everyday
existence just like the telephone, television, radio and newspaper.
How these technologies shape their users – the teachers and students – as
well as its message (content, values, etc.) is a central issue in understanding
the transformation of education in the future.
Educators should not feel that they have to use every aspect of a technology
in a lesson, which is absolute „toolishness.‰ It is more likely that there is a
technology mode that suits an area of study.
However, the most significant influence on the evolution of education will

not be the technical development of more powerful devices but the
professional development of wise designers, educators and learners.
Artificial intelligence Podcasting

Blogging Virtual reality
Connectivism Vlogging
Hand-held technologies Vodcasting
Mobigogy Web 2.0
Mobile learning Wireless learning
INTERNET READING
http://www.trainer.org.uk/members/theory/process/pedagogy_androgogy.
htm
http://www.mpsomaha.org/willow/p5/handhelds/index.html
http://archive.columbiatribune.com/2003/Dec/20031214News002.asp
http://www.schoollibraryjournal.com/index.asp?layout=article&articleid=CA3
19016

http://www.learningathand.com/curriculum/all.php
http://www.intel.com/education/handhelds/engaged_learning.htm
http://www.weblogg-ed.com/about
http://www.educause.edu/pub/er/erm04/erm0450.asp
http://blog.lib.umn.edu/blogosphere/
http://www.midgefrazel.net/pda.html
http://www.techlearning.com/db_area/archives/TL/2003/04/spotlight.htmlht
tp://www.k12handhelds.com/apps.php
http://www.connectivism.ca/about
http://www.m-learning.org/
http://technologysource.org/
http://www.squidoo.com/introtoweb20/
http://csdl.computer.org/comp/proceedings/c5/2003/1975/00/19750128.pdf
http://www.lsda.org.uk/files/pdf/1440.pdf


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Faculty of Education and Languages

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Module Writers: Assoc Prof Dr Wan Zah Wan Ali

Moderator: Prof Dr Abtar Kaur Darshan Singh

Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

First Edition, May 2009

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 1 Introduction to Instructional Technology 1

Topic 2 Instructional Design 9

Topic 3 Learning Theories and ID 20

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3.2.6 Teaching Machine and Programmed Instruction 28

Topic 4 Instructional Design Models 46

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Topic 5 Theories into Practice 63

Topic 6 Teaching and Learning Strategies 81

Topic 7 Components of Instruction 119

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

7.4.3 Psychomotor Domain 127

Topic 8 Instructional Media 129

Topic 9 Educational Technology in Schools 141

Topic 10 Technologies of the Future 167

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10.4 Podcasting and Vodcasting 181

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Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

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Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours

1. Explain the historical development and important concepts, principles and

2. Apply these concepts, theories and principles in situational context.

Topic 1 begins with an introduction to the concept of instructional technology.

Topic 2 explains aspects of instrumental design including the concepts, the

Topic 3 describes the relationship between learning thories and instructional

Topic 4 explains the various instructional design models.

Topic 5 gives examples of materials developed using instructional design

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Topic 7 explains components of learning outcomes that include the characteristics,

Topic 8 discusses the categories of instructional media, the purpose of using

Topic 9 highlights some of the latest developments in schools today, in particular

TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

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Abdul Fatah Hasan. (1996). Kecemerlangan minda: Dalam pembelajaran

TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS) DIGITAL

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Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

1.1 CONCEPT OF TECHNOLOGY

„⁄ the systematic application of scientific knowledge and other organised

Therefore, technology in any discipline is the knowledge resulting from studies

1.2 CONCEPT OF INSTRUCTION

(a) Examining learnersÊ prior knowledge;

(b) Determining structure and combination of learning materials;

(c) Using incentives and feedback;

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(d) Determining required capabilities for desired learning outcomes;

1.3 INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY

(a) Instructional technology is the systemic and systematic application of

(b) Instructional Technology = Instructional Design + Instructional Development.