Construction Monitoring and Observation

Measurement of Temperature

Carlos Sousa
October 2017

Summary

• Examples of application
• Temperature scales and units
• Different types of temperature transducers
– Thermocouples
– Resistive Temperature Detectors (RTDs)
– Thermistors
• Calibration of temperature transducers

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 Examples of application

• Monitoring of temperature variations in concrete elements

immediately after casting.

Important temperature variations are due to the hydration heat of

cement.

Construction specifications usually require that the concrete

temperature should not exceed 65ºC during hydration
(to avoid future development of deleterious internal expansive
reactions)

In massive structures, temperature is usually controlled to control

the risk of cracking.

Examples of application

• Monitoring of daily and seasonal temperature variations in

structures.

Temperature is an important action. It gives rise to stresses and

deflections which, in various types of structures are higher that the
ones caused by other actions (such as traffic in highway bridges).

Temperature variations have to be measured when Structural Health

Monitoring procedures are implemented in monitored structures.

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 Examples of application

• Characterization of the ambient temperature.

Ambient temperature is also important to characterize the

temperature action.

• Characterization of the thermal dilation coefficient of construction

materials.

• Temperature control during the production of cement or steel,

among other materials

Examples of application

• In any measurement procedure, temperature might be an important

influencing variable.

Examples of measurement procedures very sensitive to temperature

variations:
– Vibrating Wire Strain Gauges
– Optical Fibre Bragg Grating Sensors
– Electrical Resistance Strain Gauges
– …

Alternatives to deal with temperature variations during deformation

measurements:
– Use of self-temperature-compensated measurement procedures;
– Measurement of temperature variations to correct the output of
measurement systems.

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 Temperature scales and units
180 divisions between
Most common freezing and boiling
SI unit temperature scale points of water

Kelvin scale Celsius scale Fahrenheit scale

(K) (ºC) (ºF)

Absolute zero 0 -273,15 -459,67

Freezing point
273,15 0 32
of water (*1)
Triple point
273,16 0,01 32,018
of water (*2)
Boiling point
373,15 100 212
of water (*1)

A different scale, the scale ITS-90, is used in the calibration of temperature transducers

Temperature scales and units

NOTES:

(*1) The freezing and boiling points in the previous slide are strictly correct only at a
pressure of 1 standard atmosphere (1 atm). It is the mean atmospheric pressure at
mean sea level at the latitude of Paris.

(*2) The triple point of water is the only temperature at which its three physical phases
(gas, liquid, and solid) coexist in equilibrium.

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 Temperature scales and units

NOTES:

The temperature in the Kelvin scale is expressed in Kelvin (K). This scale is also
known as the thermodynamic temperature scale.
The SI unit, Kelvin, is defined as the fraction 1⁄273.16  of the thermodynamic
temperature of the triple point of water.
The absolute zero (0 K) corresponds, in simple words, to the lowest temperature
possible.

The temperature in the Celsius scale is expressed in degrees Celsius (ºC)

K 273,15

The temperature in the Fahrenheit scale is expressed in degrees Fahrenheit (ºF)

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32
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Different types of temperature transducers

A multitude of devices are available for

carrying out temperature measurements.

However, most of them use the same

measurement principles.

The most common types of temperature

transducers are:
• Thermocouples
• Resistance thermometers:
- Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)
- Thermistors

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Different types of temperature transducers

The choice of the temperature transducer for each application must be

based on the their relevant characteristics:
• measurement range
• accuracy
• cost
• requirements in terms of acquisition equipment
• influence of temperature variations in the lead wires
• (linearity)
• (other characteristics relevant for specific applications)

Thermocouples

Working principle: Seebeck Effect (Thermoelectric effect)

The thermoelectric effect is the direct conversion of temperature

differences to electric voltage and vice versa.

An electromotive force , (voltage) is developed at the terminals and of an

open circuit formed by two metallic conductors A and B, if their junctions are at
different temperatures and .

That voltage depends of the materials A and B, and of the junction temperatures.

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 Thermocouples

If the circuit is open at one of the junctions, the voltage is also a function of
materials A and B, and of temperatures and .

Reference Junction,
or Cold Junction Measurement Junction,
or Hot Junction

This group of two wires A and B, with two junctions which may be at
different temperatures, is called a thermocouple (active transducer).

Thermocouples

Seebeck coefficient
(V / ºC)

If 0 : ⋅ [eq. 1]

Electromotive force
(voltage)

The Seebeck Coefficient, SC, depends of the materials A and B, and also
of the junctions temperature

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 Thermocouples
Thermocouples can be built with almost every combination of two distinct metals,
however only some combinations are standardized (ICE 60584-1):
- they have predictable output voltages
- they admit high temperature ranges

Thermocouple Positive Material Negative Material

K Chromel Alumel

T Copper Constantan Relatively inexpensive

J Iron Constantan Measurement range approximately
-270ºC to 1200ºC
N Nicrosil Nisil

E Chromel Constantan

R Platinum; Rhodium (13%) Pure Platinum

More stable; more expensive
S Platinum; Rhodium (10%) Pure Platinum
Temperatures up to  1200ºC
B Platinum; Rhodium (30%) Platinum; Rhodium (6%)

C Tungsten; Rhenium (5%) Tungsten; Rhenium (26%) Temperatures higher than 2000ºC

Thermocouples
The standard ICE 60584-1 gives the SB coefficient for the various thermocouples,
valid for 0
Polynomial

Thermocouples have a
very low sensitivity (ratio
Restivo et al. (2010)

between output voltage

and temperature
variation)

The thermocouple type K is widely used because of its low cost and almost
constant SC coefficient in the range 0ºC to 1000ºC.
40 ⁄

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 Thermocouples

Practical usage of thermocouples:

The reference junction is not at 0ºC.

The reference junction temperature has to be measured using a different sensor.

Thermocouples

The relation between output voltage and temperatures is:

⋅ ⋅ [eq. 2]

Seebeck Coefficient Seebeck Coefficient

for for

In case of constant Seebeck Coefficient, it becomes:

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 Thermocouples
Temperature variations in lead wires:

The thermal electromotive force does not depend on the temperature

distribution along the wires A and B

If the wires A and B have to be extended, there are compensation

cables for that purpose. New junctions are created, but the
compensation cables are made with metals which ensure that the
consequent variation in the electromotive force is negligible.
Restivo et al. (2010)

K-type thermocouple
with compensation cable

Thermocouples
Thermocouples can be supplied with exposed wires or with insertion probe
Pico Technology (2015)
Pico Technology (2015)

Thermocouple with exposed wire Thermocouple with insertion probe

Note that the EMF depends on the polarity dependence

(the connection to the acquisition system must obey to the correct polarity)

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 Thermocouples
The tolerance (part of the measurement uncertainty) is characterized in
standard IEC 60584-1.
Example, for K-type thermocouples (for reference junction at 0ºC):

The measurement accuracy can be improved through periodic calibration!

Thermocouples

Strong points:
• Active transducers (no power supply is required)
• Low cost
• Wide temperature measurement range (-200ºC to 2000ºC)
• Robust and simple
• No self-heating problems

Weak points:
• Reduced sensitivity (low output voltage)
• Requires an additional temperature sensor in the reference junction
• non-linear output ( it is harder to fit a polynomial function to the
thermocouple response)

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 Resistance Temperature Detectors

Working principle:
The electrical resistance of metallic conductors changes with
temperature, with good repeatability.

Adapted from Dally et al. (1993)

Resistance Temperature Detectors

The most commonly used material in RTDs is platinum.

Advantages of platinum in comparison with other possible options

(copper and nickel):

• Platinum exhibits a linear output

Platinum is a noble material, less prone to oxidation.
It is relatively easy to obtain platinum with a high degree of purity  it is
possible to produce sensors with high reproducibility

• Nickel is more sensitive to temperature, but has nonlinear output;

• Copper’s resistivity is  6.3 times lower than platinum’s

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 Resistance Temperature Detectors

Most common platinum RTDs: Pt100

Resistance of 100  at 0

The variation of resistance with temperature is given by (standard IEC 60751):

1 [eq. 3]

0.00385
100Ω

Resistance Temperature Detectors

The tolerance is characterized in standard IEC 60751
(difference between real temperature and temperature provided by Eq. 3):

The measurement accuracy can be improved through periodic calibration!

A second order polynomial can be used for that purpose.

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 Resistance Temperature Detectors

Types of Pt100 sensors:

LabFacility (2016)

Isotech (2016)
Flat film Wire wound in ceramic housing
Typical dimensions: 2mm  5mm Minimum dimensions: diameter  1mm

Resistance Temperature Detectors

Measurement circuits

The resistance variation to be measured is very small.

Eq. 3 shows that ∆ 0.1 ⇒∆ 0.0385Ω

Important to take into account:

• Resistance of lead wires
• Variations of lead wire resistance caused by temperature variations

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 Resistance Temperature Detectors

Measurement circuits
Alternative 1: Quarter bridge arrangement with three wire connection

Resistance Temperature Detectors

Measurement circuits
Alternative 2: Four wire connection; power supply with known intensity

The output voltage is measured by a voltmeter and can be easily correlated with
the sensor resistance.

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 Resistance Temperature Detectors

Sensor self-heating:

Self heating is negligible if the power generated

in the sensor is lower than 2 mW

Resistance Temperature Detectors

Strong points:
• Large measurement range (see previous figures) even though it is
narrower than the range for thermocouples
• Good linearity ( simple calibration curves)
• Good accuracy (better than thermocouple’s)
• No additional sensor, at a reference junction, is required
(unlike temperature measurements using thermocouples)

Weak points:
• Cost is higher than the price of current thermocouples
(wire wound sensors are the most expensive ones)

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 Thermistors

A thermistor is also a resistive temperature thermometer.

Working principle:
The electrical resistance of semiconductors changes with
temperature, with good repeatability.

Resistance decreases when temperature increases.

These sensors are also known as Negative Temperature Coefficient,

NTC, sensors

Thermistors

Geometry:
Qti Sensing Solutions (2016)

Teardrops can be produced

with diameters as low as 0.1mm

Teardrop sensors are the most common ones.

A small drop of semiconductor oxide is formed at the extremities if terminal wires.
The semiconductor drop is hermetically sealed.

Different geometries are also available (disc, washer, block, …)

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 Thermistors

Vibrating Wire Strain Gauge transducers, for example, have an embedded

thermistor. This sensor provides the measurements needed for temperature
compensation of strain results.

Gage Technique (2011)

Thermistors

Unlike thermocouples and RTDs, thermistors are not regulated by an

European standard.

Resistance variation:
The variation of resistance with temperature is highly nonlinear.
The calibration curve (resistance variation with temperature) is given by manufacturers.
It is usually expressed as:

1
ln ln [eq. 4]

is the resistance at temperature (in Kelvin)

, and are constants provided by the manufacturer

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 Thermistors

Sensitivity:
Thermistors have a very high sensitivity, in the order of:

Δ
80 Ω⁄
Δ

(the exact value varies throughout the measurement range,

and is different from sensor to sensor)

The output resistance may vary between  5000  and  2000 ,

throughout the transducer measurement range.

Thermistors

Measurement range:
Is very variable from sensor to sensor.
Some thermistors can measure temperatures from a few degrees above the
absolute zero up to  315ºC, or even higher.
However, the measurement range of current sensors is limited to  100ºC.

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 Thermistors

Measurement circuits

Very high sensor sensitivity

High resistance variation in the sensor

The influence of
lead wires resistance and
temperature variations in the lead wires
is negligible

Thermistors

Two wire connections can be used:

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 Thermistors

Sensor self-heating:

The intensity of electric current in the sensor has to be limited

to avoid self-heating.
Because of that, the adopted intensity is usually  100 A (Dally et al. 1993)

Thermistors

Tolerance / measurement uncertainty:

The tolerance associated to the use of Eq. 4 has to be

provided by the manufacturer or, alternatively, obtained
through the sensor calibration.
With this type of sensor, it is possible to reach tolerances
in the order of 0.001 ºC.
The tolerance for current sensors is usually
in the order of 0.n ºC (Dally et al. 1993)

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 Thermistors

Strong points:
• Small size of the transducer;
• Very high sensitivity;
• Negligible influence of lead wires resistance.

Weak points:
• The measurement range is smaller than the one for thermocouples or
RTDs
• The lack of normalization (standard)  it is more difficult to get the
sensor properties

Calibration of temperature sensors

Traceability chain for temperature:

The kelvin is the fraction 1  ⁄ 273.16 of
the thermodynamic temperature of the
(BIPM) triple point of water

The reference values to be used in the

calibration process are the Fixed Points
belonging to the temperature scale ITS-90
(International Temperature Scale of 1990)

(Accredited Each Fixed Point is the precise temperature at

Laboratories) which a pure substance undergoes a phase
change.

(Final user) Examples:

freezing and boiling points of pure substances;
triple points of water, mercury and argon.

Further details given in BIPB (2015).

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 Calibration of temperature sensors

Traceability chain for temperature:

(BIPM)

These fixed points do not change throughout

time. And can be reproduced in different
laboratories through accurate experiments:
the Fixed Point Cells.

(Accredited Fixed Point Cells are use to calibrate Reference

Laboratories) Measurement standards (following level of the
chain).

(Final user) These calibrations are laborious and expensive.

Calibration of temperature sensors

Traceability chain for temperature:

(BIPM)

Very accurate electric transducers:

• Standard Platinum Resistance Thermometers,
SPRTs (uncertainty  0.001ºC)
(Accredited or
Laboratories) • Accurate thermocouples

(Final user)

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 Calibration of temperature sensors

Traceability chain for temperature:

Reference Measurement standard and

(BIPM)
instrument to be calibrated are inserted in a
specific chamber with controlled
temperature:
• Stirred Liquid Baths
or
• Dry Block Calibrators

(Accredited In the chamber, a series of temperatures,

Laboratories) within the measurement range, are
produced.
Values provided by both instruments are
(Final user) recorded.

Calibration of temperature sensors

Traceability chain for temperature:

(BIPM)
Rusby (2016)

Stirred Liquid Bath

(Accredited
Laboratories)
Rusby (2016)

(Final user)

Dry Block Calibrator

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 Bibliographic references

• BIPM (2015b) Guide to the realization of the ITS-90. Bureau International des Poids
et Mesures. Available through http://www.bipm.org/en/committees/cc/cct/guide-
its90.html
(page accessed on 2017/01/06)
• IEC (2013) IEC 60584-1 - Thermocouples - Part 1: EMF specifications and
tolerances. International Electrotechnical Commission
• IEC (2008) IEC 60751 - Industrial platinum resistance thermometers and platinum
temperature sensors. International Electrotechnical Commission
• Instrumentation for engineering measurements (2nd edition), 1993
J. Dally, W. Riley and K. McConnell - John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
• Isotech (2016) A quick guide to temperature sensors and calibration. Available
through http://www.isotech.co.uk/temperature-calibration
(page accessed on 2016/14/12)
• Gage Technique (2011) http://www.gage-technique.com (page accessed on
2011/11/1)

Bibliographic references

• LabFacility (2016) RTD Detectors. Page accessed on 2016/12/04

https://www.labfacility.com/temperature-sensors/rtd-detectors.html
• Pico Technology (2015) www.picotech.com (page accessed on 2015/10)
• Qti Sensing Solutions (2016) T100/E100 interchangeable thermistors.
https://www.thermistor.com (page accessed on 2016/12/27).
• Restivo MT, Almeida FG, Chouzal, MF, Mendes JG, Lopes AM (2010) Laboratories of
instrumentation for measurement. U.Porto Edições
• Rusby R (2016) Introduction to temperature measurement. Good practice guide No.
125. ISSN 1368-6550. National Physical Laboratory

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