Org. Geochem. Vol. 28, No. 12, pp.

823±847, 1998
# 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved
Printed in Great Britain
PII: S0146-6380(98)00039-4 0146-6380/98/$ - see front matter

Application of light hydrocarbons (C4±C13) to oil/source rock

correlations: a study of the light hydrocarbon compositions of source
rocks and test ¯uids from o€shore Mid-Norway
W. ODDEN1*, R. L. PATIENCE2 and G. W. VAN GRAAS2
1
Statoil a.s., 5020 Bergen, Norway and 2Statoil a.s., 4035 Stavanger, Norway

(Received 29 April 1997; returned to author for revision 11 August 1997; accepted 23 April 1998)

AbstractÐRelatively little work has been published on the correlation between the light hydrocarbon
distributions in reservoir ¯uids and their proposed source rocks [Philippi, G. T. (1981)]. The aim of our
work was to study this relationship in detail for samples from Mid-Norway. The main source rocks o€-
shore Mid-Norway are the marine shales of the Late Jurassic Spekk Formation and the coals and para-
lic shales of the Early Jurassic AÊre Formation. Reliable light hydrocarbon (C4±C13) data for source
rock samples were acquired by thermal extraction-GC of the source rocks. Of these, notably the hydro-
carbons in the C6±C8 range (routinely measured in test ¯uids) were used to discriminate between the
Spekk and AÊre Formation samples. A total of twenty-six samples from the Spekk Formation and
twenty-four samples from the AÊre Formation at di€erent maturity levels and facies were analyzed. In
general, the two source rock types di€er in their light hydrocarbon composition by the presence of rela-
tively more aromatics and cyclohexanes in the AÊre samples, while the Spekk samples are richer in cyclo-
pentanes and acyclic hydrocarbons. We show that source rock facies is a more important indicator of
light hydrocarbon composition than maturity variation. Di€erences in the chemical composition, which
can be used to discriminate between the two source rocks, were supported by di€erences in the carbon
isotope composition of individual components of the same fraction, as determined by GHM-IR-MS
analysis of eleven samples. Further, the light hydrocarbon compositions of reservoir ¯uids (oils and
condensates) were compared with those for the source rock(s). Sixty-six gas chromatograms of oils and
condensates, representing most of the known petroleum accumulations in Mid-Norway, were collected.
Of these, ®ve oil samples were selected for detailed isotopic analysis of individual components (GC-IR-
MS). When using a classi®cation scheme based on data from sediment samples, data for the light hy-
drocarbon fraction of oils and condensates indicate that the Spekk Formation is the dominant source
for most of the ®elds from Mid-Norway, with a signi®cant contribution from the AÊre Formation being
detected principally in one ®eld. Di€erences in the chemical composition of the C6±C8 fractions were
supported by di€erences in the carbon isotope composition of individual components, which also dis-
criminate between the oils. Although the classi®cation diagrams used in this study are based on source
rock data from Mid-Norway, the method can be applied to other areas, providing that the diagrams
are calibrated with source rock data from the area of interest. # 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights
reserved

Key wordsÐlight hydrocarbons, source rocks, test ¯uids, Mid-Norway, oil-source and oil-oil corre-
lations, carbon isotopes, ®ngerprinting, multivariate modelling

INTRODUCTION Documentation of the importance of the Spekk

Two main source rocks are present o€shore Mid-
Norway: the marine shales of the Late Jurassic
Spekk Formation and the coals and paralic shales
of the Early Jurassic AÊre Formation (Fig. 1). The
principal reservoir units of this region are the sands
of the Middle and Early Jurassic Fangst and BaÊt
Groups, as well as the Late Jurassic Rogn
Formation in the Draugen Field. A location map of
the main petroleum accumulations o€shore Mid-
Norway is illustrated in Fig. 2.
*To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail:
weod@statoil.com
823
and AÊre Formations as sources of the petroleum
has been published by several authors (Elvsborg et
al., 1984; Ellenor and Mozetic, 1986; Cohen and
Dunn, 1987; Hvoslef et al., 1988; Khorasani, 1989;
Whitley, 1992). The Spekk Formation is of marine
origin and contains kerogen which varies from type
II to type III (Whitley, 1992). Johannesen (1995)
divided the Spekk Formation chronostratigraphi-
cally into the Upper Spekk Unit, which contains
dominantly type II to II/III kerogen and the Lower
Spekk Unit with type III to IV kerogen. The Lower
Jurassic AÊre Formation consists of alternating sand-
stones and claystones which are interbedded with
coals. The organic matter is dominated by terrest-
824 W. Odden et al.

rially-derived humic material (vitrinite and inerti-
nite) and is classi®ed as a type III to type IV kero-
gen with a high potential for generation and
expulsion of gas/condensate (Odden, 1986; Cohen
and Dunn, 1987; Hvoslef et al., 1988; Khorasani,
1989). The petrographical composition of the AÊre
Formation coals and shales is rather similar.
Vitrinite is the major component, inertinite varies
between 10 and 50% and the exinite from minor to
10%. The most abundant exinite submaceral is
sporinite with a variable input of cutinite and resi-
nite (Odden, 1986). However, to explain the volu-
metrics of the petroleum accumulations in Mid-
Norway, some authors have used the coals and
shales of the AÊre Formation as a supplementary
source rock to the Spekk Formation, or even as the
main oil contributor (Hollander, 1984; Hagevang
and Rùnnevik, 1986; Heum et al., 1986; Ekern,
1987, Forbes et al., 1991; Espitalie et al., 1991),
based primarily on basin modelling and kinetic stu-
dies. Odden (1986), Cohen and Dunn (1987),
Khorasani (1989) and Karlsen et al. (1995) did not
agree with this assertion and claimed that it is deba-
table whether AÊre Formation coals and shales can
act as an oil source rock based on correlation of
geochemical data for source rock extracts with oils.
The published geochemical data of the oils and
condensates from Mid-Norway (Ellenor and
Mozetic, 1986; Cohen and Dunn, 1987; Goesten
and Nelson, 1992; Provan, 1992; Karlsen et al.,
1995) focus on the C15+fraction of the petroleums,
with little or no attention to the intermediate frac-

Fig. 1. General lithostratigraphy o€shore Mid-Norway.

 Application of light hydrocarbons (C4-C13) 825

Fig. 2. The main petroleum accumulations o€shore Mid-Norway.

826 W. Odden et al.
tion (C6±C14), which is more abundant in conden-
sates and oils. Di€erences between individual oils
have been explained by Karlsen et al. (1995) as
re¯ecting variations in the extent of the terrestrial
in¯uence in the Spekk Formation, rather than con-
tributions from the AÊre Formation. Further, they
concluded that the C15+fractions of all reservoired
oils and condensates from Mid-Norway originate
predominantly from the Spekk Formation. Where
the origin of the light ``condensate-range'' material
has been discussed, the general opinion appears to
be that the AÊre coals have contributed signi®cant
amounts of condensate (Elvsborg et al., 1984;
Cohen and Dunn, 1987; Hvoslef et al., 1988;
Whitley, 1992), but these opinions are not sup-
ported by analytical data on the light hydrocarbon
fraction.
Hunt et al. (1980) noted that the light hydrocar-
bons make up about 30% of a crude oil, and there-
fore information derived from these components is
more representative of the bulk of an oil than that
from the biological markers, which may make up
1%. Classi®cation by light hydrocarbons may also
be used to gain information from samples where
biological marker data are unavailable or unobtain-
able.
Light hydrocarbon data from oils and conden-
sates from other locations have been studied by sev-
eral authors. Thompson (1979, 1983, 1987, 1988)
published a number of papers which provide source
and maturity information on the light fraction (C6±
C8) of unaltered petroleums, and which interpret
transformation processes in the reservoir such as
bacterial degradation and phase fractionation.
Mango (1987, 1990a,b, 1994), Dai Jinxing (1992)
and Ten Haven (1996) claimed that some com-
ponents of the C7 hydrocarbon fraction in pet-
roleum can be used to deduce the organic matter
type in the source rock. Halpern (1995) used ratios
of C7 compounds to correlate oils and condensates
and to assess relative degrees of post-generative
transformation among related hydrocarbons.
A variety of analytical techniques have been
developed to extract light hydrocarbons from
source rock samples prior to GC analysis. Durand
and Espitalie (1972) transferred the C1±C5 fraction
to a mercury container after vacuum crushing of
the sample and the C6±C15 hydrocarbons were
extracted by CFCl3 in a sealed crusher. Jonathan et
al. (1975) employed a process of thermovaporisa-
tion at 2208C to extract C6±C15 hydrocarbons from
sedimentary rocks. Leythaeuser et al. (1979a,b) ana-
lyzed the C2±C7 hydrocarbon fraction by a hydro-
gen stripping/capillary gas chromatographic
technique. However, of these papers, only
Leythaeuser et al. (1979a,b) distinguished between
di€erent source rock types. They concluded that or-
ganic matter derived from higher land plants con-
tained a relatively higher proportion of benzene and
toluene than organic matter of marine origin. These
authors also mentioned the evidence of loss of light
hydrocarbons due to improper sample storage.
Philippi (1975), Jonathan et al. (1975) and
Thompson (1979, 1983, 1987) used the C6±C7 hy-
drocarbon fraction to interpret maturity and
showed that the alkane/cycloalkane ratios increased
with increasing maturity. Thompson (1983) pro-
posed that the C7 cycloalkanes progressively
undergo ring opening with increasing temperature.
Thus, the ratio nC7/MCC6 was o€ered as a matur-
ity index, presumably increasing with subsurface
temperature as MCC6 undergoes thermal ring open-
ing. Mango (1990a, 1997) questioned this expla-
nation and, in opposition to Thompson, claimed
that cycloalkanes are more stable than open chain
alkanes. However, Mango stated that the alkane/
cycloalkane ratios increase with maturity, but the
reasons are not clear.
Relatively little work has been published on the
correlation between light hydrocarbon distributions
in reservoir ¯uids and source rocks. Philippi (1981)
compared the C6±C7 hydrocarbon fractions of
crude oils with those for source rocks through ten
``similarity coecients''. The latter were calculated
to vary from 0 to 1 with increasing correlation.
Kornacki (1993) analyzed the C7 hydrocarbon frac-
tion in oils and source rocks and used the sum of
methylhexanes vs the ratio of 1,3-dimethylcyclopen-
tanes to dimethylpentanes (after Mango, 1994) for
interpretation of the data.
In our study, the light hydrocarbon compositions
of source rocks and test ¯uids from Mid-Norway
were examined. We selected Mid-Norway as the
study area, since a comprehensive data base of light
hydrocarbon and other ¯uid data already exists. In
order to facilitate the correlation with possible
source rocks, the initial part of the project focussed
on obtaining reliable light hydrocarbon data for
source rock samples from the Spekk and AÊre
Formations at di€erent maturity levels and facies.
The light hydrocarbon fractions of source rock
samples were thus analyzed by thermal extraction-
GC, using the method described by Bjorùy and
Solli (1984) and Bjorùy et al. (1984), with quanti®-
cation of the individual components in the C4±C13
range. Of these, notably the hydrocarbons in the
C6±C8 range (routinely measured in test ¯uids),
were used to discriminate between the AÊre and
Spekk Formation samples. The light hydrocarbon
compositions of reservoir ¯uids (oils and conden-
sates) from Mid-Norway were interpreted with
regard to their source rock(s). For this purpose, gas
chromatograms of oils and condensates were used
with quanti®cation of those components of the C6±
C8 fraction which are present in relatively higher
proportions.
The calibration of classi®cation diagrams for dis-
tinguishing between the Spekk and AÊre Formation
 Application of light hydrocarbons (C4-C13)
samples is based upon results from multivariate
modelling (PCA) and the previous work by Mango,
ten Haven and Dai Jinxing referred to above.
Further, the source of the light hydrocarbons in test
¯uids from Mid-Norway was assessed by the par-
ameters and plots which distinguished the Spekk
from the AÊre Formation samples.
Multivariate modelling indicates that the light hy-
drocarbon fraction is most strongly in¯uenced by
source rock type, and less so by maturity. However,
the light hydrocarbon distributions in source rocks
can be potentially a€ected by losses due to evapor-
ation of these volatile components. The storage
e€ect was studied here.
Interpretation of the compound distribution was
augmented by compound speci®c carbon isotope
compositions of selected AÊre and Spekk Formation
samples. These were measured by coupling a
Geo®na Hydrocarbon Meter (Bjorùy et al., 1984)
with an isotope ratio mass spectrometer (GHM-IR-
MS), which made it possible to analyze the individ-
ual components of thermal extracts without prior
sample preparation. The carbon isotope compo-
sition of individual components of ®ve oil samples
was measured by GC-IR-MS (Bjorùy et al., 1990,
1991, 1992; Hansen et al., 1995) and these data
have also been compared with corresponding data
for source rock thermal extracts.
SAMPLE SET, EXPERIMENTAL AND DATA TREATMENT
Sample set
Source rock samples. A total of twenty-six
samples from the Spekk Formation and twenty-four
samples from the AÊre Formation were collected for
analysis (Table 1). The samples were selected from
seventeen wells, drilled from 1982 to 1997, to pro-
vide sucient coverage of the di€erent maturity
levels and facies variations of these two formations.
Core samples were preferred where available, but in
many cases, cuttings had to be used, particularly in
the Spekk Formation. The only set of core samples
from the Spekk (SP5±SP14) is from a recent well
lying within the oil-window (Ro=0.7±0.8%;
Tmax=445±4488C), and having good potential for
generating oil (HI = 300±398; Table 1). The late-
mature (Ro=1.0±1.2%; Tmax=444±4618C) Spekk
Formation samples (SP16±SP26) with hydrogen in-
dices (HI) ranging from 126 to 45 mg HC/g TOC
may have had good initial generating potential.
This is supported by their relatively high residual
TOC contents (0.9 to 5.3%). The other ®ve samples
from the Spekk Formation are: one immature/early
mature sample and one oil-window mature sample,
both with low hydrogen indices, i.e. SP4
(HI = 78 mg HC/g TOC; Ro=0.6%; Tmax=4288C)
and SP15 (HI = 119 mg HC/g TOC; Ro=0.8%;
Tmax=4338C) and three immature (Ro=0.5%;
Tmax=415±4178C) samples (SP1, SP2, SP3) with
827
hydrogen indices of 500, 444 and 273 mg HC/g
TOC, respectively. The AÊre Formation samples
(A1±A24) have hydrogen indices ranging from 35
to 324 mg HC/g TOC (Ro=0.65±1.3%; Tmax=428±
4778C) and are classi®ed as type III to IV kerogen
(Odden, 1986; Khorasani, 1989). Eleven samples
were further selected for GHM-IR-MS analysis (as
indicated in Table 1).
Oil and condensate samples. To avoid evaporative
losses during sample collection and transportation,
the production samples (DST) were collected at the
oil outlet of the separator and stored in closed bot-
tles before analysis.
A total of 66 whole oil/condensate gas chromato-
grams of stabilized (depressurized) test ¯uids from
the main petroleum accumulations of Mid-Norway
(Fig. 2) have been collected for this study (Table 2).
The only oil sample from Alve Field (A1) is con-
taminated with mud (about 90% mud and 10%
oil). The samples from Draugen Field (DR) and
Heidrun Nord Field (HN) range from being par-
tially to strongly biodegraded. The other ®elds
included in this study are Trestakk (TRE), Tyrihans
Sùr (TS), Mikkel (MK), Njord (NJ), Smùrbukk
(SM), Smùrbukk Sùr (SS), Norne (NO) and two
samples from individual wells (H04-6407/4-1, H06-
6507/6-2). Samples with codes NO1±NO4 come
from a well drilled on a separate accumulation
3 km east of the Norne Field. These have been
grouped together with the Norne Field (NO5±NO6)
since the drainage area is assumed to be the same.
Seventeen petroleum ¯uids were selected for re-
analysis by gas chromatography (as indicated in
Table 2).
Five oil samples were further analyzed by GC-
IR-MS: one oil sample from each of Midgard
(MG4), Tyrihans Nord (TN1), Njord (NJ2),
Smùrbukk (SM19) and east of Norne (NO1) Fields.
E€ects of storage of rock samples on light hydro-
carbon distributions
In order to investigate storage e€ects, the follow-
ing analytical variations were performed:
Spekk Formation samples. The set of fresh core
samples (SP5±SP14) from the Spekk Formation in
a single well was reanalyzed by thermal extraction-
GC four times with di€erent time spans between
sample crushing and thermal extraction-GC analysis
(cases A, B, C and D).
Case A: the samples were crushed immediately
before analyses (0 min);
Case B: the samples were crushed 20 min
before analyses (20 min);
Case C: the samples were analyzed two to
three weeks after crushing (2±3 weeks);
Case D: three samples (SP5, SP11, SP14)
were analyzed four months after crushing
(4 months).
828 W. Odden et al.

Table 1. Source rock samples used in this study (A=AÊre; SP = Spekk)

S1 (mg S2 (mg HI (mg PP (mg
Sample Depth HC/g HC/g TOC HC/g HC/g Tmax Sample
code (mRKB) rock) rock) (wt %) TOC) rock) PI (8C) %Ro type

A1 3481.00 3.80 131.80 73.70 179 135.60 0.03 434 0.65 core
A2 3529.00 4.90 66.50 24.70 269 71.40 0.07 428 0.65 cut
A3a 4007.70 1.94 30.97 10.40 298 32.90 0.06 448 0.80 core
A4 4010.70 4.24 47.34 19.00 249 51.60 0.08 452 0.85 core
A5a 4143.00 12.90 116.00 59.20 196 128.90 0.10 458 0.85 cut
A6 4278.00 3.14 26.85 26.00 103 30.00 0.10 465 0.90 cut
A7 4330.00 7.35 159.05 81.00 196 166.40 0.04 455 0.90 cut
A8 4485.00 7.96 114.62 64.50 178 122.60 0.06 459 0.95 cut
A9 4493.00 2.00 14.90 20.90 71 16.90 0.12 n.d 0.95 swc
A10 4530.00 16.03 109.60 64.30 170 125.70 1.13 465 1.00 cut
A11 4539.79 0.73 7.10 4.70 151 7.80 0.09 460 1.00 core
A12 4539.79 1.88 20.00 7.00 288 21.90 0.09 470 1.00 core
A13a 4586.75 11.50 128.30 70.50 182 139.80 0.08 461 1.05 core
A14 4600.00 13.21 139.28 73.80 189 152.50 0.09 458 1.05±1.1 cut
A15 4613.70 0.33 7.37 5.16 143 7.70 0.04 470 1.10 core
A16 4614.54 0.02 0.29 0.80 35 0.30 0.06 n.d 1.10 core
A17a 4614.87 1.38 31.07 9.60 324 32.50 0.04 470 1.10 core
A18 4700.00 9.81 97.73 52.30 187 107.50 0.09 462 1.15 cut
A19 4730.00 1.98 26.34 14.40 183 28.30 0.07 452 1.15 cut
A20 4795.00 9.43 116.03 57.90 200 125.50 0.08 464 1.20 cut
A21 4810.00 1.34 19.79 12.80 155 21.10 0.06 462 1.30 cut
A22 4825.00 0.32 4.00 4.80 84 4.40 0.07 465 1.30 cut
A23 5070.00 3.08 91.63 59.50 154 94.70 0.03 473 n.d. core
A24 5089.00 1.86 87.32 46.60 188 89.20 0.02 477 n.d. core
SP1a 2535.00 2.43 37.80 7.60 500 40.20 0.06 415 0.50 cut
SP2 2881.00 2.86 38.45 8.70 444 41.30 0.07 417 0.50 cut
SP3 3103.00 1.70 18.41 6.80 273 20.10 0.08 417 0.50 cut
SP4 3728.00 1.94 4.68 6.00 78 6.60 0.29 428 0.65 cut
SP5a 3732.90 3.37 12.69 3.30 388 16.10 0.21 448 0.7±0.8 core
SP6 3734.88 2.83 8.35 2.10 398 11.20 0.25 445 0.7±0.8 core
SP7 3736.58 2.89 7.58 2.29 331 10.50 0.28 445 0.7±0.8 core
SP8 3739.71 3.43 11.30 2.95 383 14.70 0.23 446 0.7±0.8 core
SP9a 3742.75 3.18 7.29 2.15 339 10.50 0.30 447 0.7±0.8 core
SP10 3745.70 2.74 9.94 2.91 342 12.70 0.20 446 0.7±0.8 core
SP11 3748.51 3.22 12.23 3.10 393 15.40 0.21 446 0.7±0.8 core
SP12 3751.46 2.96 6.31 2.10 300 9.30 0.32 445 0.7±0.8 core
SP13 3754.07 2.34 6.54 2.02 324 8.90 0.26 448 0.7±0.8 core
SP14a 3757.14 2.84 8.77 2.85 308 11.60 0.24 446 0.7±0.8 core
SP15a 3862.00 3.45 13.85 7.25 191 17.30 0.20 433 0.80 cut
SP16 4093.00 0.42 0.88 1.62 54 1.30 0.32 451 1.0±1.1 cut
SP17 4120.00 0.74 1.40 2.10 70 2.20 0.34 447 1.0±1.1 cut
SP18 4140.00 0.20 0.70 0.90 82 0.90 0.22 n.d 1.0±1.1 cut
SP19 4149.00 0.85 1.60 2.60 60 2.40 0.35 447 1.0±1.1 cut
SP20a 4170.00 1.10 2.20 2.50 86 3.20 0.33 453 1.0±1.1 cut
SP21 4182.00 3.20 6.70 5.30 126 9.80 0.32 453 1.0±1.1 cut
SP22 4209.00 2.50 3.20 4.50 71 5.70 0.44 448 1.0±1.1 cut
SP23 4239.00 1.00 1.50 3.00 49 2.40 0.41 444 1.0±1.1 cut
SP24a 4263.00 1.37 1.80 3.10 60 3.20 0.43 449 1.0±1.1 cut
SP25 4293.00 0.40 0.70 1.50 45 1.10 0.37 455 1.0±1.1 cut
SP26 4470.00 0.72 1.90 3.60 54 2.70 0.27 461 1.20 cut
a
Samples selected for GHM-IR-MS analysis.
S1 = free hydrocarbons in the sample. S2 = hydrocarbons generated by thermal degradation of
the kerogen. TOC = total organic carbon. HI = S2/TOC  100. PP = (S1 + S2). PI = S1/
(S1 + S2). %Ro = vitrinite re¯ectance measurements.

Further, ten cutting samples stored uncrushed for Experimental

®ve years (SP16±SP25) were analyzed immediately
after crushing (case A); eight of these (SP16, SP19±
SP25) after two to three weeks (case C) and three
of these (SP16, SP19, SP24) after 4 months (case
D).
AÊre Formation samples. Four samples from the
AÊre Formation (A3: core; A8: cuttings; A23±A24:
cores) were analyzed immediately after crushing
(case A) and after four months (case D). Of these,
the set of core samples (A23±A24) is from a recent
well.
All samples were screened for total organic car-
bon (TOC) and by Rock Eval-type pyrolysis
(Table 1). The vitrinite re¯ectance measurements
(Table 1) are collected from Statoil's in-house data-
base and Odden (1986) and come from more than
one laboratory.
Thermal extraction-gas chromatography (TE-
GC). After screening, samples were analyzed by
thermal extraction-GC. The instrument used was a
Varian 3400 Gas Chromatograph interfaced to a
 Application of light hydrocarbons (C4-C13) 829

pyrolysis oven. Up to 15 mg of the ®nely crushed
samples were heated in a pyrolysis chamber at
3008C for 4 min, during which time thermal extrac-
tion of the free hydrocarbons occurred (equivalent
to the S1 peak of the Rock-Eval). The released
hydrocarbons were ¯ushed on to a fused silica col-
umn (OV-1 capillary column; 25 m  0.32 mm i.d.;
0.25 mm ®lm thickness) with a liquid nitrogen-
cooled trap. The temperature program of the gas
chromatograph started at ÿ108C, with a tempera-
ture gradient of 68C/min to 2908C. The column was
linked to a ¯ame ionization detector. Quanti®cation
of all components was based on peak areas. The
compounds were identi®ed through analyses of
known standards such as Black ven Marl and
SK142.
Gas chromatography. The original data set of
¯uids collected for this study have been analyzed
over a period of years (i.e. as each well was drilled).
The GC analyses were performed on a Hewlett
Packard 5890 gas chromatograph ®tted with a
capillary column with a dimethylpolysiloxane
stationary phase (CP Sil 5CB, 30m  0.25 mm i.d.;
0.25 mm ®lm thickness). The temperature program
was 108C held for 4 min then ramped at 58C/min to
3008C with a ®nal hold time of 20 min.
Seventeen test ¯uids were selected for re-analysis
and the GC analyses were performed on a Hewlett
Packard 5890 gas chromatograph ®tted with a
capillary column with a dimethylpolysiloxane
stationary phase (SE 54, 40 m  0.25 mm i.d.;
0.25 mm ®lm thickness). The temperature program
was minus 108C held for 5 min then ramped at 48C/
min to 3008C with a ®nal hold time of 25 min.
Quanti®cation of all components was based on
peak areas. The compounds were identi®ed through
analyses of a known standard, the Wintershall oil.
Thermal extraction-gas chromatography isotope
ratio mass spectrometry. The GHM-IR-MS analyses
were performed on a VG Isochrom II system inter-
faced to a Dani 8510 gas chromatograph. The ther-
mal extraction was carried out as described above.
For the isotope measurements the following con-
ditions were used: The GC was ®tted with a fused
silica column (OV-1; 50 m  0.32 mm i.d.; 0.25 mm
®lm thickness) leading directly to the combustion
furnace. The following temperature program was
used: minus 108C held for 5 min then ramped at
48C/min to 3008C with a ®nal hold time of 29 min.
The accuracy of the instrument (20.5-) has been
tested by analyzing a standard solution made up of
n-alkanes and isoprenoids in n-hexane. Full details
of the operating procedure of this isotope ratio
mass spectrometry (IR-MS) system are found in
earlier reports (Bjorùy et al., 1990, 1991; Hansen et
al., 1995).

Table 2. Test ¯uids used in this study

Sample Phase Sample Phase
code Well Test Field tested code Well Test Field tested

TREa 6406/3±2 DST2 Trestakk oil SM15 6506/12±7 DST1 Smùrbukk oil
TSa 6407/1±2 DST1 Tyrihans S. gas SM16 6506/12-7 DST2 Smùrbukk gas
TN1a 6407/1-3 DST1 Tyrihans N. oil SM17 6506/12-7 DST3 Smùrbukk gas
TN2 6407/1-3 DST2 Tyrihans N. gas SM18a 6506/12-9S DST1 Smùrbukk oil
H04 6407/4-1 DST2 gas SM19 6506/12-9S DST2 Smùrbukk oil
MK1a 6407/6-3 DST1 Mikkel oil + gas SM20 6506/12-9S DST3 Smùrbukk oil
MK2 6407/6-3 DST2 Mikkel gas SM21 6506/12-9S DST5 Smùrbukk oil
MK3 6407/6-3 DST3 Mikkel gas SS1 6506/12-3 DST1 Smùrbukk S. gas
NJ1a 6407/7-1 DST2 Njord oil SS2 6506/12-3 DST2 Smùrbukk S. gas
NJ2 6407/7-1 DST3 Njord oil SS3 6506/12-3 DST3 Smùrbukk S. gas
NJ3 6407/7-1 DST4 Njord oil SS4 6506/12-3 DST4 Smùrbukk S. oil
NJ4 6407/7-1 DST5 Njord oil SS5a 6506/12-3 DST5 Smùrbukk S. oil
NJ5 6407/7-4 DST2A Njord oil SS6 6506/12-5 DST2 Smùrbukk S. oil
NJ6 6407/7-4 DST2B Njord oil SS7a 6506/12-8 DST1 Smùrbukk S. oil
DR1 6407/9-2 DST2 Draugen oil SS8 6506/12-8 DST2 Smùrbukk S. oil
DR2 6407/9-3 DST1 Draugen oil A1 6507/3-1 DST2 Alve oil
DR3 6407/9-4 DST1 Draugen oil A2 6507/3-1 DST3 Alve gas
DR4 6407/9-5 DST1 Draugen oil H06 6507/6-2 RFT2A oil
DR5 6407/9-6 DST1 Draugen oil HN1 6507/8-4 DST2 Heidrun N. oil
SM1 6506/11-2 DST1A Smùrbukk gas HN2 6507/8-4 DST3 Heidrun N. oil
SM2 6506/11-2 DST2 Smùrbukk gas HN3 6507/8-4 DST4 Heidrun N. gas
SM3 6506/11-2 DST4 Smùrbukk gas MG1 6407/2-2 DST1 Midgard gas
SM4a 6506/11-2 DST5 Smùrbukk oil MG2 6507/11-1 RFT Midgard gas
SM5 6506/11-2 DST6 Smùrbukk oil MG3 6507/11-1 DST1 Midgard gas
SM6 6506/12-1 DST2 Smùrbukk gas MG4a 6507/11-3 DST1 Midgard oil
SM7a 6506/12-1 DST2C Smùrbukk gas MG5 6507/11-3 DST2 Midgard gas
SM8 6506/12-1 DST4 Smùrbukk gas MG6a 6507/11-3 DST3 Midgard gas
SM9 6506/12-1 DST4B Smùrbukk gas NO1a 6608/10-4 DST2 East of Norne oil
SM10 6506/12-1 DST5B Smùrbukk gas NO2a 6608/10-4 DST3A + B East of Norne oil
SM11 6506/12-1 DST5D Smùrbukk gas NO3 6608/10-4 FMT1A East of Norne oil
SM12 6506/12-1 DST7 Smùrbukk gas NO4 6608/10-4 FMT1B East of Norne oil
SM13a 6506/12-6 DST1 Smùrbukk oil NO5a 6608/10-3 DST1 Norne oil
SM14 6506/12-6 DST3 Smùrbukk gas NO6a 6608/10-2 DST2 Norne oil
a
Samples selected for re-analysis by gas chromatography.
830 W. Odden et al.

Table 3. Components and parameters used in this study

Abbreviation Hydrocarbon Abbreviation Hydrocarbon

iC4 i-butane DMCC6 cis-1,2-dimethylcyclohexane

nC4 n-butane TMCC6 trans-1,1,3-trimethylcyclohexane
iC5 i-pentane EBenz ethylbenzene
nC5 n-pentane m + p-xyla meta + para-xylene
DMC4a 2,3-dimethylbutane 2 + 4MC8 2 + 4-methyloctane
CC5 cyclopentane 3MC8 3-methyloctane
2MC5 2-methylpentane o-xyl ortho-xylene
3MC5 3-methylpentane nC9 n-nonane
nC6a n-hexane TeBCC5 tertiary-butylcyclopentane
MCC5a methylcyclopentane SeBCC5 secondary-butylcyclopentane
Benza benzene nPCC6 n-propylcyclohexane
CC6a cyclohexane 2MC9 2-methylnonane
2MC6a 2-methylhexane o-ETol ortho-ethyl-toluene
3MC6a 3-methylhexane DMC8 3,6-dimethyloctane
1c3DMCC5a cis-1,3-dimethylcyclopentane iC10 i-decane
1t3DMCC5a trans-1,3-dimethylcyclopentane nC10 n-decane
1t2DMCC5a trans-1,2-dimethylcyclopentane 4MC10 4-methyldecane
nC7a n-heptane iC11 i-undecane
MCC6a methylcyclohexane nC11 n-undecane
Tola toluene 4MC11 4-methylundecane
2MC7 2-methylheptane iC12 i-dodecane
3MC7 3-methylheptane nC12 n-dodecane
nC8a n-octane iC13 i-tridecane
nPCC5 n-propylcyclopentane
a
For the original data set of test ¯uidsCross plots and ternary diagrams of parameters:
Cross plots:
m + p xyl (%) = (area of m + p xyl  100)/(a areas of the C4±C13 fraction)
Temary diagrams:
After Dai Jinxing (1992): X : Y : Z = a(cis 1,3 : trans 1,3 : trans 1,2) DMCC5 : MCC6 : nC7
After Ten Haven (1996) X : Y : Z = Tol + MCC6 : 2MC6 + 3MC6 : a(cis 1,3 : trans 1,3 : trans 1,2) DMCC5
Thompson indices: B = Tol/nC7; F = nC7/MCC6.
H; heptane value (1) = (nC7100)/(CC6 + 2MC6 + 3MC6 + DMC4 + 1c3DMCC5 + 1t3DMCC5
+ 1t2DMCC5 + nC7 + MCC6).

Gas chromatography isotope ratio mass spec-
trometry (GC-IR-MS). The GC-IR-MS analyses
were performed on a VG Isochrom II system with a
Hewlett Packard 5890 gas chromatograph. The GC
was ®tted with a fused silica column (OV-1;
50 m  0.32 mm i.d.; 0.25 mm ®lm thickness) leading
directly to the combustion furnace. The following
temperature program was used: minus 108C held
for 5 min then ramped at 48C/min to 3008C with a
®nal hold time of 29 min. Splitless injections were
used. The accuracy of the instrument and references
are given above.
Data treatment
The data were interpreted through visual inspec-
tion of the raw chromatograms, cross-plots and
ternary diagrams of parameters, and by multivariate
statistical analyses (presented here for source rock
samples only). For the latter, Principal Component
Analysis (PCA) was applied. Detailed description of
the PCA method is given in Jolli€e (1986) and a
short summary is included below.
In our original ¯uid database, the data sets were
of varying age, and standardization of the raw data
was necessary. This required re-measurement of a
large number of peak heights (the C6±C8 fraction as
marked a in Table 3) from the gas chromatograms.
Peak heights were used because the reproducibility
was better than peak areas for this sample set, but
areas were used for nine samples (illustrated in
Table 4) when peak heights could not be measured
(o€scale; MG2, MG3) and for the most recently
analyzed samples.
For quanti®cation of the C4±C13 fraction
(Table 3) of source rock thermal extracts peak areas
were used, but an equivalent result would have
been obtained if the parameters were calculated
from peak heights. In order to quantify the same
components of the C4±C13 fraction as for the source
rock thermal extracts, seventeen petroleum ¯uids
(Table 2) were re-analyzed by gas chromatography
and peak areas were measured.
Principal Component Analysis. Principal Com-
ponent Analysis (PCA) gives compressed infor-
mation of the total variation in a set of samples.
PCA extracts systematic variation in the data
matrix as a linear combination of pairwise orthog-
onal vectors (principal components). The ®rst prin-
cipal component (PC1) explains the largest
percentage of the total variation in the data set
(given as % variance explained by the component).
The second principal component (PC2) describes
the next most important direction, and the pro-
cedure continues until no additional statistically sig-
ni®cant pattern can be found in the data. This
procedure reduces the data matrix for the set of
samples to a limited number of principal com-
ponents that contain all the systematic variation in
 Application of light hydrocarbons (C4-C13) 831

Table 4. Thompson indices B, F and H of the test ¯uids from RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Mid-Norway
Codes for the components and de®nitions of the
Sample Thompson indices Sample Thompson indices
code code parameters measured are given in Table 3.
The hydrocarbon components of the C6±C8 frac-
B F H B F H
tion used in this study are those which are present
TRE 1.02 0.85 21.78 SM15 1.11 0.64 20.14 in relatively higher proportions, because we believe
TS 0.90 0.71 21.10 SM16 1.16 0.72 21.72 that the generally small peaks are not reliable for
TN1 1.07 0.61 20.11 SM17 1.03 0.81 22.94
TN2 0.70 0.59 20.28 SM18a 1.60 0.71 19.27 this interpretation.
H04 1.27 0.55 20.20 SM19a 1.72 0.64 20.92
MK1 0.80 0.64 18.64 SM20a 1.54 0.62 19.02 Storage/crushing e€ects on light hydrocarbon distri-
MK2 0.77 0.62 18.18 SM21a 1.54 0.79 19.72
MK3 0.72 0.64 18.82 SS1 0.94 0.59 20.82
butions
NJ1 0.80 0.50 20.07 SS2 1.39 0.47 19.01 A full sample set consisting only of fresh core
NJ2 0.63 0.60 21.32 SS3 1.11 0.69 21.68
NJ3 0.44 0.64 21.46 SS4 0.94 0.73 21.80 samples was not available, and therefore in many
NJ4 1.01 0.55 19.31 SS5 0.91 0.68 20.88 cases cuttings (stored uncrushed for years) had to
NJ5 0.61 0.84 23.58 SS6 0.90 0.64 20.92
NJ6 0.79 0.64 21.59 SS7a 1.02 0.63 19.69
be used. The storage e€ect was studied here.
DR1 0.30 0.66 17.74 SS8 1.12 0.74 20.94 Light hydrocarbon data of source rock extracts
DR2 0.26 0.69 17.61 A1 1.46 0.40 15.88 could be a€ected by the time interval from crushing
DR3 0.31 0.52 14.70 A2 1.59 0.63 20.10
DR4 0.28 0.70 17.25 H06 1.22 0.49 17.26 to thermal extraction-GC and/or by storage of
DR5 0.28 0.75 19.26 HN1 0.70 0.22 7.12 uncrushed material (which is a slower process).
SM1 1.42 0.71 20.43 HN2 0.68 0.19 6.26 There were problems with the reproducibility of the
SM2 1.54 0.57 17.77 HN3 0.15 0.64 15.31
SM3 1.20 0.77 19.81 MG1 1.50 0.51 18.55 Spekk Formation samples that led us to investigate
SM4 0.62 0.77 22.40 MG2a 1.71 0.44 18.23 the e€ects of storage on crushed and uncrushed
SM5 0.58 0.66 19.76 MG3a 1.82 0.47 16.44
SM6 1.33 0.62 21.00 MG4 2.30 0.35 15.02
samples. A set of fresh core samples from the
SM7 1.33 0.69 19.24 MG5 1.40 0.57 18.92 Spekk Formation (SP4±SP14) was exposed for
SM8 1.06 0.70 21.15 MG6a 1.48 0.39 16.07 di€erent time spans between sample crushing and
SM9 1.15 0.58 19.83 NO1 3.70 0.36 17.01
SM10 1.09 0.70 21.08 NO2 2.34 0.45 20.52 thermal extraction-GC (case A: 0 min; case B:
SM11 1.02 0.73 21.48 NO3 1.89 0.22 12.79 20 min; case C: 2±3 weeks and case D: 4 months
SM12 0.99 0.80 22.74 NO4 2.44 0.47 19.93 (SP5, SP11, SP14)). Further, ten cutting samples
SM13 1.07 0.70 21.31 NO5 3.13 0.40 17.56
SM14 0.82 0.74 21.27 NO6a 4.14 0.36 14.93 stored for ®ve years (SP16±SP25) were analyzed im-
a mediately after crushing (case A); eight of these
Peak areas.
(SP16, SP19±SP25) after 2±3 weeks (case C) and
three of these (SP16, SP19, SP24) after 4 months
the data. The co-ordinates of each sample projected (case D). Four samples from the AÊre Formation
on the axis de®ned by the principal components are (A3, A8, A23, A24) were exposed for A (0 min); C
termed ``scores'', while the coecients for each vari- (2±3 weeks) and D (4 months) to study the reprodu-
able, which quanti®es its contribution to each com- cibility. Of these, two of the samples (A23±A24)
ponent, is termed the ``loading'' of the variable were from a fresh core.
(Wold et al., 1984, 1987; Birks, 1987). Spekk Formation. Figure 3(a)±(d) display whole
and partial gas chromatograms of a Spekk For-
Based on measured peak areas, Tmax and depth
mation sample (SP11) showing the spread in the
of the same samples, the systematic variations in
light hydrocarbon composition after di€erent time
the light hydrocarbon distributions of the AÊre and spans between sample crushing and thermal extrac-
Spekk Formation samples were modelled by PCA. tion-GC (varying from none to 4 months; cases A
The systematic variation was used to select those and D). A full range of C4±C13 components are
variables that distinguish between the two source present [Fig. 3(a)±(b)] when the samples were
rock types, and it is possible to infer the in¯uence crushed immediately before analysis (case A), but
of the light hydrocarbon components on maturity. there was a signi®cant loss of light ends [Fig. 3(c)±
Data preprocessing. Data analysis was performed (d)] when crushed material had been stored for four
using the Sirius program (Kvalheim and Karstang, months (case D). Figure 3(d) shows that only some
1987). The measured peak areas of the source rock of the cyclics (such as methylcyclopentanes and
samples were normalized to 100%, to compensate cyclohexanes), aromatics (such as benzene, ethyl-
benzene and m + p xylene), branched alkanes (such
for di€erences in the amounts thermally desorbed,
as the methylhexanes and methylheptanes) and the
prior to the multivariate statistical analyses. All
acyclic hydrocarbons above C11 were retained.
data sets were standardized (scaled to variance Di€erences between the analytical results also occur
equal to 1.0 by division with the standard deviation when the time span between sample crushing and
for each variable) before the analysis was per- analysis is less. However, the late-mature cutting
formed, so that the magnitude of the variables did samples from the Spekk Formation (SP16±SP25),
not in¯uence the results. which have been stored uncrushed for ®ve years
 832
W. Odden et al.

Fig. 3. Chromatograms of a Spekk Formation sample showing the e€ects of di€erent time spans between sample crushing and thermal extraction-GC [case A (a)±(b) and
case D (c)±(d), in full and expanded scale].
 Application of light hydrocarbons (C4-C13) 833

Fig. 4. Results of multivariate data analysis of the light hydrocarbon distribution of the Spekk and AÊre
Formation samples (case D excluded for the Spekk) as observed in PCA: (a) Scores and (b) loadings
on PC1 vs PC2 from principal component analysis. Sample and variable codes as in Tables 1 and 3.
834 W. Odden et al.
were already somewhat depleted in light ends, and
the di€erences between cases A and C were insignif-
icant. In general, the samples become relatively
enriched in aromatics and naphthenes with increas-
ing time interval from crushing to analysis and/or
by storage of uncrushed material (which is a slower
process). Most light hydrocarbons were retained in
the fresh core samples (SP5±SP14) crushed immedi-
ately before analysis.
AÊre Formation. For the AÊre Formation samples,
the time period from crushing to thermal extrac-
tion-GC seems to be of no consequence. Whether
the samples were crushed immediately before analy-
sis, or as long as ten years ago (stored subsequently
in sealed bottles at room temperature about 208C),
there were no signi®cant di€erences between the
samples. The four samples from the AÊre Formation
(A3: core; A8: cuttings; A23±A24: cores), which
were exposed to cases A, C and D, did not show
any relative loss of the light components after
crushing. It seems that the light hydrocarbons are
absorbed and/or adsorbed better by the coals and
shales of the AÊre Formation than the shales of the
Spekk Formation. This may be explained by the
small pore diameters of coals that prevent mi-
gration of hydrocarbons (Hunt, 1991), and/or by a
more aromatic type of organic matter which enables
better adsorption (Pepper and Corvi, 1995). Littke
and Leythauser (1993) claimed that ``closed'' pores,
which prevent migration, are most abundant in
vitrinite rich organic matter (such as the AÊre For-
mation coals and shales). Another possible expla-
nation may be that the AÊre coals and shales contain
mostly asphaltenes and polar components which are
relatively non-volatile, and may enclose the volatile
hydrocarbon material which is present in much
lower proportions.
Multivariate statistical treatment
The PCA used for the variable selection was
based on peak areas of the C6±C8 fraction (the
same components as measured for the original data
set of test ¯uids, Table 3), Tmax from Rock-Eval py-
rolysis and depth. Data from case D of the Spekk
Formation samples were excluded because of too
few measurable peak areas. Nearly all samples
(except three immature Spekk samples (SP1±SP3),
two early mature (A1±A2) and three late-mature
(A15±A17) AÊre samples and variables (except
DMC4) remained after a preliminary data analysis
where insigni®cant variables and outliers were
removed. These were de®ned by high residual stan-
dard deviation (not explained by PCA).
The PCA model is shown in Fig. 4(a) and (b).
Figure 4(a), the score plot, gives the spread of
samples in the plane of the two major principal
components (PC1 and PC2). Figure 4(b), the load-
ing plot, shows the contribution of each variable re-
lated to PC1 and PC2. PC1 explains 45.2% of the
variance in the data set, and can be viewed as corre-
sponding to variations of the Spekk Formation
samples. PC2 is mostly related to the source facies
(see below), where the aromatics (benzene, toluene
and m + p xylene) and cyclics (cyclohexane and
methylcyclohexane) enriched in the AÊre, and cyclics
(methylcyclopentane and the three dimethylcyclo-
pentanes) and branched alkanes (2-methylhexane)
enriched in the Spekk, de®ne the next most import-
ant direction of variation (29.5%). Thus, the two
components (PC1 and PC2) together explain 74.7%
of the variance of the data set.
Figure 5 shows that PC2 is explained by the aro-
matics and the maturity-related parameters (Tmax
and depth). The separation of the AÊre and Spekk
Formation samples is also explained by the same
principal component (PC2), as shown in Fig. 4(a).
This indicates that the content of PC2 is most
strongly a€ected by source facies. Also PCA model-
ling gives the same interpretation of the data when
the maturity-related parameters (Tmax and depth)
are excluded.
The vector of m + p xylene, which separates AÊre
from Spekk, forms approximately an angle of 908
with the vectors of methylcyclopentane, 2-methyl-
hexane and the three dimethylcyclopentanes
[Fig. 4(b)]. This indicates that the latter variables,
besides separating AÊre from Spekk, reveal the vari-
ations due to di€erent analytical conditions and
facies of the Spekk Formation samples. Thus, the
optimal parameters to separate AÊre from Spekk are
the relative amounts of m + p xylene and toluene.
The benzene, with a relatively high residual stan-
dard deviation does not separate the two for-
mations (Fig. 5). The slight increase in the relative
proportion of aromatics from the oil-window
mature to the late-mature Spekk Formation
samples is a result of storage e€ects rather than
increasing maturity [see Fig. 3(c)±(d)]. PCA model-
ling, performed on the AÊre and oil-window mature
Spekk samples from case A only, gives the same in-
terpretation of which parameters separate AÊre from
Spekk.
Discrimination of the Spekk and AÊre Formations
based on light hydrocarbons
Since it was impossible to collect only fresh
samples at di€erent maturity levels and facies, dis-
crimination of the Spekk and AÊre Formation
samples is based on all our data (except case D for
the Spekk samples). However, the oil-window
mature fresh core samples from the Spekk
Formation (SP5±SP14), crushed immediately before
analysis (where most light hydrocarbons were
retained) are marked on Figs 7±9.
Figure 6 displays representative partial chromato-
grams (expanded scale) of thermal extracts from the
AÊre and Spekk Formation samples, at a maturity
level corresponding to the oil window. These chro-
 Application of light hydrocarbons (C4-C13)
Fig. 5. Distribution of variance in PC's (PC1:PC2:PC3) and residuals for each variable.
matograms show that the AÊre Formation contains
a relatively higher proportion of aromatics (i.e. ben-
zene, toluene and m + p xylene), cyclohexane and
methylcyclohexane than the Spekk Formation,
which is richer in cyclopentanes and acyclic hydro-
carbons. These di€erences are in agreement with
earlier work (Leythaeuser et al., 1979a,b) where it
was observed that the proportion of benzene and
toluene in source rocks containing land plant-de-
rived organic matter was higher than in source
rocks with marine organic matter which were
enriched in cyclopentanes.
Classi®cation diagrams based on individual par-
ameters. Figure 7 shows a crossplot of the
percentages of m + p xylene vs 1,2-trans-dimethyl-
cyclopentane. This plot supports the results from
multivariate modelling that the content of m + p
xylene separates AÊre from Spekk with a relatively
835
higher proportion in the former. The contents of
1,2-trans-dimethylcyclopentane of the Spekk For-
mation samples are much more scattered than those
from the AÊre, due to di€erent analytical conditions
[see Fig. 4(a) and (b)] and variable terrestrial in¯u-
ence of the Spekk samples. Although the highest
contents of 1,2-trans-dimethylcyclopentane are
measured in two immature Spekk samples (SP1,
SP3) and the lowest in the late-mature Spekk
samples (0.1±0.5%), illustrated on Fig. 7, it is
assumed that this trend is more a€ected by facies
variations and storage than by maturity. The vari-
ation of the AÊre Formation data may also be facies
related.
In Fig. 8 the light hydrocarbon data are pre-
sented in a ternary diagram, after Dai Jinxing
(1992). The diagram shows that a plot of three
kinds of compounds (SDMCC5, MCC6 and nC7)
836 W. Odden et al.

Fig. 6. Chromatograms from thermal extraction-GC for Spekk (SP10, top) and AÊre (A3, bottom)
samples, on an expanded scale where components from C4 to C13 are identi®ed.
 Application of light hydrocarbons (C4-C13)
can distinguish the two source rocks. The immature
Spekk Formation samples are distributed over a
wide range, but plot in a di€erent part of the dia-
gram than those of the AÊre. The wide distribution
of the Spekk samples is probably due to both facies
and analytical variations. The highest percentage of
the three dimethylpentanes are measured in two
immature Spekk samples (SP1, SP3). These results
are qualitatively similar to those reported by Dai
Jinxing (1992), although he found di€erent cut-o€
values for marine and terrestrial organic matter. As
expected, the percentage of n-heptane and the three
dimethylcyclopentanes are higher in all the Spekk
samples than in the AÊre, whilst the methylcyclohex-
ane is enriched in the AÊre. However, this diagram
supports that the Spekk Formation samples, despite
di€erent analytical conditions and terrestrial in¯u-
ence, cluster di€erently from the coals and shales of
the AÊre Formation.
Figure 9 shows the data for the same samples in
a ternary diagram after Ten Haven (1996). This dia-
gram includes seven individual compounds arranged
in three compound classes (6-membered rings:
Tol + MCC6; branched alkanes: 2MC6+3MC6 and
5-membered rings: SDMCC5), and separates most
of the AÊre and Spekk Formation samples. Three of
the late mature Spekk samples from case C (SP16,
SP20 and SP23) plot among the AÊre data. This is
caused by a relatively high content of toluene in the
these samples, possibly due to the storage e€ects
(discussed above). However, the same samples plot
di€erently from the AÊre when they were crushed
immediately before analysis. As expected, toluene
and methylcyclohexane are enriched in the AÊre
samples and the two methylhexanes and the three
dimethylcyclopentanes have a relatively higher
abundance in the Spekk samples. These data indi-
cate that, even if the Spekk samples contain some
Fig. 7. Percentages of m + p xylene vs 1,2-trans-dimethylcyclopentane relative to the C4±C13 fraction of
the Spekk and AÊre Formation samples (case D excluded for the Spekk). The oil-window mature Spekk
samples (SP5±SP14; case A) are marked and the immature (SP1 and SP3) are labelled.
837
terrigenous organic matter or have been exposed to
the di€erent sample treatments, the hydrocarbons
that are retained (except three samples) plot signi®-
cantly di€erent from the AÊre samples.
While the diagrams in Figs 7±9 can separate AÊre
from Spekk Formation samples and do not seem to
be in¯uenced signi®cantly by storage/crushing
e€ects, this is not the case for other light hydro-
carbon parameters such as Thompson indices (i.e.
the ratios of F vs H and B, see formulae in Table 3).
When the Spekk and AÊre Formation data were
interpreted according to the criteria of Thompson,
the AÊre Formation samples appear to be evapora-
tively fractionated and some Spekk samples biode-
graded. However, the F parameter (nC7/MCC6)
distinguishes between the AÊre and Spekk samples
crushed immediately before analysis (case A), with
lower F ratios (<0.4) for the AÊre due to the high
contents of methylcyclohexane.
Carbon isotopic analyses. Eleven source rock
samples, seven from the Spekk Formation and four
from the AÊre Formation, were analyzed. The iso-
tope ratios of the n-alkanes in the source rock
samples are plotted against the carbon chain length
in Fig. 10. There are signi®cant di€erences in iso-
tope ratios between the two source rocks, e.g. the
AÊre Formation hydrocarbons are isotopically hea-
vier than those from the Spekk Formation. The car-
bon isotope ratios of the n-alkanes in the Spekk
Formation samples vary from ÿ32.9 to ÿ28.6-. Of
these, the hydrocarbons of the immature Spekk
sample (SP1; HI = 500 mg HC/g TOC) are isotopi-
cally slightly more negative than those from the
three oil-window mature Spekk samples (SP5, SP9
and SP14) with hydrogen indices of 388, 339 and
308, respectively, possibly due to increasing matur-
ity. The oil-window mature Spekk sample with a
relatively low hydrogen index (SP15; HI = 191 mg
838 W. Odden et al.

HC/g TOC) is somewhat isotopically less negative
than the other three oil-window mature samples
(SP5, SP9 and SP14), possibly due to a higher con-
tent of terrigenous organic matter in this sample.
The hydrocarbons of the two late-mature Spekk
samples (SP20 and SP24, with hydrogen indices of
86 and 60, but high residual TOC contents of 2.5
and 3.1%) are isotopically more positive than the
other Spekk samples which may be due to increas-
ing maturity. The carbon isotope ratios of the n-
alkanes in the AÊre Formation samples vary from
ÿ27.4 to ÿ24.1-. The heaviest values (up to
ÿ15.3-) of the A17 sample are excluded, as they
are assumed to be unreliable. The n-alkanes of the
oil-window mature coaly shale (A3: HI = 298;
TOC = 10.4%) and those of the late-mature coal
(A13: HI = 182; TOC = 70.5%) samples are isoto-
pically very close, while the oil-window mature coal
sample (A5: HI = 196; TOC = 59.2%) is isotopi-
cally more positive than the former samples (A3,
A13). This may be due to di€erences in the maceral
composition. There is also a trend towards slightly
more negative isotope ratios with increasing alkane
number for the AÊre samples. Beside separating the
AÊre and Spekk Formation samples, these data indi-
cate that an increase in maturity and content of ter-
rigenous organic matter results in isotopically
heavier components of the Spekk samples, whereas
the AÊre samples do not indicate any systematic
di€erences between the isotopic values of coals and
coaly shales and with maturity. This may be due to
the coaly kerogen in the AÊre being more uniform
than the Spekk kerogen, implying that the isotopic
character and chemical nature of its products
change little with maturity.
The results of the speci®c-compound carbon iso-
tope analyses correspond with the isotope data for
kerogens from Spekk and AÊre Formation samples
(Elvsborg et al., 1984; Cohen and Dunn, 1987). AÊre
kerogens are isotopically heavier than Spekk kero-
gens, and are in the same range as described above
for individual components.
Source of the light hydrocarbon fraction
Figure 11 displays partial gas chromatograms of
two oil samples Njord (NJ3) and Norne (NO1).
These oils are thought to represent the extremes in
variability of light hydrocarbon composition for the
entire data set. The Norne oil contains a relatively
higher proportion of aromatics (benzene, toluene,

Fig. 8. Ternary diagram of C7 series (after Dai Jinxing, 1992) of the Spekk and AÊre Formation samples
(case D excluded for the Spekk). The oil-window mature Spekk samples (SP5±SP14; case A) are
marked and the immature (SP1 and SP3) are labelled.
 Application of light hydrocarbons (C4-C13) 839

Fig. 9. Ternary diagram of C7 series (after Ten Haven, 1996) of the Spekk and AÊre Formation samples
(case D excluded for the Spekk). The oil-window mature Spekk samples (SP5±SP14; case A) are
marked and the immature (SP1 and SP3) and oil-window mature (SP15) are labelled.

m + p xylene), cyclohexane and methylcyclohexane
than the oil sample from Njord, which is richer in
cyclopentanes and acyclic hydrocarbons. These
di€erences are similar to those observed between
source rock thermal extracts from the AÊre
Formation (enriched in aromatics and cyclohex-
anes) and the Spekk Formation (enriched in cyclo-
pentanes and acyclic components).
Individual plots of calculated parameters. Figures
12 and 13 show the petroleums from Mid-Norway
plotted on the ternary diagrams that distinguished
between the AÊre and Spekk Formation samples

Fig. 10. Carbon isotope ratios of n-alkanes of selected Spekk and AÊre Formation samples.
840 W. Odden et al.

Fig. 11. C5 to C11 region of the whole-oil gas chromatograms from Njord (NJ3, top) and Norne (NO1,
bottom).
 Application of light hydrocarbons (C4-C13) 841

(Figs 8 and 9). The petroleum samples all fall
within the same regions of the diagrams as the AÊre
and Spekk Formation samples. Based on these dia-
grams, the Spekk Formation is the dominant source
rock for most of the oils and condensates, such as
Trestakk, Tyrihans Sùr, Tyrihans Nord, Mikkel,
Njord, Draugen, Smùrbukk, Smùrbukk Sùr (except
the SS2 sample) and the condensates from Alve
(A2) and Midgard (MG1, MG5). The test ¯uids
which consistently plot inside the AÊre Formation
part on these diagrams are the oils from Norne
(NO1, NO3, NO4, NO5, NO6) and the only oil
sample from Midgard (MG4). The remaining
samples, viz. the Smùrbukk Sùr condensate (SS2),
the only oil from Alve (A1), one oil from Norne
(NO2) and the Midgard condensates (MG2, MG3,
MG6) plot close to or at the dividing line between
the AÊre and Spekk samples on both diagrams. The
oil from well 6507/6-2(H06) plots at the dividing
line between the AÊre and Spekk Formation samples
in Fig. 12, but in the Spekk Formation area in
Fig. 13. The strongly biodegraded Heidrun Nord
oils (HN1, HN2) plot in the AÊre Formation area in
Fig. 12, but this is due to loss of n-C7 (bacterial ac-
tivity). The partially biodegraded condensate from
Heidrun Nord (HN3) and oils from Draugen
(DR1±DR5) plot inside the Spekk area. However,
in Fig. 13 these oils and condensates (HN1±HN3
and DR1±DR5) are grouped together, and plot
among the Spekk samples. Their location (lowest
toluene + methylcyclohexane) is probably a€ected
by the water washing that often accompanies biode-
gradation. The di€erences between the oils and con-
densates from Midgard and Alve in Figs 12 and 13
could very well re¯ect physical processes such as
phase fractionation and not di€erent source rock
types (see below, under discussion about phase frac-
tionation).
To compare the contents of m + p xylene and
1,2-trans-dimethylcyclopentane of source rock ther-
mal extracts (shown in Fig. 7) with those for the
test ¯uids, the C4±C13 fraction of seventeen selected
petroleum ¯uids (Table 2) was quanti®ed. Figure 14
shows that the petroleum samples plot in the same
region of the diagram as the AÊre and oil-window
mature Spekk samples. The ¯uids which plot in the
same area of the diagram as the AÊre are three oils
from Norne (NO1, NO5, NO6) and the only oil
sample from Midgard (MG4). Two samples plot at
the intersection between the AÊre and Spekk data
[one oil from Norne (NO2) and the condensate
from Midgard (MG6)]. The remaining samples
(Smùrbukk (SM4, SM7, SM13, SM18), Smùrbukk
Sùr (SS5, SS7), Trestakk (TRE), Tyrihans Sùr (TS),

Fig. 12. Ternary diagram of C7 series (after Dai Jinxing, 1992) of test ¯uids from Mid-Norway. The
separated regions were determined from source rock thermal extracts of the AÊre (right) and Spekk (left)
Formation samples. Small ®gures show the distribution of oils and condensates from the Norne,
Midgard and Alve Fields and wells 6507/6-2/(H06) and 6506/12-3/(SS2).
842 W. Odden et al.

Tyrihans Nord (TN), Mikkel (MK1) and Njord
(NJ1)) plot in the Spekk Formation region of the
diagram. This is in agreement with the interpret-
ation from the ternary diagrams (Figs 12 and 13).
PCA modelling results in the same interpretation
of the oils and condensates, i.e. the oils from Norne
and Midgard plot separately from the other oils
and condensates with a high content of aromatics
(such as toluene, benzene and m + p xylene) and
methylcyclohexane.
Carbon isotopic analyses. Speci®c compound iso-
tope analysis has been performed on ®ve oil
samples. The isotope ratios for the n-alkanes are
plotted against the carbon number in Fig. 15. The
pro®les show di€erences between the oil samples,
i.e. the hydrocarbons in the oils from Norne and
Midgard are somewhat isotopically heavier than
those in the oils from Smùrbukk, Tyrihans Nord
and Njord. This may be caused by increasing terres-
trial in¯uence for the former oils.
The areas of the isotope ratios for the n-alkanes of
source rock thermal extracts (shown on Fig. 10) are
highlighted in Fig. 15. Comparison of the oils with the
source rocks shows that most of the oils plot between
the Spekk and AÊre Formation data. One would expect
that the carbon isotope ratios become isotopically
heavier with increased maturity, as for the Spekk
Formation samples. Therefore the AÊre Formation
does not seem to be the main source for these oils,
whereas a Spekk Formation source, perhaps with
some lesser contribution from AÊre (particularly for
Norne, but also Midgard), can explain the data very
well. However, the availability of Spekk Formation
samples is somewhat limited, such that the variations
in terrestrial in¯uence may have been biased.
Non-source related e€ects
Evaporative fractionation. Thompson (1987) sta-
ted that evaporative fractionation alters the aroma-
ticity and paranicity ratio of his starting oil so
that the B ratio (Tol/nC7)>1 and F ratio (nC7/
MCC6) < 0.5. In condensates and gas, the shifts
will be in the opposite direction. According to
Thompson, the oil MG4 (with a B ratio of 2.30 and
F ratio of 0.35) and condensates MG1, MG2,
MG3, MG5 and MG6 (with B ratios from 1.40 to
1.82 and F ratios between 0.39 and 0.57) from Mid-
gard are expected to have undergone evaporative
fractionation (Table 4). The di€erences between the
only oil (B = 1.46; F = 0.4) and condensate
(B = 1.59; F = 0.63) from Alve could also very
well re¯ect phase fractionation (according to
Thompson). If phase fractionation is responsible for
the variance in these ratios, Mango (1990a) said

Fig. 13. Ternary diagram of C7 series after Ten Haven (1996) of test ¯uids from Mid-Norway. The sep-
arated regions were determined by source rock thermal extracts of the AÊre (left) and Spekk (right)
Formation samples. Small ®gures show the distribution of oils and from the Norne, Midgard and Alve
Fields and wells 6507/6-2/(H06) and 6506/12-3/(SS2).
 Application of light hydrocarbons (C4-C13) 843

Fig. 14. Percentages of m + p xylene vs 1,2-trans-dimethylcyclopentane relative to the C4±C13 fraction

of seventeen selected test ¯uids from Mid-Norway. The separated regions were determined by source
rock thermal extracts of the AÊre (top) and Spekk (bottom) Formation samples.

that the two compounds methylcyclopentane
(MCC5) and 1,3 (cis + trans) dimethylcyclopentane
(1c3 + 1t3DMCC5), which di€er in volatility
(DBP = 19.78C), should display a variance that is
proportional to that in Tol/nC7 (DBP = 12.28C)
and nC7/MCC6 (DBP = 2.58C). The database from
Mango (1990a) contained 2258 petroleum samples
with a mean of 3.11 and a standard deviation of
1.14 for the MCC5/1,3-DMCC5 ratios. It means
that if any oils are the products of evaporative frac-
tionation they would be enriched in the higher boil-
ing component, namely 1,3-DMCC5 and the ratio
of MCC5/1,3-DMCC5 should be shifted to a value
below its mean, since the less volatile 1,3-DMCC5
will have been concentrated relative to MCC5. The
mean for this ratio in our total data set is 2.49 with
a standard deviation of 0.48. The MCC5/1,3-
DMCC5 ratios for the Midgard oil (MG4) is 2.8
and for the Midgard condensates (MG1, MG2,
MG3, MG5, MG6) between 2.2 and 2.6. According
to Mango these values do not indicate any phase
separation of the petroleums from Midgard. How-
ever, the Midgard system is also suggested by Karl-
sen et al. (1995) to have been severely modi®ed by
evaporative fractionation resulting in apparently
higher maturity for the Midgard gas compared to
the oil leg, while Elvsborg et al. (1984) suggested
terrestrial input for the Midgard petroleum. Based
on our interpretation of all Midgard data, we agree
with Karlsen et al. (1995).
Maturity. Philippi (1975), Jonathan et al. (1975)
and Thompson (1979, 1983, 1987) used the C6±C7
hydrocarbon fraction to interpret maturity and sta-
ted that the proportion of linear vs cyclic molecules
increased with maturity. Durand and EspitalieÂ
(1972) observed that the iso-/n-alkane ratios for
butanes and pentanes increased for Lower Jurassic
shales of the Paris Basin as a consequence of the

Fig. 15. Comparison of isotope ratios of n-alkanes of ®ve test ¯uids from Mid-Norway. The AÊre and
Spekk data from Fig. 10 are highlighted.
844 W. Odden et al.
Fig. 16. Plot of Thompson indices F vs H of test ¯uids from Mid-Norway.
maturation process. However, in a study by
Leythaeuser et al. (1979b) on samples collected from
several sedimentary basins in Northwest Europe, it
was found that the iso-/n-alkane ratios for butanes,
pentanes and heptanes are primarily controlled by
kerogen quality, to the extent that organic matter of
marine origin tends to generate hydrocarbon mixtures
that exhibit signi®cantly lower iso-/n-alkane ratios
than organic matter derived from higher land plants.
Hunt (1984) claimed that lower temperature reactions
produce mainly branched hydrocarbons, whereas
higher temperature reactions yield more straight
chains. This causes a reduction in the ratio of
branched to straight chain alkanes at the threshold of
intense hydrocarbon generation. Our source rock
data were plotted on similar diagrams (Durand and
EspitalieÂ, 1972; Jonathan et al., 1975; Hunt, 1984;
Thompson, 1979, 1983, 1987) but were scattered and
inconclusive concerning maturity. However, there
was a trend of increasing nC6/MCC5 (Jonathan et al.,
1975) and nC7/MCC6 (Thompson, 1983, 1987) ratios
from oil-window mature to late-mature Spekk For-
mation samples only.
Figure 16 shows a cross-plot of Thompson's F
and H parameters for the petroleum ¯uids. The for-
mulae are given in Table 3 and the data are pre-
sented in Table 4. The F ratio, besides classifying
di€erent origins of source rocks, increases with
increasing maturity (Thompson, 1979, 1983, 1987).
The rectangle shows the maturity of Thompson
(1987) classi®cation for Gulf of Mexico oils. The
majority of the oil and condensate samples from
Mid-Norway plot inside this region. The ®gure also
shows that the ¯uids with low F and H ratios are
the same as those which plotted in the AÊre
Formation area in Figs 12±14 (Norne, Midgard,
Alve, Smùrbukk Sùr (SS2) and well 6507/6-2),
along with the two strongly biodegraded Heidrun
Nord oils (HN1, HN2). The highest ratios are
measured in three petroleum ¯uids from Smùrbukk
(SM12, SM17 and SM21), one from Njord (NJ5)
and the only one from Trestakk (TRE). This is
partly in contrast to the maturity trend based on
the C15+fraction by Karlsen et al. (1995), who sta-
ted that the petroleums from Smùrbukk Sùr,
Midgard, Trestakk and Njord were more mature
than those from Heidrun, Draugen, Tyrihans Nord,
Tyrihans Sùr and Mikkel (no samples from
Smùrbukk). It is clear that the F (nC7/MCC6) par-
ameter is in¯uenced by source facies, but it is not
clear how much an increasing value of this par-
ameter is due to increasing maturity. The petroleum
¯uids from Mid-Norway originate from di€erent
sources and/or source facies, which may distort the
maturity interpretation.
Comparison with previous work on the petroleums of
Mid-Norway
The source determinations of the light (C6±C8)
and C15+fractions are listed in Table 5. The light
fractions of the Heidrun and Heidrun Nord Fields
are not interpreted due to biodegradation and con-
sequent loss of acyclic hydrocarbons.
Based on this study, and previous work on
mainly biomarker distributions and d13 C values of
the C15+fraction by Karlsen et al. (1995), the fol-
lowing ®elds contain petroleum dominantly from
the Spekk Formation: Draugen, Mikkel, Trestakk,
Smùrbukk, Smùrbukk Sùr, Njord, Tyrihans Nord,
Tyrihans Sùr and probably Heidrun (biodegraded).
The C15+fractions in Midgard and Alve Fields are
deemed to have come from the Spekk Formation
(Karlsen et al., 1995). There were no samples from
Norne, Smùrbukk and Heidrun Nord in the study
by Karlsen et al. (1995).
A minor AÊre contribution is possible in the light
fraction in the following ®elds: Midgard, Alve, one
sample from Smùrbukk Sùr (SS2) and well 6507/6-2
(H06). A signi®cant AÊre contribution is found in the
Norne Field. This is con®rmed by gas and
 Application of light hydrocarbons (C4-C13) 845

Table 5. A comparison of the results from this study with previous work on the oil fractions
Source Hydrocarbon fractions

(this study) (Karlsen et al., 1995)

C6±C8 (light) C15+

Draugen 1: Njord
Mikkel Smùrbukk Sùr:
Smùrbukk (6506/-5, DST1 to 4) marine/
Trestakk Tyrihans Nord 4 anoxic
Smùrbukk Sùr/…except one sample† Tyrihans Sùr facies
6407/4-1; DST2/(H04) Trestakk
Spekk-derived Njord 6506/12-3, DST6
Tyrihans Nord mixed
Tyrihans Sùr 2: Midgard
4 marine
Alve
terrestrial facies
3: Draugen
Heidrun
Mikkel a mixture
Smùrbukk Sùr: 4 of 1 and 2
(6506/12-3, DST1)
Mostly Midgard
Spekk, minor AÊre Alve
contribution 6507/6-2, RFT2A/(H06),
(and/or a more terrestrial Smùrbukk Sùr:
Spekk) (6506/12-3, DST2/(SS2))
Mostly Spekk,
signi®cant
AÊre Norne
contribution
(and/or a more terrestrial
Spekk)

C15+fraction data (not shown here). However, the
availability of Spekk Formation samples is somewhat
limited, particularly from the Norne area, such that
the variations in terrestrial in¯uence may be biased.
Note that Karlsen et al. (1995) stated that the
C15+fraction from Midgard and Alve originated
from a mixed marine/terrestrial input of the Spekk
Formation. Our study concluded that the light frac-
tion from these ®elds is mostly derived from the
Spekk Formation with a minor contribution from
the AÊre Formation and/or a possible more terres-
trial facies of the Spekk Formation.
CONCLUSIONS
Storage/crushing e€ects and recommendations:
Light hydrocarbon data (C4±C13) obtained by
thermal extraction gas chromatography of sediment
samples are in varying degrees sensitive to vari-
ations in sample treatment. This is particularly the
case for samples from the Spekk Formation and
much less, if at all, for samples from the AÊre
Formation, possibly due to a stronger adsorption of
light hydrocarbons in the latter.
The Spekk Formation samples easily lose their
light components (below C10) after crushing of the
samples and/or by storage of uncrushed material
(which is a slower process). Most light hydrocarbons
were retained in a tight fresh core sample when ther-
mal extraction-GC was performed immediately after
crushing.
Nevertheless, separation of the Spekk and AÊre
Formation samples was possible, despite di€erent
analytical conditions.
For future analysis of light hydrocarbon fractions
in sediment samples by thermal extraction-GC, it is
recommended to crush the samples immediately
before analysis and avoid if possible samples which
have been stored for many years.
Separation of the Spekk and AÊre Formation
samples:
The thermal extracts of the AÊre Formation are
found to contain relatively more aromatics, cyclo-
hexane and methylcyclohexane than the samples
from the Spekk Formation.
Multivariate data analysis reveals the source
facies, and shows a clear separation between the
AÊre and Spekk data and that the light hydrocarbon
distributions are mostly a€ected by source facies,
and less so by maturity.
Based on our data, the optimal parameters to
separate the AÊre and Spekk Formation samples are
the relative amounts of m + p xylene and those
shown on the ternary diagrams (after Dai Jinxing,
1992), which compare the relative amounts of
dimethylcyclopentanes, methylcyclohexane and n-
heptane, and a similar diagram from Ten Haven
(1996), which compares the dimethylcyclopentanes
with the methylhexanes and the sum of toluene and
methylcyclohexane.
Di€erences in the carbon isotope composition of
the n-alkanes discriminate between the Spekk and
AÊre Formation samples, re¯ect the maturity and
facies variations of the Spekk samples with isotopi-
cally heavier components with increasing maturity
and terrestrial in¯uence of the Spekk.
846 W. Odden et al.
The greatest uncertainty is if the remaining light
hydrocarbons in a source rock sample are representa-
tive of the material that has been generated (and poss-
ibly expelled at higher maturity levels). These results
have been used to correlate with data from test ¯uids.
The source of the light hydrocarbons:
The classi®cation of light hydrocarbon compo-
sitions of source rock samples de®ned parameters
and plots which distinguished Spekk from AÊre
Formation samples. Classi®cation of reservoir ¯uids
on these plots concluded that the following ®elds
contain light (C6±C8) hydrocarbons dominantly
from the Spekk Formation: Draugen, Mikkel,
Smùrbukk, Trestakk, Njord, Tyrihand Nord,
Tyrihans Sùr and Smùrbukk Sùr. In addition, the
following ®elds and individual samples may contain
either a minor AÊre contribution and/or input from a
more terrestrial Spekk facies: Midgard, Alve, well
6507/6-2, RFT2A/(H06) and the Smùrbukk Sùr
sample from well 6506/12-3, DST2/(SS2). Finally,
the Norne Field contains a signi®cant contribution
from the AÊre Formation and/or a more terrestrially
in¯uenced Spekk Formation. In general, there is a
dominant contribution from the Spekk Formation to
the ¯uids, with a possible contribution from the AÊre
in a limited number of samples.
These results are in general, in agreement with
previous work by Karlsen et al. (1995) of test ¯uids;
they claimed that the C15+fraction of reservoired
oils and condensates from Haltenbanken originates
from the Spekk Formation.
The carbon isotope composition of n-alkanes dis-
criminates between the oils; i.e. the oils from
Midgard and Norne (no samples from Alve were
analyzed isotopically) are isotopically heavier than
the oils from Smùrbukk, Tyrihans Nord and Njord.
This supports a greater contribution from the isoto-
pically heavy AÊre Formation and/or an isotopically
heavier facies of the Spekk to the former oils, com-
pared to the isotopically lighter Spekk.
The maturity-related parameters such as alkane/
cycloalkane ratios, are not applicable to our sample
set, possibly because the light hydrocarbon fraction
of these ¯uids originates from di€erent sources and/
or facies.
The model we have established for interpretation
of the source of light hydrocarbons in oils and con-
densates can be applied to other areas, but we rec-
ommend calibrating the diagrams with source rock
data from the actual area.
Associate editorÐS. George
AcknowledgementsÐWe thank Geolab Nor, Trondheim,
Norway, for the analytical work (screening analyses, ther-
mal extraction-GC, whole-oil gas chromatography and
carbon isotope measurements) with a special thanks to
Monica éstbye-Hansen. The managements of Statoil,
Norsk Hydro, Saga, Agip, Enterprise, Total, Neste and
Mobil are acknowledged for their permission to publish
this work. F. Mango and H. Halpern are thanked for con-
structive reviewing, and S. George for careful editorial
handling.
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