MINISTRY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL

EDUCATION

CE 05016

DESIGN OF HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES

SEMESTER – I

SAMPLE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

B.E. (CIVIL)

CIVIL ENGINEERING
No.1. (a). What are the essential requirements of a spillway? How would you select a suitable
site for the spillway?
Solution:
The essential requirements of spillway are as follows:
(1) It must have adequate discharge capacity.
(2) It must be hydraulically and structurally safe.
(3) The surface of the spillway must be erosion resistant.
(4) The spillway must be so located that the spillway discharge does not erode or
undermine the downstream toe of the dam.
(5) It should be provided with some device for the dissipation of excess energy.
(6) The spillway discharge should not exceed the safe discharge capacity of the
downstream channel to avoid its flooding.
A spillway may be located either in the middle of the dam or at the end of the dam
near abutment. In some cases, the spillway is located away from the dam as an independent
structure if there is a suitable saddle. Such a spillway is called a saddle spillway. Generally a
saddle spillway is designed as an auxiliary or an emergency spillway, which is in addition to the
main spillway at the dam site.

No. 1. (b). The crest of an ogee-shaped spillway is at a height of 10 m above the river bed. If the
head over the crest is 3 m, find the loss of energy when a hydraulic jump forms at the toe. Take
C d = 2.20.
Solution:
P = 10 m, H d = 3 m, C d = 2.2

Q  C d Le H e3 / 2
q = C d H e 3/2 = 2.2x 33/2 = 11.43 m2/s
V o = q / P+H d = 11.43 / 10 +3 = 0.879 m/s
Vo2
= 0.039
2g
V 1 = q/y 1 , V 1 2/ 2g = (q/y 1 )2 x 1/ 2x9.81 = 6.659/ y 1 2
By Bernoulli’s equation,
Vo2 V2
P  Hd   y1  1
2g 2g
10 +3 + 0.039 = y 1 + 6.659/ y 1 2
y 1 = 0.736 m
V 1 = q/ y 1 = 11.43 / 0.736 = 15.53 m/s
V12 (15.53) 2
  12.292m
2g 2 x9.81

V1 15.53
Fr    5.78
gy1 9.81x0.736

y2 
y1
2
 1  8F  1
r
2

1
 =
0.736
2
 
1  8(5.78) 2  1
= 5.659 m
V 2 = q/y 2 = 11.43/ 5.659 = 2.02 m/s

V22 (11.43) 2
  0.208m
2g 2 x9.81

V12
E1  y1   0.736  12.292  13.028m
2g
V22
E2  y2   5.659  0.208  5.898m
2g
ΔE = E 1 – E 2 = 7.13m
Therefore, loss of energy = 7.13 m

No.2. What are the factors that affect the spillway capacity? How would you fix the spillway
capacity?
The factors that affect the spillway capacity are
(1) Inflow flood hydrograph
(2) Available storage capacity
(3) Capacity of outlets
(4) Gate of spillway
(5) Possible damage if the capacity is exceeded.
(1) Inflow flood hydrograph
The inflow flood hydrograph should be selected according to the degree of protection that ought
to be provided to the dam. It will depend upon the type and height of the dam, its location with
respect to inhabited and developed area and consequences of its failure.
Obviously a high dam storing a large volume of water and located upstream of a town should
have a much degree of protection as compared to that in the case of a small dam storing a small
volume of water and on whose downstream the area is uninhabited. In the former case, the
inflow flood is usually taken as the maximum probable flood (MPF); where as in the letter case a
small flood such as standard project flood (SPF) may be taken.
(2)Available storage capacity
If the available storage capacity of the reservoir is quite large as compared to the inflow; a
spillway of smaller capacity will normally be required.
(3)Capacity of outlets
If the dam outlets can be used to discharge a portion of the flood, the spillway capacity can be
correspondingly reduced.

(4)Gates in spillway

If the spillway is gated; its discharge capacity can be modified. For a gate control spillway, the
water can be stored upto the top of the gate, whereas in the case of an ungated spillway, the
water can be stored only upto the crest level. By operation of gates, higher heads may be created
above the crest so that greater outflow rate through the spillway is achieved.

2
 (5) Possible damage
If there is a possibility of extensive damage on the down stream, large spillway capacity should
be avoided.

No. 3. Describe the various component part of the spillway. Explain their functions.
A spillway generally has the following component parts
1. Entrance channel
2. Control structure
3. Discharge channel (or water way)
4. Terminal structure (energy dissipator)
5. Exit channel
However entrance and exit channels may not be required for some spillways.
1. Entrance channel .
Entrance channels are required in those of spillways in which the control structure is away from
the reservoir. The . Entrance channel draws water from the reservoir and carries it to the control
structure. Entrance channels are not required for spillways which draw water directly from the
reservoir.
2. Control structure
The control structure (also called control) is the most important component of the spillway. It
controls the outflow from the reservoir. The control structure is designed such that it does not
permit the outflow from the reservoir when the water level is lower than a predetermined level
but permits the outflow as soon as the water level rises above that level.
Generally, the control structure is located at the upstream end of the spillway structure.
However in some cases, the control structure may be at the downstream end of the spillway
structure. For example, in a shaft (or morning glory) spillway, the downstream tunnel controls
the outflow at higher heads.
The control structure usually consists of either an orifice or a weir. In most of the
spillways, the control structure is an overflow crest of a weir. The weir may be sharp-crested,
board-crested or ogee-shaped. In plan, the overflow crest may be straight, curved, U-shaped,
semi-circular or circular. The straight, ogee-shaped crests are mostly commonly used in
spillways.
Likewise, orifices used as control may have different shapes. They may be placed in a
horizontal, vertical or an inclined position and may be sharp-edged, round-edged or bell-
mounted.
In order to regulate the flow of water from the reservoir, gates are usually provided on the
crest of the control structure.

3. Discharge channel (or waterway)

The outflow released through the control structure is usually conveyed to the terminal structure
through a discharge channel or waterway. Thus the discharge channel conveys the water safely
from the control structure to the river downstream. It is also called a conveyance structure. The
conveyance structure may have different forms. It is usually the downstream face of an overflow
dam for the spillway constructed as an overflow spillway in the body of the dam. It may be in
the form of an open channel, a closed conduit placed through or under a dam, or a tunnel

3
excavated through an abutment, depending upon the type of spillway. The discharge channel
may have a variety of cross-sections, depending upon the geologic and topographic
characteristics of the site and the hydraulic requirements.
4. Terminal structure (energy dissipator)
When the water flows from the reservoir over the spillway, the static energy is converted into the
kinetic energy. This results in very high velocity of flow at the downstream end of the spillway.
It may cause serious scour at the downstream end. It may also damage the dam, the spillway and
other appurtenant structures. It is, therefore, necessary that the high energy of flow must be
dissipated before the flow is returned to the river downstream. Terminal structures (or energy
dissipators) are provided at the downstream end of the discharge channel to dissipate the excess
energy. Generally, a hydraulic jump basin, a roller bucket, a ski-jump bucket, or some other
suitable energy dissipating device is provided for the dissipation of excess energy. However, if
the stream bed consists of an erosion resistant strong rock, the overflowing water from the
spillway may be delivered directly to the river downstream without a terminal structure.
5. Exit channel
In some types of spillways, the exit channels are provided to convey the spillway discharge from
the terminal structure to the river downstream. However, an exit channel is not required for the
spillways which discharge water directly into the river downstream. On the other hand, in the
case of spillways placed through abutments, saddles or ridges, the exit channel is usually
required.

No. 4.(a) How would you classify the spillway?

The spillways can be classified into different types based on the various criteria, as
explained below.
A. Classification based on purpose
(1) Main (or service) spillway
(2) Auxiliary spillway
(3) Emergency spillway
B. Classification based on control
(1) Controlled (or gated) spillway
(2) Uncontrolled (or ungated ) spillway
C. Classification based on prominent feature
(1) Free overfall (or straight drop) spillway
(2) Overflow or ogee spillway
(3) Chute (or open channel or trough ) spillway
(4) side channel spillway
(5) shaft (or morning glory spillway
(6)Siphon spillway
(7) Conduit (or tunnel) spillway
(8) Cascade spillway

No.4. (b) The crest level of an ogee-shaped spillway is at RL of 323.00 m and the maximum
reservoir level is RL 334.00 m. Calculate the maximum discharge when the flow takes place
through 5 piers of the effective width of 12 m each. Take C d = 2.2o, K a = 0.2 and K p = 0.02.
Solution:

4
 He

12m

H e = 334 -323 = 11m

L’ = 12 x 6 = 72 m
C d = 2.2
K a = 0.2, K p = 0.02
To find Q =?
L e = L’ – 2(NK p + K a ) H D
= 72 – 2(5x0.02 + 0.2) 11
= 65.4 m

Q  C d Le H e3 / 2
= 2.2x 65.4 x 113/2 = 5249 m3/sec.

No. 5. How would you classified the spillway based on the purposed and based on the control?
Explain in detail.

Classification based on purpose

1. Main (or service) spillway – A main (or service) spillway is the spillway designed to pass a
prefixed or the design flood. This spillway is necessary for all dams and in most of the dams it is
the only spillway. Therefore, in general terms, the spillway means the main spillway.
2. Auxiliary spillway – In some dams, where the site conditions are favourable ,an auxiliary
spillway is usually constructed in conjunction with a main spillway. In such a case, the main
spillway is usually designed to pass floods which are likely to occur more frequently .When the
floods exceed the designed capacity of the main spillway,the auxiliary spillway comes into
operation and the total flood is passed by both the spillway. In that case, the capacity of the main
spillway is kept less than that required for the design flood.
An auxiliary spillway cannot be provided alone without the main spillway. The crest of the
auxiliary spillway is kept higher than that of the main spillway. The auxiliary spillway therefore,
comes into operation only after the flood for which the main spillway is designed is exceeded.

5
As already mentioned, the capacity of the main spillway when an auxiliary spillway is also
provided, is kept less than that required for the design flood. Thus the total spillway capacity is
equal to the sum of the capacities of the main and auxiliary spillways, Therefore
Q = Qm + Qq
where Q is the design flood, Q m is the capacity of the main spillway and Q q is the capacity of
the auxiliary spillway.
If no auxiliary spillway is provided

Q = Qm
The site conditions favourable for the adoption of an auxiliary spillway are as follows
(i) When there is a saddle or depression along the rim of the reservoir which leads to a natural
drainage.
(ii) When there is a gently –sloping abutment whrer an excavated channel can be carried
sufficiently beyond the dam so that there is no possibility of the erosion of the dam or its
appurtenant works.
An auxiliary spillway is designed like a main spillway, but control gates are seldom provided
on the crest of an auxiliary spillway. Sometime, only a fuse plug, which is a simple earth
embankment, also called fuse plug dike, is provided. The fuse plug allows the water surface to
rise above the crest of the auxiliary spillway, but as soon as it is overtopped, it gives way and the
flood water passes over it. Instead of a fuse plug, a flashboard or any other such device is also
sometimes used.
3. Emergency spillway - An emergency spillway is sometimes provided in addition to the
nmain spillway. it comes into operation only during an emergency which may arise at any time
during the life of the dam.Thus an emergency spillway is an additional safety value of the dam.
The emergency may arise when such conditions occur that have not been anticipated and
considered in the design of the main spillway. Some of the conditions which may lead to
emergency are as follows;
(i) When the actual flood exceeds the design flood.
(ii) When there is an enforced shutdown of the outlets.
(iii) When there is a malfunctioning of the spillway gates
(iv) When there is damage or failure of some part of the main spillways.
(v) When a high flood occurs before the previous flood has been evacuated by the main
spillways.

Classification based on Control

1. Control (or gated) spillway
A controlled spillway is one which is provided with the gates over the crest to control the
outflow from the reservoir. In the controlled spillway, the full reservoir level (F.R.L) of the
reservoir is usually kept at the top level of the gates. Thus the water can be stored up to the top
level of the gates. The outflow from the reservoir can be varied by lifting the gates to different
elevations. It may be noted that in a controlled spillway the water can be released from the
reservoir even when the water level is below the full reservoir level.
2. Uncontrolled (or ungated) spillway
In an uncontrolled spillway, the gates are not provided over the crest to control the outflow from
the reservoir. The full reservoir level (F.R.L) is at the crest level of the spillway. The water
escapes automatically when the water level rises above the crest level. Thus the main advantage

6
of an uncontrolled spillway is that it does not require the gates and the operator and lifting power
to operate the gates. Besides there is no problem related to the maintenance and repair of gates.
However, to pass a certain design discharge, a much longer spillway crest is required for
an uncontrolled spillway as compared to that in a controlled spillway because the head over the
crest is smaller in the former. Moreover, the useful storage in the case of uncontrolled spillway
is less. Further, the discharge in the river downstream cannot be controlled to prevent flooding.
Therefore, the spillways for most of the dams are controlled spillways.

No.6. Discuss the working and uses of free overfall spillway. Why this type of the spillway are
not common ?

A free overfall spillway(or a straight drop spillway) is a type of spillway in which the
control structure consists of a low-height, narrow-crested weir and the downstream face is
vertical or nearly vertical so that the water falls freely more or less vertical in figure(a) below.
The overflowing water may discharge as a free nappe, as in the case of a sharp-crested weir, or it
may be supported along the narrow section of the crest. However, in both cases, the water
flowing over the crest drops as a free jet clear of the downstream face of the spillway.
Sometimes, the crest of the spillway is extended in the form of an overhanging lip for directing
the discharge away from the downstream face in figure (b) below. In all cases, the nappe is
properly ventilated to prevent pulsating and fluctuating jets.

If the stream bed does not consist of strong sound rock, the falling ject will scour the
stream bed and form a deep plunge pool. It may cause damage to the structure. In order to
protect the stream bed from scouring, an artificial pool is usually constructed by excavating a
basin in the bed and then covering it with a concrete apron. Alternatively, an auxiliary low dam
is constructed downstream of the spillway to form a pool above the river bed in figure©.

If the tail water depth is adequate, a hydraulic jump may form after the jet falls from the
crest, which can be used for the dissipation of energy. However, a long flat apron would be
required to contain the hydraulic jump. Moreover, the floor blocks and an end sill may also be
required for the establishment of the jump.

A free overfall spillway is commonly used for a low arch dam whose downstream face is
almost vertical. This type of spillway is also used as a separate structuire for low earth dams.
The design of a free overfall spillway is similar to that of a vertical drop weir.

A free overfall spillway is not suitable when the foundation is weak and yielding because
the apron at the stream bed is subjected to large impact forces at the point of impingement of the
falling jet. The impact forces also cause vibrations, which may cause cracking or displacement
of the apron and even its failure by piping or undermining. The free overfall spillways are not
suitable when the drops are high. These are usually limited to a maximum drop of 6m, measured
from the head pool (reservoir) to the tail water.

7
 (a) (b)

Auxiliary Dam

(c)
Figure. Free Overfall Spillway

No. 7. Explain the design of an ogee-shaped spillway. How would you fix the downstream and
upstream profiles?
An ogee-shaped spillway has a control weir of ogee-shaped, which is like the elongated
English letter s. The shape of the crest of the ogee spillway is generally made to conform closely
to the profile of the lower surface of nappe(sheet of water) of a ventilated jet issuing from a
sharp-crest weir when the head over the highest point of nappe is equal to the design head. The
upper surface of the spillway is properly shaped to form the crest. The nappe-shaped profile is
an ideal profile because at the design head, the water flowing over crest of the spillway always
remains in contact with the surface of the spillway as it glides over it. Moreover, for this shape,
no negative pressure will develop on the spillway surface at the design head. However, when the
head is greater than the design head, the overflowing water tends to break contact with the
spillway surface and a zone of separation is formed, in which a negative or suction pressure
occurs.
This may cause vibration, pitting of the spillway surface and a number of other problem.
However, the coefficient of discharge of the spillway is increase. On the other hand, if the head
is less than the design head, the water overflowing over the crest of the spillway remains in
contact with the surface of the spillway and a positive hydrostatic pressure is exerted by the
flowing water because the nappe tends to be depressed. As the spillway surface supports the
sheet of flowing water which creates a backwater effect, the coefficient of discharge is reduced.
Thus ideal conditions for an ogee-shaped spillway occur when the head is equal to the
design head for which the spillway has been shaped. At the design head, it attains nearly the
maximum efficiency without any detrimental effect.

8
 The shape of the crest of the ogee-shaped spillway depends upon a number of factors
such as (1) head over the crest, (2) height of the spillway above the stream bed or the bed of the
entrance channel and (3) the inclination of the upstream face of the spillway. The U.S.B.R.
conducted extensive experiments to obtain the profile of the overflow spillways with the
upstream face either vertical or inclined at various angles. The U. S. Army Crops of Engineers
developed several standard shapes of the crests of overflow spillways on the basis of U. S. B. R.
data . Because the shapes were developed at U. S. Waterways Experiment Station at Vicksberg
(U. S. W. E .S ), the shapes are known as the W. E. S., standard spillway shapes.

Downstream Profile
The downstream profile of the spillway can be represented by the following general
equation.

x n  KH dn 1 y

where,
x and y = the coordinates of the point on the spillway surface, with the
origin at the highest point 0 of the crest
Hd = the design head, excluding the head due to the velocity of
approach
K and n = constants, which depend upon the inclination of the upstream
face of the spillway

b
Hd
Origin
a
x

Parabola

9
The figure shows the profile when the upstream face is vertical.
The slope of the downstream face of the overflow dam usually varies in the range of 0.7:1 to
0.8:1. At the end of the sloping surface of the spillway, a curved circular surface, called bucket,
is provided to create a smooth transition of flow from the spillway surface to the river
downstream of the outlet channel.
The upstream profile of the crest should be tangential to the vertical face and should have
zero slope at the crest axis to ensure that there is no discontinuity along the surface of flow. The
upstream profile should conform to the following equation with usual notations.

0.724( x  0.270 H d )1.85

y 0.85
 0.126 H d  0.4315( H d ) 0.375 ( x  0.270 H d ) 0.625
(H d )
The details of upstream profile are shown in figure. It may be noted that the values of x
are negative according to the chosen axes of coordinates. The maximum absolute value of x is
0.270 H d , for which the value of y is equal to 0.126 H d when the u/s face is vertical.

0.27H d

U/S Profile
0
x
0.126H d

No. 8. How would you compute the discharge over an ogee-shaped spillway?

10
 The discharge over an ogee spillway is computed from the basic equation of flow over
weirs given below;
Q  C d Le H e3 / 2
where,
Q = Discharge over an ogee spillway
Cd = Coefficient of discharge
Le = effective length
He = actual effective head including the head due to the velocity of approach

He = Hd + Ha
(1) Coefficient of discharge (C d )
An ogee spillway has a relatively high value of the coefficient of discharge (C d ) because of its
shape. The maximum value of C d is about 2.2 and it is not effected by the following factors.
(i) Height of spillway crest above the stream bed P/H D > 2
(ii) Ratio of actual total head to the design total head H e / H d =1.
(iii) Slope of upstream face of spillway is assumed to be vertical
(iv) Extent of the downstream submergence of crest
(v) Downstream apron
P  Hd
 1.7
HD

(2) Effective length of crest

The effective length of crest of an overflow spillway is given by
L e = L’ – 2(NK p + K a ) H e
where, L e = Effective length
L’ = The clear length of crest which is equal to the sum of the clear span of the
gate way
H = The actual total head of flow on crest
N = Number of piers
K p = The pier contraction coefficient
K a = The abutment contraction coefficient
(a) Pier contraction coefficient (K p )
The value of the pier contraction coefficient K p depends upon several factors, such as (i) shape
and location of the pier nose (ii) thickness of pier, (iii) the velocity of approach, (iv) thr ratio of
actual total head on crest H e to the design head H D .
(b) Abutment contraction coefficient (K a )
The value of the abutment contraction coefficient K a depends upon a number of factor, such as
(i) shape of abutment, (ii) the angle between the upstream approach wall and the axis of flow,
(iii) approach velocity and (iv) ratio of the actual head to design head.
Downstream profile
The downstream profile of the spillway can be represented by the following general equation:

x n  KH dn 1 y

11
where, x and y = The co-ordinates of the point on the spillway surface
Hd = Design head, excluding the head due to the velocity of approach
K and n = Constants, which depend upon the inclination of the upstream face of the
spillway

Upstream profile of the crest

The upstream profile of the crest should be tangential to the vertical face and should have
zero slope at the crest axis to ensure that there is no discontinuity along the surface of flow. The
upstream profile should conform to the following equation with usual notations.

0.724( x  0.270 H d )1.85

y 0.85
 0.126 H d  0.4315( H d ) 0.375 ( x  0.270 H d ) 0.625
(H d )

The maximum absolute value of x is 0.270H d for which the value of y is equal to 0.126 H d when
the u/s face is vertical.

No. 9. Discuss the various factors which affect the coefficient of discharge.

The various factors which effect the coefficient of discharge are as follows;
(i) Height of spillway crest above the stream bed
(ii) Ratio of actual total head to the design total head
(iii) Slope of the upstream face of the spillway
(iv) Extent of the downstream submergence of crest
(v) Downstream apron
(i) Height of spillway crest above the stream bed
The height P of spillway above the stream bed affects the discharge coefficient because
the velocity of approach depends upon this height. With an increase in the height P, the velocity
of approach decease but the coefficient of discharge C d increases.

(ii) Ratio of actual total head to the design total head

The ratio ( (C d / C d ) is less than unity for (H e / H D ) less than unity but greater than unity
for higher values of (H e / H D ). The design head should not be less than about 80 percent
of the maximum head ( i.e. the maximum head should not be more than 1.25 times the
design head) to avoid the possibility of cavitation.

(iii) Slope of the upstream face of the spillway

For small ratios of (P/H D ) the actual coefficient C d is slightly more than the coefficient
C d for the vertical face. However, as the ratio (P/H D ) increases, the ratio
( (C d / C d ) decreases.

(iv) Extent of the downstream submergence of crest

12
 The actual coefficient of discharge C d is decreased due to downstream submergence. It
may be noted that the effect of submergence is negligible for smaller degree of
submergence. It is about 5% for the degree of submergence of 60%.

(v) Downstream apron

When the value of (h d +d)/H D exceeds about 1.70, the d/s floor apron has little effect on
the coefficient of discharge, but for lower value, the coefficient of discharge C d is lower.

No.10. What is a spillway? What are its functions? Discuss in brief the various types of
spillways.

A spillway is a structure constructed at or near the dam site to dispose of surplus water
from the reservoir to the channel downstream. Spillways are provided for all dams as a safety
measure against overtopping and the consequent damages failure. A spillways act as a safety
valve for the dam, because as soon as the water level in the reservoir rises above a predetermine
level, excess water is discharged safely to the downstream channel, and the dam is not damaged.
The spillway must have adequate discharge capacity to pass the maximum flood d/s
without causing any damage to the dam or its appurtenant structures. At the same time, the
reservoir level should not rise above the maximum water level (M. W. L.). The maximum water
level is estimated from the inflow flood hydrograph, storage capacity of the reservoir and the
spillway capacity by flood routing. A spillway of inadequate capacity may lead to the
overtopping of the dam, which may cause serious damages and even the failure of the dam. On
the other hand, a spillway of much larger capacity than that required would be an uneconomical
design.
In additional to providing adequate discharge capacity, the spillway must be
hydrodynamically and structurally safe. The spillway surface should be erosion-resistant to
withstand the high velocities created by the fall of water from the reservoir surface to the tail
water. Moreover, the spillway should be located so that the spillway discharge will not
undermine the downstream toe of the dam. Generally, some energy-dissipating device, such as
hydraulic jump or a bucket, is provided at the toe for the dissipating of excess energy.

The spillways can be classified into different types based on the various criteria, as explained
below.
A. Classification based on purpose
(1) Main (or service) spillway
(2) Auxiliary spillway
(3) Emergency spillway
B. Classification based on control
(1) Controlled (or gated) spillway
(2) Uncontrolled (or ungated ) spillway
C. Classification based on prominent feature
(1) Free overfall (or straight drop) spillway
(2) Overflow or ogee spillway
(3) Chute (or open channel or trough ) spillway

13
 (4) side channel spillway
(5) shaft (or morning glory spillway
(6)Siphon spillway
(7) Conduit (or tunnel) spillway
(8) Cascade spillway

No. 11. Write short notes on :(a) chute spillway (b) side channel spillway.
A chute spillway (or trough spillway or open channel spillway)
consists of a steep-sloped open channel called a chute or trough, which carries the water
passing over the crest of spillway to the river downstream.
For earth dams and rockfill dams, a separate spillway is generally constructed in a flank
or a saddle away from the dam if a suitable site exists.Sometimes,even for a gravity dam,a
separate spillway is required when the valley is narrow and an overflow spillway cannot be
provided at the dam site.The chute spillway is generally most suitable for such conditions.It can
be conventiently provided independently in a saddle at a low cost. Sometimes,it is also provided
along one abutment when a separate site does not exist.A chute spillway may be constructed on
any type foundation provided it is strong enough to bear the load.
A control structure may or may not be provided for this type of spillway, depending
upon the natural level of the saddle.If the natural ground level of saddle is higher than the full
reservoir level, excavation is done in the saddle upto the full reservoir level to form a flat-crested
weir.However,if the natural ground level of the saddle is lower than the full reservoir level, an
ogee-shaped weir is usually built to achieve a high discharge coefficient.The weir is generally of
low height and with upstream face inclined.
Side channel spillway
In the side channel spillway, the crest of the control weir is placed along the side of the
discharge channel.The crest is approximately parallel to the side channel at the entrance.Thus the
flow after passing over the crest is carried in a discharge channel opposite the weir, it turns
approximately at right angle and then continues in the discharge channel.
The side channel spillway is usually constructed in a narrow canyon where sufficient
space is not available for an overflow spillway .A side channel spillway is also usually required
in a narrow valley where there is neither a suitable saddle, nor wide side-flanks to accommodate
a chute spillway. In such cases,if a crest of length required for flow to occur perpendicular to the
crest is provided, heavy cutting would be required.Therefore, the cost of an overflow spillway or
a chute spillway would be prohibitive.
The crest of a side channel spillway is usually an ogee-shaped section made of
concrete.Sometimes it consists of a flat concrete pavement laid on an earthen embankment or
the natural ground surface.

No.12. Write short notes on siphon spillways.

A Siphon spillways operates on the principle of siphonic action. There are basically two
types of siphon spillways.
1. Saddle siphon spillway
2. Volute siphon spillway

14
 1. Saddle siphon spillway A saddle siphon spillway (also called saddle siphon) is a
closed conduit of the shape of an inverted U- tube with unequal legs. Saddle siphon spillway is
commonly used in practice. Saddle siphon spillways are usually of two types: (a) Hood type and
(b) Titled outlet types, as discussed below.
(a) Hood siphon spillway The various component parts of the hood saddle siphon spillway are
shown in Fig. 1.22 (a). This type of spillway is also called the hood spillway. The siphon duct is
formed by an air tight reinforced concrete cover, called hood, over an ogee-shaped body wall
made of concrete. The top of the body wall forms the crest of the spillway and is kept at the full
reservoir level (F.R.L) of the reservoir. The top of the hood is called crown. The space between
the crown and the crest is known as throat. Fig. 1.22 (b) shows a hood siphon with its outlet
submerged.
(b) Titled outlet type siphon spillway Fig. 1.23 shows another type of saddle siphon spillway,
called tilted-outlet type. In this type of spillway, the siphon duct is formed within the body of the
dam. The lower limb of the siphon is vertical with a tilted outlet. In this case, the draught of the
water falling over the crest is sufficient to causes priming, and , therefore, no separate priming
device is required. The outlet is tilted upwards so as to develop water seal at the bend. It is
required for sealing the air entry from the exist end without which priming is not possible. For
depriming of the spillway, a deprimer is provided as shown.
2. Volute Siphon Spillway
The volute siphon spillway (or volute siphon) is a special type of siphon spillway which
makes use of volutes (curved vanes) for priming. This types of spillway was designed by Ganesh
Iyer in India and hence it is also called Ganesh Iyer siphon. The volute siphon spillway consists
of a vertical shaft (or barrel), which has a funnel shape at its top. At the bottom end, it is
connected to a horizontal or nearly horizontal outlet conduit through a right-angled bend, which
lead s the water to the downstream channel ( Fig. 1.24). The top or lip of the funnel is kept at the
full reservoir level (F.R.L). The inner sloping surface of the funnel is provided with a number of
volutes. The volutes are the curved vanes like the blades of a centrifugal pump or a turbine
Fig.1.24 (b) . A cylindrical drum is constructed over the drum. is open at the sides near the
bottom so that water can enter into it. A dome is constructed over the drum. On the top of the
dome, a small air-vent pipe (deprimer) of reinforced concrete is formed. One end of the air-vent
pipe is connected to the interior of the dome at its crown and the other end is kept slightly higher
than the full reservoir level. These air-vent pipes serve as deprimer. Sometimes, a deprimer dome
is constructed over the main dome for this purpose.

No.13. Write short notes on (a) tunnel spillway (b) cascade spillway.
(a) Conduit (or Tunnel) Spillway
A conduit (or tunnel) spillway consists of a closed conduit to carry the flood discharge to
the downstream channel. Fig. 1.26 It is constructed in the abutment or under the dam. The closed
conduit may take the form of a vertical or inclined shaft, a horizontal tunnel, or a conduit
constructed in an open cut and then covered. Such a spillway is suitable for dam sites in narrow
canyons with steep abutments.
The conduit should be designed to flow partly full, because if it runs full, the negative
pressure may develop due to siphonic action. The area of the flow is usually limited to 75% of
the total cross-sectional area of the conduit.
(b) Cascade Spillway

15
 A cascade spillway consists of a cascade of falls, with a stilling basin at each fall (Fig.
1.27). It is ideally suited for very high dams in which the energy cannot be dissipated by a
hydraulic jump or a bucket. In the case of a high rockfill dams already excavated quarry benches
on d\s may be utitized for the formation of cascades.

No. 14. Write short note on morning glory spillway

A shaft (or morning glory) spillway consists of a large vertical funnel, with its top surface
at the crest of the spillway and its lower end connected to a vertical ( or nearly vertical ) shaft.
The other end of the vertical shaft is connected to a horizontal ( or nearly horizontal ) conduit or
tunnel, which extends through or round the dam and carries the water to the river downstream.
When the water level rises above the crest level, it starts overflowing the crest and drops from
the rim of the funnel into the vertical shaft and then flows in the horizontal conduit, which
conveys it past the dam. The transition between the shaft and the horizontal conduit should be
smooth to avoid cavitation.
A shaft spillway is used at the sites where the conditions are not favorable for an
overflow spillway or a chute spillway. It is generally considered undesirable to construct a
spillway just adjacent to an earth dam. Therefore, an overflow spillway is ruled out if there is
not adequate space. If the topography of the site is also such that a chute spillway cannot be
constructed a shaft spillway may be considered as an alternative to a side channel spillway.
For low dams, where the shaft height is small, no special inlet design is usually
necessary. However, for high dams, a flared inlet, called morning glory, is generally used.
Small shaft spillways may be constructed entirely of metal pipe, concrete or even clay tile.
However, the vertical shafts of large projects are invariably of reinforced concrete and the
horizontal conduit is usually a tunnel in rock. Frequently, the diversion tunnel used during the
construction of the dam is planned so that it can be used as a horizontal conduit for the shaft
spillway after the construction. The shaft is sometimes driven into rock instead of constructing it
as a reinforced concrete shaft.
On the crest of the shaft spillway, radial piers are provided to guide the water radially.
These piers also prevent spiral flow and are used a supports for a bridge to go around the
spillway crest. Because a shaft spillway is surrounded by water on all sides, a bridge is also
provided to connect it to the dam or a hill.
A shaft spillway is ideally suitable for a site where a rock spur projects into the reservoir
a little distance upstream of the dam. If the top of the spur is lower than the full reservoir level, a
standard-crested spillway has to be constructed in concrete, above the spur is higher than the full
reservoir level, it has to be excavated down to the required crest level and a flat-crested spillway
is constructed. A shaft spillway is generally more economical than a side channel spillway
where a diversion tunnel, which is used for diversion of river water during construction, is
already available for the shaft spillway.

16
 Earth Dam
Spillway inlet

Crest

Funnel Shaft

Tunnel
Diversion Tunnel

(a) Plan and (b) Profile along centre line for Shaft spillway

No. 15.(a) Write short note on spillway gates. Describe different type of spillway gates?

By installing the crest gates, additional storage equal to the volume of water stored
between the crest level and the top of gates is made available. Crest gates can be provided on all
types of spillway, expect the siphon spillway for which the gates are not required.

Various types of gate commonly used in practice are described below.

(1) Flash boards
(2) Stoplog and Needles
(3) Vertical lift gates
(4) Tainter (or) radial gates
(5) Roller gates
(6) Drum gates
(7) Bear-trap gates

No. 15. (b) In order to dissipate the energy below spillway, it is proposed to form a hydraulic
jump. If the depth of flow changes from 1.0 m to 4.0m in the hydraulic jump. Determine the
initial froude number and the discharge intensity.

Solution:

y 1 = 1m, y 2 =4m, Fr 1 =?, q = ?

17
y2 1

y1 2

1  8 Fr12  1 
4 1

1 2

1  8Fr12  1 
1  8Fr12  9 2
Fr 1 = 3.162

q
Fr1 
gy 3
q = 3.162x (9.81x (1)3)1/2

q = 9.9 m2/sec

18
No. 16. The crest of an ogee-shaped spillway is at a height of 10 m above the river bed.
If the head over the crest is 3 m, find the loss of energy when a hydraulic jump forms at
the toe. Take C = 2.20.

Solution;
P = 10 m, Hd = 3 m, Cd = 2.2

Q = C d Le H e3 / 2
q = C d H e3 / 2
q = 2.2 x 33/2 = 11.43 m2/s
V0 = q/ P+Hd
= 11.43/10 +3 = 0.879 m/s
V02/2g = 0.039
V1= q/y1, V12/2g = (q/y1)2 x 1/2x9.81 = 6.659/y12
By Bernoulli’s Eqn;
P + Hd + V02/2g = y1+ V12/2g
10 + 3 + 0.039 = y1 + 6.659/ y12
y1 = 0.736 m
V1 = q/y1 = 15.53 m/s
V12/2g = (15.53)2 /2x 9.81 = 12.292 m

V1 15.53
Fr = = = 5.78
gy1 9.81 × 0.736

y2 =
y1
2
[1 + 8Fr2 − 1 ]
y2 =
0.736
2
[
1 + 8(5.75) 2 − 1 ]
= 5.659 m
V2 = q/y2
= 11.43/5.659 = 2.02 m/s
V22/2g = (11.43)2 / 2x 9.81 = 0.208 m
V2
E1 = y1 + 1 = 0.736 + 12.292 = 13.028m
2g
V2
E 2 = y 2 + 2 = 5.659 + 0.208 = 5.898m
2g
ΔE = E1 – E2 = 7.13 m
Therefore, Loss of energy = 7.13 m

No. 17. Design an ogee spillway with the following data.

(i) Height of spillway crest above river bed = 100 m
(ii) Design discharge = 12,000 cumecs
(iii) Number of span = 6
(iv) Clear distance between piers = 15 m

19
(v) Thickness of piers =3m
(vi) Slope of downstream face of the over flow section = 0.8:1
(vii) Coefficient of discharge Cd = 2.20
Assume any other data if required.

Solution:
L’ = Clear water way = 15 x 6 =90 m
Q = C d Le H e3 / 2
12000 = 2.20 x 90 x He3/2
He = 15.43 m
Assume square nose pier and square abutment with head wall to be used.
Kp = 0.02, Ka = 0.2

Effective length Le = L’ – 2(NKp + Ka) HD ------------------------------------(a)

= 90 – 2(5x0.02 + 0.2) 15.43
= 80.74 m
Q = C d Le H e
3/ 2

12000 = 2.20 x 80.74 x He3/2

He = 16.59 ≈ 16.6 m
Substituting this value of He in Eqn. (a)
Le = 90 – 2(5x0.02 + 0.20)16.59
= 80.05 m

Q = C d Le H e3 / 2

12000 = 2.20x 80.05 x He3/2

He = 16.68 m ≈16.7 m
Letr us take the design head Hd =16.7 m

Downstream Profile
x n = KH dn −1 y

12000
Velocity of approach Va =
(90 + 5 x3)(100 + 16.7)

Va = 0.98 m/s
Head due to velocity of approach = V2/2g = (0.98)2/ 2x 9.81 = 0.05 m
This is very small and neglected.
Thus Hd = HD
Now for the vertical u/s face, K = 2 , n = 1.85
x1.85 = 2(16.7) 0.85 y
y = 0.0457 (x)1.85 -------------------------------------------------------(b)

20
For the d/s face of the overflow section, dy/dx = 1.00/0.80 = 1.25
dy
Fro Eq (b) = 1.85 x0.0457( x) 0.85 = 0.0845 x 0.85 -------------------------------(d)
dx
From Eq. © and (d), 0.0845 x0.85 = 1.25
x = 23.80 m
y = 16.091 m
Therefore, the tangent point of the profile is at a distance of 23.80 m from the origin. The
coordinates y for different values of x are obtained from Eq. (b) as follows:

x(m) 1 2 3 5 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 23.8
y(m) 0.05 0.17 0.35 0.89 2.14 3.24 4.53 6.48 7.72 9.60 11.66 16.09

Upstream profile
The upstream profile is determined from Eq.

0.724( x + 0.270 H d )1.85

y= 0.85
+ 0.126 H d − 0.4315( H d ) 0.375 ( x + 0.270 H d ) 0.625
(H d )

For Hd = 16.70 m,

y = 0.06614( x + 4.509)1.85 + 2.1042 − 1.2402( x + 4.509) 0.625

The values of the coordinates y are determined below for different values of x up to the
maximum value of x/Hd = -0.27 or x = -4.509 m and y/Hd = 0.126 or y = 2.1042 m

x(m) -0.5 -1.0 -1.5 -2.0 -2.5 -3.0 -3.5 -4.0 -4.5
y(m) 0.013 0.061 0.143 0.263 0.427 0.642 0.924 1.310 2.104

No. 18. Discuss the characteristics of a hydraulic jump. Differentiate between TWRC &
JHC. How would you select the most suitable type of energy dissipating device for
different relative positions of the two curve?

Solution
No. 18. A hydraulic jump is a sudden and turbulent rise of water which occurs in an open
channel when the flow changes from supercrital state to subcrital state.
It is accompanied by the formation of extremely turbulent rollers and considerable
dissipation of energy . Thus , a hydraulic jump is a very effective means of dissipation of
energy below spillway .
The value of y is determined for a given discharge intensity over the spillway . Likewise ,
for different values of discharge intensity, the value of consequent depth y can be
computed.
The plot then made between discharge intensity of as abscissa and corresponding value of
consequent depth y as ordinate. This curve is known as jump height curve (or) jump
rating curve .

21
The tail water rating curve TWRC gives the relation between tail water depth y as
ordinate and discharge intensity of as abscissa . The actual tail water depth corresponding
to any discharge intensity depends upon the characteristics of hydraulic jump of the river
downstream .
There are five cases , depending upon the relation positionsof JHC & TWRC as
discussesd below .
Case 1: TWRC & JHC coincide through . In this case TWRC AND JHC coincide for all
discharge .
Case 2 : TWRC always lower than JHC : In this case TWRC is below the JHC for all
discharges .
Case 3 : TWRC always higher than JHC ; In this case TWRC above the JHC for all
discharge.
Case 4 ; TWRC lower than the JHC at low discharge, but higher at high discharge. In this
case TWRC is lower than JHC at low discharges, but it becomes higher at a particular
discharge and then remains higher than the JHC.
Case 5 ; TWRC higher than the JHC at low discharge , but lower at higher discharges. It
is also combination of case 2 & 3. However in this case, at low disharge, the jump is
drosoned; whereas at high discharges, it is formed further d/s of the toe.
No.19. What are different types of I.S stilling basins for horizontal aprons? Compare with
USRB.

Solution;
I.S Stilling Basins
There are two types of I.S stilling basins depend upon Frade Number Fr.
(1) Type I , stilling basin Fr < 4.5
(2) Type II , stilling basin Fr > 4.5

Type I : When Fr<4.5 , the basin is provided with chute block, basin block &
endsill.
Type II : When Fr>4.5 , V < 15 m/s , the basin is provided with chute block, basin
block & end still.
USBR Type :
Type I : When Fr varies from 2.5 to 4.5 , the basin is provided with chute block
only.
Type II : When Fr > 4.5 & V1 < 15 m/s , the basin is provided with chute block,
basin block & end sill.
Type III : When Fr>4.5 & V1>15 m/s , the basin is provided with chute blocks &
end sill.

No. 20. Why would you provide the energy dissipators at the d/s toe of the spillway?
Describe the appurtenance for accessories in a stilling basin.

Solution;
When the water flows over the spillway, the static energy is converted into kinetic
energy. This result in very high velocity of flow at the d/s end of the spillway and cause

22
serious scour at there. It may damage the dam, spillway and other appurtenant structures.
Therefore, energy dissipators would provid at the d/s toe of the spillway.
The appurtenance for accessories in a stilling basin such as chute blocks, basin
blocks and end still.
Chute Blocks : These are triangular blocks with their top surface horizontal. These blocks
installed at the toe of the spillways just at u/s of the stilling basin. These
blocks stablise the hydraulic jump and also decrease the length of
hydraulic jump.
Basin Blocks : Basin Blocks (or Baffle blocks or ueir ) installed on the basin floor
between chute block and end sill. These blocks stablise the hydraulic jump
and increase the turbulence and assist in the dissipating of energy.
However baffle blocks are prorse to cavitions on the d/s face and arc not
recom when v is > 15 m/s.
End Sill : It is constructed at the d/s of the stilling basins. It may be sold or derstated
Its function is to reduce the length of the hydraulic jump end to control
sour.

No. 21. Discuss various bucket-type energy dissipators. Where would you provide each
type?
Solution :
Various Bucket-type Energy Dissipators
Bucket-type energy dissipatiors are commonly used for dissipation of
energy below the ogee-shape spillway.
The dissipator consists of an upturned bucket provided at the toe of the
spillway in the continuations of its d/s face.
The bucket-type energy dissipators are usually of small size and more
economical than converstional hydraulic jump stilling basins.
There are especially useful when the froude nos exceeds 10 because , is
that case the difference between initial depth & requent depth is quite large and a very
long and deep stilling basins is required.
They can also be adopted for all tail water conditions. They can be used
only when the river bed consists of strong & stiff rods.
The bucket type energy dissipatiors are basically of the following three
types ,
(i) Solid roller bucket
(ii) Soltted roller bucket
(iii) Ski-jump bucket

Solid roller bucket : / performs well deeply submerged.

Slotted roller bucket ; / can also be tried for flows water tail H2O depth is less than Y2
curve.
Ski-jump bucket ; / is suitable where the stream be is composed of firm rock and tail H2O
depth is less than the formation of hydraulic jump.

No.22. Find the elevation and design the rectangular stilling basin for the spillway as
shown in the figure.

23
 RL. = 671.5’ Hd

RL. = 667.0’

y2 y3

RL. = 664.0’ RL. = 664.0’

Stilling Basin

Given data:

Design discharge = 9000 cusec

R.L. of river bed at weir site = 664.0 ft
R. L. of tail water = 667.0 ft
R. L. at weir crest = 671.5 ft
Total design head = 4.39 ft
Assume base width of stilling basin = 250 ft

Provide USBR type stilling basin and the appurtenances in detail.

Solution:

Tail water depth = 667.0 – 664.0 = 3.0 ft

Weir height = 671.5 – 664.0 = 7.5 ft

Design discharge per unit width q = 9000 / 250 = 36 cusec / unit width

Approach velocity V0 = 36/ (7.5 +4.39) = 3.03 ft/s

V02 / 2g = 0.14 ft
V3 = q/ y3 = 36 / 3 = 12 ft/s

V32 / 2g = 2.24 ft

24
 V02/2g HL HL

RL. = 671.5’ Hd
V12/2g
V22/2g V32/2g

P=7.5’ RL. = 667.0’

y2 y3

RL. = 664.0’ RL. = 664.0’

Stilling Basin C
A
B

Applying Bernoulli’s equation, from Pt. A to Pt. C

Elev. A + P + Hd + V02/2g = Elev. C + y3 + V32/2g + HL
7.5 + 4.39 + 0.14 = 3 + 2.24 + HL

HL = 6.79 ft
q 2 3 36 2
Critical depth y c = 3 = = 3.427 ft
g 32.2
HL 6.79
L.H .S . = = = 1.98
yc 3.427

Assume y2/y1 = 6.1,

3 1/ 3
⎡ y2 ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
⎢ − 1⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ y1 ⎦ ⎢ 2 ⎥
R.H .S =
⎢ ⎥
4 2 ⎢ y 2 ⎡⎢ y 2 + 1⎤⎥ ⎥
y
y1 ⎢ y1 ⎣ y1 ⎦ ⎦⎥
⎣
R.H.S. = 1.95 ≈ L.H.S. (OK)
Take y2/y1 = 6.1

25
 1/ 3
⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎥ 1/ 3
y1 ⎢ 2 ⎥ ⎡ 2 ⎤
= =⎢ ⎥ = 0.36
yc ⎢ y2 ⎡ y2 ⎤⎥ ⎣ 6.1(6.1 + 1) ⎦
⎢ ⎢ + 1⎥ ⎥
⎢⎣ y1 ⎣ y1 ⎦ ⎥⎦

y1 = 0.36 yc = 0.36 x 3.427 = 1.234 ft

y2 = 6.1 y1 = 6.1 x 1.234 = 29.17 ft/sec < 50 ft/s
Incoming velocity V1 = q/ y1 = 29.17 ft/s, V22/2q = 0.3552 ft

Applying Bernoulli’s equation,

Elev. A + P + Hd + V02/2q = Elev. B + y2 + V22/2q + HL
664 + 7.5 + 4.39 + 0.14 = Elev. B + 7.527 + 0.3552 + 6.79
Elev. B = 661.35 ft
V 29.17
Fr1 = 1 = = 4.6275 > 4.5
gy1 32.2 × 1.234
V1 < 50 ft/s
Choose USBR Type II stilling basin
L/y2 = 2.3 xy2 = 2.3 x 7.527 = 17.312 ft
h3/y1= 1.5, h3 = 1.5 x y1 = 1.5 x 1.234 = 1.85 ft
h4 / y1= 1.2, h4 = 1.2 x y1 = 1.2 x 1.234 = 1.48 ft

No. 23. Find the elevation and design the rectangular stilling basin for the spillway as
shown in the figure.

Hd

y2 y3 = 5ft

RL. = 500.0’ RL. = 498.0’

Stilling Basin

26
Given data :
Design discharge Q = 1600 cusec
Base width of the stilling basin L = 40 ft
Design head = 5 ft
P0 = 20 ft
Elevation of stilling basin = ?

Solution:

V02/2g HL HL

Hd
V12/2g
V22/2g V32/2g

P=20’

y2 y3

RL. = 500.0’ RL. = 498.0’

Stilling Basin D
A
B C

Tail water depth = y3 = 5 ft

1600 ft 2
g= = 40
40 sec
qc
V0 =
yc
=40/(P0 + Hd)
40
V0 = = 1.6 ft / s
(20 + 5)
2
V0 (1.6) 2
= = 0.04'
2 g 2 x32.2
q 40
V3 = c = = 8 ft / s
y3 5

27
 2
V3 82
= = 0.994'
2 g 2 x32.2
By Berrsoult ; Eqn;

Elev. A + P + Hd + V02/2g = Elev. D + y3 + V32/2g + HL

500 + 20 + 5 + 0.04 = 498 +5+0.994+HL
HL =21.046’
q c2 3 40 2
3 = = 3.676'
yc = g 32.2

H L 21.046
= = 5.725
yc 3.676

1
⎡ y2 ⎤⎡ ⎤3
⎢ − 1 ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎥⎢ 2 ⎥
=⎢ 1
y
⎢ ⎛ y ⎞ ⎥⎢⎛ y ⎞⎛ y 2 ⎞ ⎥
⎢ 4⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ ⎥ ⎢ ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ y1 ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎝ y1 ⎠⎝ 1+1 ⎠ ⎥⎦
y

y2
Let =x
y1
1
⎡ ( x − 1)3 ⎤ ⎡ 2 ⎤ 3
5.725 = ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎣ 4 x ⎦ ⎣ x( x + 1) ⎦
By trial & Error
x = 11.12
y2
= 11.12
y1

3
⎛ y2 ⎞
⎜⎜ − 1⎟⎟
⎠ = (11.12 − 1) = 23.307
3
H L ⎝ y1
=
y1 ⎛y ⎞ (4 x11.12)
4⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟
⎝ y1 ⎠

HL 21.046
y1 = = =0.903’
23.301 23.301
y2 =10.041’

28
 qc 40 ft
V1 = = = 44.297
y1 0.903 s
q 40 ft
V2 = c = = 2.984
y 2 10.041 s
V22
= 0.246
2g
By using Bernoulli’s Eqn;
Elev+ A + P + Hd + V02/2g = Elev. C + y2 + V22/2g + HL
500 + 20 + 5 + 0.04 = Elev. C + 10.041 + 0.246 + 27.046
Elev. C = 493.704 ft

V1 44.297
Fr1 = = = 8.215〉 4.5
gy1 32.2 × 0.908
V1 = 44.297 ft/s< 50
Use USBR Type II stilling basin,
l/y2 = 2.61, l = 2.67 x 10.041 = 26.27 ft
h3/y1= 2.03, h3=2.03x 0.903=1.83ft
h4/y1=1.51, h4= 1.51x0.903= 1/36ft
Chute Block
h1=y1= 0.903ft
w1 = y1= 0.903ft
s1= y1 = 0.903ft
distance 0.5h1 = 0.5x0.903 =0.452ft
Baffle Block
h = h3 = 1.83ft
w = 0.75h3 =1.37ft
s =0.75h3 = 1.37ft
width 0.2 h3 = 0.366ft
distance 0.375h3 = 0.69ft
End Sill
h=h4 = 1.36ft

No. 24. Design a suitable stilling basin at the toe of a spillway from the following data:
Discharge intensity = 24.6 cumecs/m
H.F.L. in reservoir = 100.0 m
Spillway crest level = 95.0 m
River bed level = 59.0 m
Tail water level = 69.0 m
Coefficient of velocity = 0.90
Assume Lb/y2 = 4.30

29
Solution:

V02/2g HL HL

RL. = 100m
Hd
V12/2g
RL. = 95m V22/2g V32/2g

P=36m
RL. = 69m
y2 y3

RL. = 59m RL. = 59m

Stilling Basin C
A
B

q = 24.6 cumecs/m
y3 = 69 – 59 = 10 m
P0 = 95 -59 = 36 m
Hd = 100 – 95 = 5 m
q 24.6 24.6
V0 = = = = 0.54m / s
y 0 ( P + H d ) (36 + 4)
V02/2g = 0.015
V3 = q/y3 = 24.6 /10 = 2.46 x 0.9 = 2.214 m/s ( V3 is reduced due to coefficient of
velocity)
V32/2g = 0.249
By Bernoulli’s equation,
Elev.A + P + Hd + V02/2g = Elev. C + y3 + V32/2g + HL
36 + 5 + 0.015 = 10 + 0.249 + HL
HL = 30.766 m
q2
yc = 3 = 3.951m
g
HL/yc = 7.787
1/ 3
⎡ y2 3 ⎤⎡ ⎤
( − 1) ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
H L ⎢ y1 2
= ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
yc ⎢ 4 y 2 ⎥ ⎢ ( y 2 )( y 2 + 1) ⎥
⎢ y1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ y1 y1 ⎥
⎣ ⎦

30
Let y2/y1 = x

( x − 1) 3 2
7.787 = ( )1 / 3
4x x( x + 1)

By trial and error method

x = 13.433 m
y2/y1 = 13.433
y
( 2 − 1) 3
HL y1 (13.433 − 1) 3
= =
y1 y2 4(13.433)
4
y1

y1 = 0.86 m
y2 = 11.55 m

V2 = q/y2 = 24.6/11.55 =2.129 m/s

V22/2g = 0.231

By Bernoulli’s Equation,

Elev. A + P + Hd + V02/2g = Elev. B + y2 + V22/2g + HL

59 + 36 + 5 + 0.015 = Elev.B + 11.55 + 0.231 + 30.766

Elev. B = 57.468 m

V1 = q/y1 = 28.605 m/s > 15

Fr1 = V1/(gy1)1/2 = 9.848 > 4.5

Use USBR Type III stilling Basin

l/y2 = 4.3, l = 4.3 x 11.55 = 49.665 m

h3/y1 = 2.3, l = 2.3 x 0.86 = 1.978 m

h4/y1 = 1.6, l = 1.6 x 0.86 = 1.376 m

31
No. 25. Find the elevation and design the rectangular stilling basin for the spillway as
shown in the figure.

Hd

Outfall trapezoidal
y2 y3 = 5ft channel B=50’,z=1

RL. = 196.0’ RL. = 196.0’

Stilling Basin

Solution:

V02/2g HL HL

Hd
V12/2g
V22/2g V32/2g

P=25’

y2 y3 = 5’

RL. = 196’ RL. = 196’

Stilling Basin D
A
B C

32
B = 50’
Z =1, Q = 3600 cusec, l =50’, Hd = 6’, P0 = 25’
q = Q/b = 3600/50 = 72 cusecs/ft
A = (b + zy)y = (50 +1x5)5 = 275 ft2
V3 = Q/A = 3600/275 = 12.09 ft/s
V32/2g = 2.661
V0 = q/y0 = q/ P + Hd = 72/ 25 +6 = 2.323 ft/s
V02/2g = 0.084

By using Bernoulli’s equation,

Elev. A + P + Hd + V02/2g = Elev. D+ y3 + V32/2g + HL

25 + 6 + 0.084 = 5 + 2.661 + HL
HL = 23.423’

q2
yc = 3 = 5.44 ft
g

1/ 3
⎡ y2 ⎤⎡ ⎤
⎢ ( − 1) 3 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
HL y1 2
= ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
yc ⎢ 4( y 2 ) ⎥ ⎢ ( y 2 )( y 2 + 1) ⎥
⎢ y1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ y1 y1 ⎥
⎣ ⎦

Let y2/y1 = x

( x − 1) 3 2
4.307 = ( )1 / 3
4x x( x + 1)

x = 9.39

y2/y1 = 9.39
y
( 2 − 1) 3
HL y (9.39 − 1) 3
= 1 =
y1 y 4(9.39)
4 2
y1

y1 = 1.49’
y2 /y1= 9.39’
y2 = 13.988’
V2 = q/y2 = 72/13.988 = 5.147 ft/s
V22/2g = 0.411

33
By using Bernoulli’s Equation,

Elev. A + P + Hd + V02/2g = Elev. C + y2 + V22/2g + HL

196 + 25 + 6 + 0.084 = Elev. C + 13.988 + 0.411+ 23.423
Elev. C = 189.262’

34
No. 26 (a) What are the various types of reservoirs? Explain in detail any two types as
you like.

Solution:
Depending upon the purpose served, the reservoirs may be broadly classified into five
foutypes;
(1) Storage (or conservation) reservoirs
(2) Flood control reservoirs
(3) Multipurpose reservoirs
(4) Distribution reservoirs
(5) Balancing reservoirs
(1) Storage reservoirs- Storage reservoirs are also called conservation reservoirs
because they are used to conserve water. Storage reservoirs are constructed to. Store the
water in the rainy season and to release it later when the river flow is low store reservoirs
are usually constructed for irrigation, the municipal water supply and hydropower.
Although the storage reservoirs are constructed for storing water for various purposes,
incidentally they also help in moderating the flood and reducing the flood damage to
some extent on the downstream. However, they are not designed as control reservoirs.

(2) Flood control reservoirs – A flood control reservoirs is constructed for the
purpose of flood control. It protects the areas lying on its downstream side from the
damages due to flood. However, absolute protection from extreme flood is not
economically feasible. A flood control reservoirs reduces the flood damage, and it is also
known as the flood-mitigation reservoirs. Sometime, it is called flood protection
reservoirs. In a flood control reservoirs, the flood water is discharged downstream till the
outflow reaches the safe capacity of the channel downstream. When the discharge
exceeds the safe capacity. The excess water is stored in the reservoirs. The store water is
subsequently released when the inflow to reservoirs decrease. Care is, however, taken
that the discharge in the channel downstream, including local inflow, does not exceed its
safe capacity. A flood control reservoirs is designed to moderate the flood and to
conserve water. However, incidentally some storage is also done during the period of
floods. Flood control reservoirs have relatively large sluice-way capacity to permit
rapid drawdown before or after the occurrence of a flood.

No. 26 (b) Define the following terms;

(i) Full reservoir level (FRL)
(ii) Maximum water level(MWL)
(iii) Dead storage
(iv) Average yield
(v) Design yield

Solution:
(i)Full reservoir level (FRL) – The full reservoir level (FRL) is the highest water level to
which the water surface will rise during normal operating conditions. The effective
storage of the reservoir is computed up to the full reservoir level. The FRI is the highest
level at which water is intended to be held for various uses without any passage of water

35
through the spillway. In case of dams without spillway gates, the FRL is equal to the
crest level of the spillway. However, if the spillway is gated, the FRL is equal to the level
of the top of the gates.
The full reservoir level is also called the full tank level (FTL) or the normal pool level
(NPL). Normal conservation level (NCL) –It is the highest level of the reservoir at which
water is intended to be stored for various uses other than flood.
The normal conservation level is different from the FRL as the latter may include a part
of the flood. However, if there is no storage for flood upto FRL, the normal conservation
level the FRL become identical.

(ii) Maximum water level(MWL) – The Maximum water level(MWL) is the maximum
level to which the water surface will rise when the design flood passes over the spillway.
The maximum water level is higher the full reservoir level so that some surcharge storage
is available between the two levels to absorb flood. The Maximum water level is also
called the maximum pool level(MPL) or maximum flood level(MFL).

(iii)Dead storage –The volume of water held below the minimum pool level is called the
dead storage. The dead storage is not useful, as it cannot be used for any purpose under
ordinary operating conditions.

(iv)Average yield – The average yield is the arithmetic average of the firm yield and the
secondary yield over a long period of time.

(v)Design yield – The design yield is the yield adopted in the design of a reservoir. The
design yield is usually fixed after considering the urgency of the water needs and the
amount of risk involved. The design yield should be such that the demands of the
consumers are reasonably met with, and at the same time, the storage required is not
unduly large. Generally, a reservoir for the domestic water supply is planned on the basis
of firm yield. On the other hand, a reservoir for irrigation may be planned with a value of
design yield equal to 1.2time the firm yield because more risk can be taken for the
irrigation water supply than for domestic water supply.

No. 27 Which investigations are usually conducted for reservoir planning?

Solution
The following investigations are usually conducted for reservoir planning.
1. Engineering survey
2. Geological investigation
3. Hydrological investigations

1. Engineering surveys Engineering surveys are conducted for the dams, the
reservoir and other associated works. Generally, the topographic survey of the area is
carried out and the contour plan is prepared. The horizontal control is usually provided by
triangulation survey, and the vertical control by precise leveling.
(a) Dam site For the area in the vicinity of the dam site, a very accurate
triangulation survey is conducted. A contour plan to a scale of 1/250 or 1/500 is

36
 usually prepared. The contour interval is usually 2m or 3m. The contour plan should
cover an area at least upto 200m upstream and 400m downstream and for adequate
width beyond the two abutments.
(b) Reservoir For the reservoir, the scale of the contour plan is usually 1/15,000
with a contour interval of 2m or 3m, depending upon the size of the reservoir. The
area-elevation and storage-elevation curves are prepared for different elevation upto
an elevation 3 to 5 m higher than the anticipated maximum water level (M.W.L).

2 .Geological investigation Geological investigations of the dam and reservoir site are
done for the following purposes.
(i) Suitability of foundation for the dam
(ii) Watertightness of the reservoir basin
(iii) Location of the quarry sites for the construction materials.

3. Hydrological investigations The hydrological investigations are conducted for the

following purposes.
(i) To study the runoff pattern and to estimate yield.
(ii) To determine the maximum discharge at the site.

(i) Runoff pattern and yield The most important aspect of the reservoir
planning is to estimate the quantity of water likely to be available in the
river from year to year and season to season. For the determinatiom of the
required storage capacity of a reservoir,the runoff pattern of the river at
the dam site is required. If the stream gauging has been done for a number
of years before the construction of the dam, the runoff pattern will be
available from the record. It is generally assumed that the runoff pattern
will be subdtantially the same in the future also.The available record is
used for estimating the storage capacity. the inflow hydrographs of two or
three consecutive bad years when the discharge is low are frequently used
for estimating the required capacity. However, if the stream gauging
records are not available, the runoff and yield have to be estimated
indirectedly by the empirical (or) statistical methods. These are:
(i) Runoff expressed as a percentage of rainfall.
(ii) Runoff expressed as a residual of rainfall after deducting losses due to
evaporation, transpiration and ground water accretion.
(iii) Runoff expressed as a function of mean annual temperature and
rainfall.

(ii) Maximum discharge The spillway capacity of the dam is determined from
the inflow hydrograph for the worst flood when the discharge in the river
is the maximum. Flood routing is done to estimate the maximum outflow
and the maximum water level reached during the worst flood.The method
for the estimation of the maximum flood discharge are:
(i) Empirical relations mostly correlated with the catchment area
(ii) Statistical methods
(iii) Unit hydrograph method

37
 (iv) Flood frequency studies
Usually for big reservoirs, a 1000 years flood is taken for spillway design.

No. 28 What are the characteristics for the selection of site for a reservoir?

Solution
A good site for a reservoir should have the following characteristics:
1. Large storage capacity The topography of the site should be such that the reservoir
has a large capacity to store water.

2. Suitable site for the dam A suitable site for the dam should exist on the down stream
of the proposed reservoir. There should be good foundation for the dam. The reservoir
basin should have a narrow opening in the valley so that the length of the dam is small.
The cost of the dam is often a controlling factor in the selection of a site for the reservoir.

3. Watertightness of the reservoir The geological conditions of the reservoir site

should be such that the reservoir basin is watertight. The reservoirsites having pervious
rocksare not suitable. The reservoir basin having shales, slates, schists, gneiss, granite,
etc. are generally suitable.

4. Good hydrological conditions The hydrological condition of the river at the reservoir
site should be such that adequate runoff is available for storage. The catchment area of
the river should give high yield. There should not be heavy losses in the catchment due to
evaporation, transpiration and percolation.

5. Deep reservoir The site should be such that a deep reservoir is formed after the
construction of the dam. A deep reservoir is preferred to a shallow reservoir because in
the former the evaporation losses are small, the cost of land acquisition is low and the
weed growth is less.

6. Small submerged area The site should be such that the submerged area is a
minimum. It should not submerged costly land and property. It should not affect the
ecology of the region. Monument of historical and architectural important should not be
submerged.

7. Low silt inflow The life of the reservoir is short if the river water at the site has a
large quantity of sediments. The reservoir site should be selected such that it avoids or
excludes the water from those tributaries which carry a high percentage of silt.

8. No objectionable minerals The soil and rock mass at the reservoir site should not
contain any objectionable soluble minerals which may contaminate the water. The stored
water should be suitable for the purpose for which the water is required.

9. Low cost of real estate The cost of real estate for the reservoir site, dam, dwelling,
roads, railways, etc. should be low.

38
No. 29 (b) The average annual discharge of a river for 11 years is as follows:

Year 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970
Discharge 1750 2650 3010 2240 2630 3200 1000 950 1200 4150 3500
(cumecs)

Determine the storage capacity required to meet a demand of 2000 cumecs throughout
the year.

Solution

1cumecs-year =1x365x24x60x60 = 31.536x106 m3 =3153.6 ha-m

Yearly demand =3153.6x2000 =6.31Mha-m

Year 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970
Discharge 1750 2650 3010 2240 2630 3200 1000 950 1200 4150 3500
(cumecs)
Inflow 5.52 8.35 9.49 7.06 8.29 10.09 3.15 3.00 3.78 13.09 11.04
volume
(Mha-m)
Cummulati 5.52 13.87 23.36 30.42 38.71 48.8 51.95 54.95 58.73 71.82 82.86
ve
inflow(Mha
-m)

Inflow volume in 1960 = 1750x3153.6

= 5.52x106 ha-m = 5.52 Mha-m

The inflow volume and cumulative inflow are calculated in the table below:

Figure shows the mass inflow curve. The tangents are drawn at the crests at the slope of
6.31 Mha-m per year. The maximum intercept is 7.7 Mha-m. Storage capacity = 7.7
Mha-m.

39
Accumulated Inflow (Mha-m)
90
80
70
60
50
40
30 Series1
20
10
0
0 5 10 15
Time (years)

Fig. The mass inflow curve

7
Yearly Demand (Mha-m)

6
5
4
3
2
Series1
1
0
8.5 9 9.5 10 10.5
Time (Years)

Demand Curve

40
No.30 The monthly inflow and monthly pan-evaporation during a critical dry year at the
site of a proposed reservoir are given below.

Month Jan Feb Mar April May June July Aug Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

Inflow 10 10 4 2 1 200 2000 4000 1500 100 15 10

(ha-m)
Pan 8 10 10 12 15 20 15 15 15 12 10 8
evaporation
(cm)
Precipitation 2 0 0 0 0 30 40 45 40 10 0 2
(cm)

Demand 150 150 50 50 50 50 50 50 150 150 150 150

(ha-m)

The net increase in pool area is 500 ha and the prior rights require the release of
the full stream flow or 10 ha-m, whichever is less. Assume that 40% of the precipitation
that has fallen on the submerged area reached the stream earlier and 60% of that directly
falls on the reservoir. Determine the storage capacity. Take pan coefficient as 0.80.

Solution:
The solution is given in the tabulator form below.

Month Inflow Pan PPt. Demand Water Evap. Precipitation adjust. Required
(ha-m) Evap. (cm) (ha-m) right (ha-m) (ha-m) inflow storage
(ha-m) (ha-m) (ha-m)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Jan 10 8 2 150 10 32 6 -26 -176

Feb 10 10 0 150 10 40 0 -40 -190
Mar. 4 10 0 50 4 40 0 -40 -90
Apr. 2 12 0 50 2 48 0 -48 -98
May 1 15 0 50 1 60 0 -60 -110
June 200 20 30 50 10 80 90 200 -
July 2000 15 40 50 10 60 120 2050 -
Aug. 4000 15 45 50 10 60 135 4065 -
Sept. 1500 15 40 150 10 60 120 1550 -
Oct. 100 12 10 150 10 48 30 72 -78
Nov. 15 10 0 150 10 40 0 -35 -185
Dec. 10 8 2 150 10 32 6 -26 -176
∑= -1103

Explanation: Columns (1) to (6) are the given data

Column (3) × 500 × 0.8
Column (7) = = 4.0 × column (3)
100

41
 Column (4) × 500 × 0.6
Column (8) = = 3.0 × column (4)
100
Column (9) = Columns (2) + (8) – (6) – (7)
Column (10) = Columns (9) – Column (5), whenever negative
Required capacity = Total of Column (10) = 1103 ha-m

BY
TU (Taungoo)
tutaungoo@gmail.com
054-27008/27173
09-5176393

42