LECTURE I

THE NATURE OF UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR

This course of lectures aims to look into the structure of the simple finite sentence, namely sentences that contain
one single predication relation, the verb of which carries a Tense marker. The theoretical perspective is the one
offered by the Theory of Government and Binding, first synthesized by Chomsky in “Lectures on Government and
Binding” (1981).
UG was defined by Chomsky (1976) as follows: “the system of principles, conditions and rules that are elements or
properties of all human languages…. the essence of human language.” The goal of UG is to provide a theory of
grammar that should be able to offer a number of principles, a number of generalized statements which are valid
cross-linguistically. The differences between languages are accounted for in terms of parameters, namely the
different values that the principles have in different languages.

Principles

The Principle of Structure Dependency

Definition: language relies on structural relationships rather than on the linear sequence of items. Operations on
sentences such as movement require knowledge of the structural relationships of the words rather than their linear
sequence.

Evidence : Question formation

1. The letter will arrive tomorrow. Will the letter arrive tomorrow?

2. This is a dagger which I see before me. *A this a dagger which I see before me?

3. The man who is tall is John. *Is the man who tall is John?
Is the man who is tall John?

What moves in order to form a question in English is not the third or the fourth word in a sentence, but the auxiliary
in the main clause, irrespective of whether it comes first or second in the sentence. In fact, what moves is the
constituent which carries Tense, be it an auxiliary (be, have), a modal verb (can, could, may, might, must, shall,
should, will, would, ought to) or DO when used in question formation for the Simple Past Tense and the Simple
Present tense. Movement of the auxiliary depends on the knowledge of the structure of the language. English, like all
human languages is structure-dependent.

The Projection Principle

The theory emphasizes the Lexicon and the fact that speakers know what each word in the language means, how it is
pronounced and how it behaves syntactically. The syntactic description of the sentence and the lexical properties of
each lexical item are integrated by the theory via the Projection Principle, which requires that syntax should
accommodate the lexical specification of each lexical item.

4. Helen likes the French paintings.

*Helen likes.

5. Peter is working.
*Peter is working a chair.
Each lexical item has a lexical entry in the Lexicon which provides information about the phonological form of the
item, its categorical status, and also about the theta roles (Agent, Patient, Theme, Experiencer) that item can assign.

6. like category information [+V, -N]

thematic structure (theta grid) [Experiencer, Theme]
[ ___NP]
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7. work category information [+V, -N]
thematic structure [Agent]
[ ____ ]

Two types of selectional restrcitions operate on the lexical item so as to define the subcategorization properties of the
respective item – c-slection (categorial selection) and s-selection (semantic selection), which in fact are predictable
from the thematic properties of the item. C-selection refers to the type of categorical phrase that is subcategorized by
the item, while s-selection refers to the sematic properties of the phrase subcategorized by the respective item.

8. He brought a book to me. Bring [+V, -N]

thematic structure [Agent, Theme, Goal]

9. The earthquake brought disaster to Japan. Bring [+V, -N]

Thematic structure [Cause, Theme, Goal]
The verb first selects its internal argument(s) and then, the verb together with its internal argument select the
external argument.
So, the lexical entry is said to project onto syntax. The Projection Principle states that the lexical features of each
item stored in the Lexicon are projected to the other levels. It is a universal of human language, as all languages
integrate their syntactic features with their lexical entries.

10. I’ll bet you my boots that there will be an empty trunk somewhere there!

Bet [+V, -N]

Thematic structure (Agent, Goal, Theme, clause)

The Principle of Endocentricity

One other important aspect of our study of the language is the way in which the elements are ordered in a language.
The main assumption is that sentences may be broken up into constituent phrases that are in fact words grouped
together round a head. The head is that word without which the respective phrase has no meaning. The phrase is in
fact a projection round a head, it is endocentric. One important criterion to identify a phrase is the fact that the
phrase and its head have the same distribution (appear in the same contexts). The head gives the category of the
phrase.

10. [The London train NP] [arrived [at [platform five.NP]PP]VP]

No Vo Po N 0

One important parameter is the position occupied by the head in each language, because in all types of phrases in a
language the head always occupies the same position, either on the left (first) or on the right (last). For instance,
English is a head-left (head-initial) language, whereas Japanese is a head-right (head-last) language. The GB theory
incorporates a particular theory of the structure of phrases, called X-bar syntax which expresses generalizations
about the phrase structure of all human languages rather than features that are idiosyncratic to one language.

The Extended Projection Principle

It is another principle of UG that requires all sentences to have a subject. The problem is that the subject is not
always overt even in the finite sentences. This is a variation between languages, a parameter called the Pro-drop
Parameter. For instance, English is a non-pro-drop language, whereas Romanian is a pro-drop language.

11. pro este acasă.

*pro is at home.

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We can now say that the grammar of a language can be seen as a particular set of values for the parameters, while the
overall system of rules, principles and parameters is UG, which we may take as to be one element of the human
biological endowment, namely the language facility.

The Components of the Grammar

LEXICON

D-STRUCTURE

MOVE α

S-STRUCTURE

Phonological Form Logical Form

PF-Representations LF-Representations
(meaning)

GB requires two levels of representation, namely d-structure and s-structure. At d-structure all the elements in the
sentence are in their initial location, while at s-structure they have moved. Move α is the one single basic operation
on a sentence. Deletion and insertion may also operate on the sntence. Move α operates on d-structure and is a
general rule that says that anything can be moved leaving behind a trace coindexed with the moved element. Traces
are empty categories (they have no phonological form and no meaning). Traces are indicated by t and they mark the
original place in the sentence of the elements that have moved. They are symbolized at the level of s-structure as a
means of preserving the initial syntactic relations existing between the constituents of the sentence so as not to alter
the meaning of the sentence. The PF and the LF components operate on the s-structure, not on the d-structure.

12. You are seeing what at the cinema?

Whatj arei you t i seeing t j at the cinema?

The Structure of Phrases (X-Bar)

As we have stated, phrases are endocentric, they are projections round a head according to a general format that can
be synthesized as follows and can be represented as a tree (a phrase marker -PM).

XP Spec - X’

X’ X0 -(YP)

XP

Spec X’

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 X0 YP

- the notions of node, branch, sister branches, mother node, maximal and intermediate projection
- the idea that the X’ level ans the Spec position are recursive.
- the notions of complement and adjunct

Noun Phrases (NP)

13. the investigation of the corpse (after lunch)

NP

Spec N’

N’ PP

N0 PP
Det

The investigation of the corpse after lunch

Adjectival Phrases (AP)

14. (rather) envious of Mary

AP

Spec A’

AdvP
A0 PP

Rather envious of Mary

Prepositional Phrases (PP)

15. (right) across the bridge

PP

Spec P’

AdvP
P0 NP

Right across the bridge

Verb Phrases (VP)

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16. walk; (always)clean the bike; offer flowers to mother

(a) VP

V’

V0
Walk

(b) VP

Spec V’

AvdP
V0 NP
always
Det N’
clean
the
N0
bike

(c) VP

V’

V’ PP

to mother

V0 NP

offer flowers

Lexical and Functional Categories

Lexical categories – open classes of words that have descriptive content (N, A, Adv, P, V).
- They contain an infinite number of members, new ones can always be added to
such classes.
- project structure according to the X-bar schemata
- both c-selection and s-selection operate on lexical categories
- are assigned theta-roles (N) or are theta-role assigners (V,P)
- are assigned case (N) or are case assigners (V,P)
- can license an argument (V) or can be licensed as an argument (N)

Functional categories – closed sets; no new members can be added

- do not have descriptive content, they are semantically abstract. They serve to
express certain morpho-syntactic features that are not expressed by the lexical category they combine with.
- they always select the same type of argument (only c-selection. Eg. I0 always selects a VP)
- project structure according to the X-bar schemata.
- They are the locus of grammatical information. Parametric variation affects only functional categories
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 - Do not assign theta-roles.
- Determiners (definite and indefinite articles, demonstratives, the possessive marker ‘s, cardinal
numbers, possessives, pronouns), degree, tense, aspect, agreement, inflection, mood, complementizers
(that, whether, for-to)

The Structure of the Simple Sentence

17. *He buy a book. (He bought a book / He buys a book every week)

The simple finite sentence is a projection of the INFL node that carries Tense and Agreement. INFL is a zero-level
category, it is a functional category which dominates all verbal inflection. I 0 is a functional head, it projects structure,
its maximal projection is IP, its complement is always a VP.
Depending on whether I0 carries markers for Tense or not sentences are divided into two main classes – finite and
non-finite. Finite sentences carry Tense markers, while non-finite ones are [-Tense]. We include infinitives, gerunds,
present and past participles and also small clauses under the category of non-finite sentences.

IP

Spec I’

DP

He
I0 VP

T V0 DP

-ed buy a book

18. I will ask [whether [Poirot will abandon the investigation.]]

I will say [that [Poirot …………….]]

It is suggested that the Complementizer is the head of the sentence. Complementizers are non-lexical (functional)
heads and their complement is always an IP. The choice of the IP is determined by the choice of the C 0.

19. I want [for [him to come.]]

IP

Spec I’

Det I0 VP
I T M V’ CP

-s will Vo C’

C0 IP
say whether
Poirot will abandon the investigation

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The Auxiliary
- auxiliaries are a functional category used to form tenses, aspect, mood and voice of other verbs
- modal verbs, Progressive and passive BE; Perfective HAVE; Negative and Interrogative DO; emphatic DO
- Modal auxiliaries bring in an extra shade of meaning, such as ability, permission, obligation, necessity, promise,
prediction.
- aspectual auxiliaries (BE, HAVE) encode Aspect, which describes the internal temporal contour of an event. BE is
the auxiliary for the Progressive aspect (BE + V-ing), while HAVE is the auxiliary for the Perfective Aspect (HAVE +
V-en)
- BE is the passive auxiliary (BE+V-en)
- auxiliaries are base-generated in a pre-verbal position, to the left of the verb, in a Specifier position which is
available for each of them.
- auxiliaries lack an event structure; do not assign a theta-role
- auxiliaries move(raise) to Inflection , while lexical verbs do not move in English, they remain inside the VP
- auxiliaries can be negated by NOT; they can invert with the Su in question formation
- auxiliaries occur in tag questions
-Modal verbs are base-generated under I0 together with Tense and Agreement
- BE and HAVE are V0 s; they are generated in a Spec VP position; their complement is always a VP
- DO is devoid of any meaning. It appears as a Last Resort. It is a support for the negative or the Tense affix; it is
inserted under I0. It is also used in emphatic sentences.
- If several auxiliaries occur in a sequence, there is a fixed order in which they appear:
Modal > perfective HAVE > progressive BE
-The first auxiliary in the sequence is always the one that carries Tense; the auxiliary which carries Tense is the one
which inverts in questions formation

20. (a) He might have been reading a book. (Modal carrying Tense (may+-ed), Have, Be, Lexical verb)
(b) Might he have been reading a book ? / * Have he might been reading a book?
(b) She DOES not sing.
(c) DID Mary wash the dishes?
(d) He DOES go to school every week.
(a) He might have been reading a book.

IP

Spec I’
Det
He I0 VP

T M V0 VP

-ed may have V0 VP

been V’

V0 DP
reading a book
(b) She does not sing.

IP
Spec I’
Det I0 NegP

T DO Neg’
-s
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 Neg0 VP
Not
V’

V0
sing
Argument Structure

Theta Theory
The intuitive idea of participants in an activity has been formalized in terms of the general notion of argument
structure and of the notion of thematic structure. Generally speaking, verbs have an argument structure, based on
the structure of the event denoted by the verb. The structure of this event determines the structure and the meaning
of the sentence. Verbs impose semantic restrictions on their arguments. The argument structure of a verb determines
which constituents of a sentence are obligatory. The obligatory constituents are called complements, while the non-
obligatory ones are called adjuncts.

21. This detective imitates Poirot. (Two arguments, Agent Patient/Theme)

We like John. (Experiencer, Patient/Theme)
He gave the flowers to Mary. (Agent, Theme, Goal)
He bought the book for Mary. (Agent, Theme, Benefactive)
He is working. (Agent)
The house collapsed. (Theme)

Arguments are divided into external and internal arguments. Internal arguments are subcategorized by the verb.

Adjectives and prepositions also have an argument structure. (interested in art, between Mary and John).

The specific semantic relations between a verb and its arguments are referred to in terms of theta roles. The verb
theta-marks its arguments by assigning a theta role to each of its arguments.

Theta-Criterion - each argument is assigned one and only one theta role, and each theta role is assigned to one
and only one argument. (very important for Move α – a constituent can only move to a position where no theta-role
can be assigned)

Theta roles

1. Agent/Actor – an animate participant who is the initiator or does of the action, capable of volition (desire) or
deliberate action and usually responsible for the action

John made a table.

2. Theme – entity undergoing the effect of some action; it can occur with verbs of motion or location (obviously, both
location and motion can be concrete or abstract); with a verb of motion, Theme is what moves, with a verb of
Location, Theme is the entity whose location is being described

The ball rolled towards him.

The ball is on the stand.
The glass case stood against the wall.

3. Patient – an entity which suffers an action, undergoes a change, is affected by the event

The arrow hit the apple.

Jane crumbled to the floor.
The president fires the treasurer.

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4. Experiencer – an animate being affected by the state of action identified by the verb, the locus of a psychological
process, the individual who feels or perceives the event, who experiences some psychological state

Students hate linguistics.

5. Benefactive / Beneficiary – entity benefiting from some action.

John did the job for me.

6. Goal – the entity towards which something moves, towards which an activity is directed

He offered the flowers to Jane. / He went to London.

7. Instrument – means by which something comes about; the object with which an action is performed

He opened the door with the key.

8.Location – place in which something is situated or takes place

He put the book on the shelf.

9. Source – entity from which something moves.

He came from Venice.

10. Path – the trajectory that an object covers

The ball rolled down the slope

11. Cause – the entity which causes something to happen

The wind broke the window.

Angela scared Mary. – with psych-verbs the external argument can be either an Agent or a Cause, depending on the
presence of willingness of not. If Angela did something because she purposefully wanted to scare Mary, then she is
an Agent. If Angela just happened to do something without wanting to scare Mary, then she is a Cause.

Grammatical Functions

Subject - defined in terms of the position it occupies in a sentence, in syntactic terms.

 Subjects are mostly realized as NPs.
 Subjects occupy the first position in affirmative sentences.
 Subjects are obligatory.
 Subjects trigger agreement with the verb.
 Subjects invert with the auxiliary verb in direct questions:
 Subjects are referred back to with a pronoun in tag questions

(23) a. [The woman]NP/[She]NP is Mary’s mother.

b. [It] is raining. (expletive IT) / [The book] is on the table. [It] is mine (referential/anaphoric IT)
c. There is a book on the table. / * is a book on the table.
d. He is singing (singular agreement) / They are singing (plural agreement).
e. The boys have already seen the movie./Have the boys already seen the movie?
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 f. The boys have already arrived, haven’t [they]?

Predicate- the part of a sentence or clause containing a verb and stating something about the subject

(24) a. John [went] home.

b. John [liked] his home.

Direct Object (complements – obligatory constituents)

Semantically, the direct object undergoes the activity denoted by V
Direct objects are mostly NPs. Direct objects are subcategorized by the main verb and are adjacent to the verb.
Direct objects cannot be separated from the governing verb and generally cannot be deleted.
(25) a. Mary made [a cake]DO
b. Mary made a cake very rapidly. / *Mary made very rapidly a cake.
c. Mary made a cake. /* Mary made.

Verbs that need a direct object are called transitive verb. Intransitive verbs do not need DOs:

(26) a. Peter found [the treasure]. /*He found. (transitive verb)

b. She blushed. / *She blushed [her cheeks] (intransitive verb)

The DO of a verb which is included in the lexical meaning of the verb (implicit, understood) can be deleted without
making the sentence ungrammatical:

(27) a. My sister was writing a letter/ She was writing.

b. He ate an apple./ He ate.

Direct objects can be passivized.

(28) a. The treasure was found by Peter.

b. The letter was being written by my sister.

Indirect Objects (complements – obligatory constituents)

The indirect object is the Goal / Beneficiary of the action denoted by V
Indirect objects are PP headed by the prepositions to or for

(29)a. He gave the book [to Mary]IO.

b. Grandma made a cake [for Mary]IO.
c. The house belongs [to me]IO

When Dative Movement applies, the IO moves in front of the DO and the Preposition is deleted.

(30) a. He gave the book to Mary. / He gave [Mary]IO the book

b. Grandma made a cake for Mary. / Grandma made [Mary] IO a cake

Indirect objects may be passivized

(31) a. Mary was given the book.

b. Mary was made a cake.

Prepositional Object (complements – obligatory constituents)

Prepositional objects are PPs

(32) a. You can alaways rely [on him]PO.

b. He laughed [at him]PO.

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 c. Don’t argue [with her]PO.
d. They will send [for the doctor]PO.

Adjuncts
Adjuncts are non-obligatory constituents, they add supplementary, additional information, they are peripheral, there
can be several of them in the same sentence; you can identify them by asking questions such as how, when, where,
why, etc. ?

(33) a. He opened the door [with a key] (how / with what did he open the door – instruments).
b. He went to the seaside [in Bulgaria]. (where did he go to the seaside – location/place)
c. He married her [a long time ago] (when did he marry her – time)
d. He loves poetry [because of its beauty] (why did he love poetry – reason)
e. He read the letter [in a soft voice / softly] (how did he read the letter – manner)
f. My neighbour’s husband has been shouting [loudly]manner [in the adjacent flat]place [for about two hours]time.

As to the syntactic function adjuncts can have, they are generally attributes and adverbials of time,
place, manner, comparison, cause, reason, purpose, concession, condition, result, instrument (complemente
circumstantiale)

(34) a. A [beautiful]attribute book is worth reading.

b. He left [at midnight]adverbial modifier of time.
c. He left the cat [at the corner of the street] adverbial modifier of place.
d. He brought me the fir tree [by sleigh]adverbial modifier of manner.
e. He felled the tree [with the axe] instrument.
f. She can’t write business letter [as well as her sister]adverbial modifier of comparison.
g. He likes her [despite her arrogance]adverbial modifier of concession.
h. She took care of me [because of my illness]adverbial modifier of cause/reason.
g. Put on a jacket [in case of cold weather] adverbial modifier of condition.
i. She talked us all [into boredom]adverbial modifier of result.
j. [For a proper appreciation of poetry]adverbial modifier of purpose, you should read it aloud
k. He was deeply depressed [despite his most recent achievements]adverbial modifer of concession

SYNTAX OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE

2ND YEAR TRANSLATORS – SYNTAX 1
COURSE INSTRUCTOR: ROXANA-CRISTINA PETCU, PhD

THE COPULATIVE PREDICATION

Let us start from the analysis of the following sentences:

1. (a)Mary is quiet.
(b) Jack is a doctor.
(c) Susan is of my age.
(d) She will make a good mother.

These sentences contain a copula (be in sentences a,b,c) or a copula-like verb (make in sentence d) which
functions as the link between the subject of the sentence and the constituent which predicates about the subject. This
element is called a predicative. The copula or the copula-like verb and the predicative form a copulative
predicate.
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Let’s have a look at the following examples:

2. (a) Grandfather is a good man. (DP)

(b) My sister is very pretty. (AP)
(c) The hat is of my size. (PP)
(d) The problem is to do it correctly. (non-finite IP)
(e) The idea is that you should never agree to such things. (CP)

As we can see the predicative can be expressed by a wide range of phrases. Only the copula BE allows the full range
of predicatives, the other copula-like verbs allow only a limited number of possibilities.

THE COPULA BE

If we look at the sentences under 1, we shall immediately see that it is the predicative not the copula which assigns a
property to the subject, namely Mary is assigned the property quiet, Jack the property a doctor, a.s.o., which means
that the predication relation holds between the subject and the predicative, and not between the subject and the
copula. We can say that the subject of the sentence is assigned a theta role and so is an argument of the predicative,
not of the copula BE. It can be demonstrated by the semantic relations that the predicative imposes on the subject.

3. (a) *Bill is a spinster.

(b) *Mrs Brown is Mary’s father.
(c) *His brother is buxom.

The sentences above are ungrammatical as the property assigned by the predicative to the subject violates the s-
selection. The noun spinster and the adjective buxom select a [+female] entity, while the noun father selects a
[+male] entity.

The copula does not assign an external theta role because it does not have substantive content. This means that the
copula does not have an external argument; it only has an internal argument, a small clause which accounts for the
predication relation between the subject ant the predicative. The subject is base-generated in the [Spec,SC] position
where it is assigned a theta role, and from there it moves to [Spec,IP] to be assigned case and also to satisfy the EPP,
which says that all sentences must have a subject. This means that BE cannot assign case, which is in keeping with
the fact that it does not assign a theta role to an external argument. So the copula BE behaves like an unaccusative
verb.

Burzio’s generalization (i) a verb which lacks an external argument fails to assign Accusative case
(ii)a verb which fails to assign Accusative case fails to theta-mark an external
argument

Mary is quiet.

IP

Spec I’

I0 VP

T V’

-s V0 SC/AP

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 BE NP A’

N’ A0

N0 quiet
Mary

The NP generated in the [Spec, SC] position will move to [Spec,IP] in order to be assigned case. Another possible
position would be [Spec, VP] which is empty because BE does not have an external argument, so no theta role can be
assigned in that position, but it is not a position in which case can be assigned.

Conclusion
 The copula BE is a raising verb taking a small clause as its complement, it lacks an external argument, fails to
assign case to its complement, does not assign a theta role. Therefore it is an unaccusative verb which selects
a small clause, the subject of the clause being generated in the [Spec, SC] position out of which it raises to be
assigned case.
 The copula BE is semantically light, which has been taken as a possible explanation for the fact that it shares
a number of properties with the auxiliaries.
 It behaves like auxiliary verbs – it undergoes movement to I 0; it moves to C0 in question formation; it is
directly negated by not/n’t, it can be stressed by emphatic affirmations, it occurs in tags and codas

4. (a) Are they students?

(b) They are not/aren’t students.
(c) Oh, but they ARE students.
(d) They are students, aren’t they?
(e) They are students, and so are their friends.

 Like an auxiliary, the copula BE precedes the adverbs.

5. They are always rude to everyone.

He is never impertinent.

 Unlike auxiliaries, which only allow one type of complement (VP), the copula allows a wide variety of small
clauses as complements (DP, AP, NP, PP, non-finite IP, CP).

6. He is [a doctor]DP
She is [intelligent]AP.
They are [doctors]NP.
This hat is [of his size]PP.
The idea is [to go there]infinitive
The solution is [coming with me]gerund.
The problem is [that I do not know what to do]CP (that-clause).

 The copula can co-occur with other auxiliaries, including auxiliary BE

7. You have always been so nice to me.

He is being clumsy now!

 When the small clause contains two NPs, any of the two can raise to [Spec, IP]

8. That unimportant incident was the cause of the war.

The cause of the war was that unimportant incident.

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  To conclude, we can say that the copula BE is an unaccusative verb that has a number of specific properties
which distinguish it from regular unaccusatives and from auxiliaries as well.

The role of the copula

Small clauses are reduced clauses which lack the functional categories, mainly Tense but which denote predication
relations, namely states of affairs which must receive temporal anchoring. This is done by the verb the small clause is
a complement of. The copula carries the markers for Tense, Aspect, Agreement, Mood .

9. (a) Michael is careful. (Tense)

(b) Michael is being so awkward today! (Tense, Progressive Aspect)
(c ) He has always been so nice. (Tense, Perfective Aspect)
(d) If only he were more attentive. (Tense, Subjunctive Mood)

COPULA-LIKE VERBS

 Become, grow, go, turn (inchoative verbs when they mean develop/turn into, turn out to be; look, taste,
smell, feel, sound (physical perception verbs); make(when meaning result in being/ develop into);
fall(when meaning be unsuccessful/ reach a certain state); lie (when meaning be/remain in a certain
state/position); pass (when meaning be accepted/considered as); stand (when meaning put oneself in a
particular position), sit, loom, remain, hold, run, get; seem, come, a.s.o

10. MAKE - If you work hard, you will make a good lawyer.(DP)
She will make a wonderful actress.(DP)
FALL – The scheme fell flat.(AP)
He fell victim to her cruel remarks.(NP)
She fell an easy prey to him.(DP)
The house fell into ruins.(PP)
LIE – The book lay open on the table.(AP)
The snow lay thick on the ground.(AP)
HOLD – The argument holds true.(AP)
She always holds aloof from company.(AP)
STAND – Tom stands alone among his mates.(AP)
We will stand firm.(AP)
Lady Jane stood godmother to her sister’s child.(NP)
Those poor people stand in need of help.(PP)
SIT – He sat tight on the saddle.(AP)
LOOM – The castle loomed menacing in the distance. (AP)
REMAIN – He remained a widower at the age of 30.(DP)
GET – The sink got rusty.(AP)
GROW – He has grown old.(AP)
TURN – He finally turned a traitor. (DP)
They obliged the prisoners to turn Muslim. (AP)
PASS – They pass for rich.(PP)
He passed for a doctor.(PP)
SEEM – The students seem interested in linguistics. (AP)
COME – The knot has come undone.(AP)

Copula-like verbs behave like the copula. They lack an external argument, their internal complement is a small
clause, so they are raising verbs like the copula, in the sense that they trigger the raising (movement) of the subject of

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the small clause from [Spec, SC] to [Spec,IP], a position where it can be assigned case. Yet, copula-like verbs do not
raise to I0.

The scheme fell flat.

IP

Spec I’

I0 VP

T V’
-ed V0 SC/AP
Fall
DP A’

The scheme A0

Flat

Nevertheless, there are a number of differences between the copula and the copula-like verbs.
 They preserve part of their lexical meaning (durative – stay, remain, inchoative –become, get)
 They impose certain selectional restrictions on the small clause (see the examples above)
 They do not combine with the full range of small clauses as BE
 They do not move, they remain in the position where they were generated (under V 0 ), do not invert in
question formation, need do-support, are not negated by not/n’t, need do-support, do not appear in tags and
codas.

11. They turned Muslim.

*Turned they Muslim? (Did they turn Muslim?)
*They turned not Muslim. (They didn’t turn Muslim)
*They turned Muslim, turnedn’t they? (They turned Muslim, didn’t they?)

 They do not precede the adverbs, they are preceded by the adverbs (like lexical verbs)

12. *The river runs always dry in summer.

The river always runs dry in summer.

 Unlike the copula BE, when the small clause contains two NPs, only the NP subject, that is the one generated
in [Spec, SC] position can raise to [Spec, IP].

13. My uncle remained a doctor all his life.

*A doctor remained my uncle all his life.

15
THE PREDICATIVE

THE ADJECTIVAL TYPE

 Adjectives are heads that project structure according to X-bar, can be modified by an adverb in the Spec
position, can select a complement (PP , CP or IP), can also contain adjuncts

14. (a) rather envious of Mary’s success

(b) glad that we were there
(c) very unwilling to come here
(d) rather discontent with me for my behaviour

 They may have an exclusively attributive or a exclusively predicative use or both

15. Mary is beautiful.

I saw a beautiful woman.

16. He is fond of dancing. / *A fond person

ATTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVES

 They appear only in pre-nominal positions in English, unlike Romanian

17. an envious person / * a person envious

 When used attributively, adjectives do not allow complements

18. * a very unwilling to come here person

* a rather discontent with me father

 Nevertheles, there are a number of adjectives which appear post-nominally even when used attributively -
general, public, martial. laureate

19. secretary general, attorney general, notary public, court martial, poet laureate

 There are adjectives which, under specific conditions (for instance, reduced relative clauses), appear post-
nominally even when used attributively

20. The ships damaged by the storm were recovered yesterday.

 Attributive adjectives have degrees of comparison, but only those which denote gradable properties. They can
be modified by degree words (quite, rather). Adjectives that denote ungradable properties do not allow
comparison or degree words.

21. (a) the most beautiful woman

(b) It isn’t very hot.
(c) *He is very alive.

 When the occur in a string preceding the noun they are arranged in a very strict order

a) adjectives modifying object-denoting nominals

16
possessives>cardinal>quality>size>shape>color>nation

22. a beautiful red Persian carpet / * a Persian beautiful red carpet

b) adjectives modifying event nominals

possessives>cardinal>ordinal>speaker-oriented>subject-oriented>manner>thematic

23. his previous disgusting angry reaction to your demand

Their future possible friendly cooperation

 Adjectives may denote temporary or permanent properties, and depending on that they may appear in pre or
post-modifying positions

24. the only navigable river (permanent property) / the responsible man (trustworthy)
The only river navigable (transient property) / the man responsible (to blame)

Exclusively modifying adjectives

1) denominal adjectives derived from nouns denoting substances

Eg. Wooden, leaden, golden

25. a wooden bracelet / *The bracelet is wooden. (made of wood)

A leaden coffin. / *The coffin is leaden. (made of lead)
A golden ring / *The ring is golden. (made of gold)

If used in a figurative meaning, these adjectives may also be used predicatively

26. Her movements were wooden. (like wood)

The sky was leaden. (the colour of lead)
Her hair was golden. (the colour of gold)

2) adjectives which may have been derived from adverbs

Eg. Main, eventual, principal, utter, actual, favourite, former, mere, sole

27. The main purpose of his action has never been known. / *The purpose is main.
What we witnessed was an utter failure. /*The failure is utter.
Don’t overestimate the actual importance of the act./ *The importance of the act is actual.

3) past participles which never occur in passive sentences (deprated, escaped)

28. The departed guests. /*The guests are departed.

The escaped prisoner /*The prisoner is escaped

4) modal adjectives – alleged, potential, possible

29. an alleged genius / *the genius was alleged

5)temporal adjectives – future, former, late, occasional, present, daily, monthly

30. the future wedding / *the wedding is future

6) manner adjectives (related to adverbs) – compulsive, big, frequent,

17
31. a compulsive eater / *the eater is compulsive

PREDICATIVE ADJECTIVES

 They select internal arguments (like verbs) to which they assign theta roles. They generally subcategorize for
a PP, but the preposition is idiosyncratic, that is it cannot be predicted from the properties of the adjective.
Some adjectives subcategorize for IP (infinitives) or CPs.

32. capable of decision; conversant with the subject; lacking in intelligence; dependent on his family; answerable to
the Prime Minister

33. They were eager to succeed.

He is ready to leave.
She was happy that they had arrived.
I am afraid that they will not manage.

They behave like verbs in a number of ways, but do not inflect for Tense and Agreement. They take a subject
hosted by [Spec,AP] and a complement to which they assign a theta role. This type of phrase is assumed to be a
small clause

34. He became very angry with his sisters for their attitude.

IP

Spec I’

I0 VP

T V’

-ed V0 SC/AP

Become DP AP

He AvP A’
PP
Very A’ For their
Attitude
A0 PP

Angry with his

Sisters

Exclusively predicative adjectives

1)Adverb-like adjectives beginning with a-

Eg. Ablaze, afire, agog, aghast, afraid, asleep, akin, ajar, akimbo, alive, alike, alone, afloat, aware, awash, astir,
askew, averse, ashamed
18
35. The whole building was ablaze. / *the ablaze building
He was asleep. /*the asleep man
The door was ajar. /*the ajar door

If the adjective is quantified it can be used as a modifying adjective.

36. a half-asleep student; a somewhat afraid student; a fully aware teacher

2) prepositional adjectives which can never appear as pre-nominal modifiers, which nevertheless appear in a post-
modifying position

37. Young people are fond of pop music.

Is your child subject to colds?
This woman is prone to superstition.
A child subject to so many colds should be carefully looked after.

Adjectives which appear in both positions

1) with distinct meanings

Eg. Heavy, hard, slow, frequent, traditionalist, occasional, possible, apparent

38. The march is slow. / A slow child

The luggage is heavy. / A heavy smoker

2) both predicative and modifying in one meaning and only modifying in the other meaning

Eg. Civil, criminal, dramatic, atomic, chemical

39. She gave me a very civil answer. /Her answer was civil.
He specializes in civil engineering / *The engineering is civil.

3) adjectives such as old, new, wrong – when characterizing the referent directly, they are used in both positions

Eg. True, complete, perfect, sure, clean, firm, sheer, total

40. old/new furniture / The furniture is old/new

A wrong answer / The answer is wrong

- when not characterizing the referent directly they are used attributively

41. an old/new acquaintance

The wrong person (wrongly identified)

ATTRIBUTIVE AND EQUATIVE (IDENTIFYING) COPULATIVE PREDICATION

a) Attributive – A is B

42. Mary is smart.

Bobby is a fresher.
The district is in a state of chaos.
The problem is that he sould leave.

b) Equative – A=B
19
43. The girl is John’s friend.
He is Secretary of State.
This girls is the most attractive of all.

The Nominal Predicative

a) Attributive – a shame, a pity, no wonder, no doubt

44.It’s a pity that he should have left.

- NPs without a determiner

45. He is master of the situation.

The woman was poor class. (of the poor class)

- very rarely definite NPs

46. White hats are the thing today.

SYNTAX OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE

2ND YEAR TRANSLATORS – SYNTAX 1
COURSE INSTRUCTOR: ROXANA-CRISTINA PETCU, PhD

THE INTRANSITIVE PREDICATION

(ONE-ARGUMENT VERBS)

Traditionally, one-argument verbs minimally contain one NP, which generally appears in the subject position, but
the main problem seems to be related to the position of that argument in the argument frame of the verb, so the
problem is whether it is the external or the internal argument. The position of the argument has important
consequences for the syntactic behaviour of the verb.
One-argument verbs fall into two categories: a)unergatives and b)unaccusatives.
Eg. A) He may protest.
He overdosed.
He complained.
The children are swimming.
They were coughing because of the smoke.
B) There arose an unfortunate misunderstanding.
There came a cry of anguish from inside the house.
There appeared a ghostly face at the window.
In front of the house there stands a statue of the general.
There have arisen several problems.

A) Unergatives
 Describe mainly volitional acts
 The subject has control over the action, it is the initiator of the event, it is an Agent
 The NP appearing with an unergative verb is its external argument
20
  Is is not possible to have an postverbal imperative subject with unergatives
Eg. *Laugh you!
 The past participles of unergative verbs cannot be used as adjectives in a post-head position
Eg. *The man talked to was a neighbour of mine.
 The past participles of unergatives cannot be used as an adjective in a pre-head position
Eg, * The yawned student eventually fell asleep in class.
 Unergatives evince the feature of atelicity, in other words they do not presuppose an end point
Eg. The boys cried with laughter.
 Unergatives allow a so-called cognate object, an object which copies the semantic features of the verb and
which occupies the canonical position of the direct object, namely after the governing verb.
Eg. They slept the sleep of the just.
She dreamt a nice dream.

B) Unaccusatives
 The subject of unaccusatives undergoes a change of location or state and has no control over the action
 The subject is not an Agent, it is generally assigned the theta-role Patient or Theme
 The unique argument of an unaccusative verb is the internal argument
 In Belfast English it is possible to have a postverbal imperative subject
Eg. Leave you now!
Arrive you before 6!
Be going you out of the door when he arrives!
 The past participles of unaccusatives can be used as adjectives/noun modifiers in a post-head position
Eg, The train arrived at platform 5 is the London Express.
They arrested a businessman recently returned from Thailand.
 The past participles of unaccusatives can be used as adjectives/noun modifiers in a pre-head position
Eg. He is some kind of a fallen hero.
 Unaccusatives evince the feature of telicity, namely they presuppose an end point.
Eg. The car had vanished from sight.
 They do not allow a direct object
Eg. *The prices decreased cheese.

UNERGATIVE VERBS
a) predicates describing willed or volitional acts: work, play, speak, talk, smile, grin, frown, grimace, think,
mediate, cogitate, daydream, skate, ski, swim, hunt, bicycle, walk, skip, jog, quarrel, fight, wrestle, box, agree,
disagree, knock, bang, hammer, pray, weep, cry, kneel, bow, laugh, dance, crawl.
b) verbs denoting manners of speaking: whisper, shout, mumble, grumble, growl, bellow, etc
c) predicates describing sounds made by animals: bark, neigh, quack, roar, chirp, oink, mew, etc
d) verbs denoting involuntary bodily processes: cough, sneeze, hiccough, belch, burp, defecate, urinate, sleep,
cry, weep, etc

Eg. They quarreled quite often.

We sneezed a lot with hay fever.
They ski in the Alps every year.
She was weeping with joy at the ceremony.

UNACCUSATIVE VERBS
A) verbs that denote non-volitional acts: burn, fall, drop, sink, float, slide, slip, glide, soar, flow, ooze, seep,
trickle, drip, gush, hang, dangle, sway, wave, tremble, shake, languish, flourish, thrive, drown, stumble, trip,
roll, succomb, dry, boil, seethe, lie(involuntarily), sit(involuntarily), bend(involuntarily),
B) inchoatives (verbs showing a process resulting in a change of state) : melt, freeze, evaporate, redden, darken,
yellow, rot, decompose, germinate, sprout, bud, wilt, wither, increase, decrease, blush, explode, die, perish,
choke, suffocate, scatter, disperse, vanish, disappear
C) verbs of existing and happening: exist, occur, happen, result, take place
D) aspectual predicates: begin, start, stop, cease, continue, end, commence, resume, halt, proceed, terminate, etc
21
 F) duratives: last, remain, stay, survive, etc
G) verbs denoting a non-voluntary emission of stimuli that has an impact on the senses: shine, sparkle, glitter,
glow, jingle, clink, clang, snap, crackle, pop, smell, stink, etc
H) verbs of existence: blaze, bubble, cling, coexist, correspond, decay, depend, drift, dwell, elapse, emanate,
exist, fester, float, flow, fly, grow, hide, hover, live, loom, lurk, overspread, persist, predominate, prevail,
project, protrude, revolve, reside, rise, shelter, settle, smoulder, spread, stream, survive, sweep, swing, tower,
wind
I) verbs of appearance: accumulate, appear, arise, awake, awaken, break, burst, dawn, derive, develop, emerge,
ensure, evolve, exude, flow, follow, gush, happen, issue, materialize, occur, plop, spill, steal, stem, supervene,
surge

Remark: the basic meaning of the verbs in the last two categories may not be that of existence or appearance, but,
when used in the there-insertion construction, they will show this sense.

Different D-structures

Unergatives : NP [VP V]

Unaccusatives: _ [VP V NP]

Unergatives Unaccusatives

VP VP

NP V’ V’

V0 V0 NP

This D-structure is in accordance with the case-assigning properties of the two classes of verbs. Following Burzio’s
generalization, a verb which lacks an external argument, that is does not assign an external theta role also fails to
assign Accusative case. Therefore, the internal argument of unaccusatives has to move out of the VP internal position
in order to be assigned case. On the contrary, unergatives, which have an external argument, can assign Accusative
case under specific conditions.

Eg. He dreamt a nice dream.

TESTS FOR UNERGATIVITY/UNACCUSATIVITY

A. There-insertion
Only unaccusatives (with the exception of verbs of change of state) and passive verbs can occur in the there-
insertion construction, unergatives are not allowed in this construction.

Eg. A problem developed. /There developed a problem. (unaccusative)

A ship appeared in the horizon. / There appeared a ship in the horizon.(unaccusative)
A woman lodged at Mrs Brown’s. / *There lodged a woman at Mrs Brown’s (unergative)
Oiled soared in price. / *There soared in price. (unaccusative –change of state)

Eg, (passive predicates) There was found in this cave an ancient treasure.
There was glued a poster on this wall.
Eg. (unergatives) *There sneezed a man.
*There spoke a man in a loud voice.
Eg. (change of state) *On the line there are drying a lot of clothes.
*There melted a lot of snow on the streets of the city.

22
1.The there-insertion construction which diagnoses unaccusativity

There V NP PP

Eg. There remained three men in the room.

There followed a wave of indignation in the newspapers.
Throughout the 19th century there stood an ugly statue of the last king on the palace lawn.
There dangles a magnificent chandelier from the ceiling.

This construction simply postulates the existence of some entity and it may contain no locative information. The
existential there used in this construction is just a presentative construction, which does not necessarily locate in
space. There is devoid of meaning, it is an expletive element. The internal argument of the verb must be [-agentive],
it cannot have any control over the action denoted by the verb. Such sentences usually express ‘coming into being’.
(There began a riot. / *There ended a riot). Not all unaccusatives allow the there-insertion construction. It is mainly
verbs of existence (the state resulting from the appearance of some entity) and verbs of appearance (come into
existence), which share the idea of existence. They also require a location argument, be it overt or implicit, which
means that these verbs have two internal arguments – one describing the entity that exist (Theme) and the other one
describing the location at which the entity exists (the location argument).Such verbs lack a causative variant.

Eg. *He appeared a cat at the door.

*They remained three men in the room.

There occupies the subject position, [Spec, IP] so the internal argument of the unaccusative verb can remain in situ,
inheriting case from there, with which it forms a chain <there i, NPi>. It inverts with the auxiliary in question
formation (Were there many children in the yard?)

 There are unaccusatives derived from basically two argument-verbs causative predicates which become
intransitive and do not allow the there-insertion construction. The causative component of the predicate
disallows the there-insertion construction.

Eg. He broke the glass. / The glass broke

*There broke the glass.

The structure of There-sentences

1. The Small clause analysis

Existential BE – interpreted as an unaccusative verb, a raising verb, just like the copula

There is a student in the room.

IP

I’

I0 VP

T V’
-s
23
 V0 SC
BE
A student in the room

Because of the Case Filter and the EPP, either the subject of the SC moves to [Spec,IP] or the expletive there is
inserted.

2. The VP adjunct analysis

The PP is an adjunct adjoined to V’ and there is assumed to be present at D-structure.

IP

There I’

I0 VP

T V’

-s V’ PP
In the room
V0 DP

BE a student

3. The VP Shell analysis

Starting from the analysis of exemples such as The light blinded him. or His attitude saddened me., in which it is
obvious that a second causative predicate is involved, this predicate being in fact an affixal verb, overt (-en) or non-
overt (ø), it is assumed that the VP shell comprises two different projections: (a) an outer νp shell headed by a light
verb and (b) an inner VP shell headed by the lexical verb. The light verb ν is an abstract, affixal verb which
introduces the idea of agentivity for unergative and transitive verbs and the idea of eventivity for unaccusative verbs.
Adjectives and verbs attach to this affix. The assumption is that the subject of unergatives and transitives originates
in [Spec, νp], namely the spec position of the light verb, as the subject of the agentive light verb, while the subject of
unaccusatives originates in the [Spec, VP], namely in the specifier position of the lexical verb.The lexical verb raises
from V0 to ν0 to merge with this feature.

Eg. A cry of anguish came from inside the house.

There came a cry of anguish from inside the house.

IP IP

I’ I’

I0 νp I0 νp

ν‘ there ν‘

ν0 VP ν0 VP

DP V’ DP V’
A cry of a cry of
24
 Anguish anguish
V0 PP V0 PP
Came from came from
Inside the inside the
House house

2. The second type of there-insertion construction

There V PP NP

This construction need not be related to unaccusatives. There is a long list of verbs that can occur in this
construction. There in this construction carries a clear locative meaning.

Eg. A little boy darted into the room. / There darted into the room a little boy.

Verbs that can occur in this construction: amble, climb, crawl, creep, dance, dart, flee, float, fly, gallop, head, hobble,
hop, hurtle, jump, leap, march, plod, prance, ride, roam, roll, run, rush, sail, shuffle, skip, speed, stagger, stray,
stride, strut, swim, trot, trudge, walk.

3.Definiteness

 Definite NPs, proper names and pronouns cannot normally be used as subjects of the there-insertion
constructions. NPs preceded by the definite article, a possessive adjective, a demonstrative or a universal
quantifier

Eg. 1.*There is every student of mine in the room (universal quantifier)

2. *There is John in the garden. (proper name)
3.* There was him waiting for Mary.(pronoun)
4. *The was the book on the table. (definite article)
5. *There was my hat on the floor. (possessive)
6. There was that man at the door. (demonstrative)

Indefinites are allowed as subjects in there-insertion constructions, while the postverbal NP had to denote a
discourse referent that is new to the hearer. (indefinites – NPs preceded by an indefinite article, mass nouns, NPs
preceded by a cardinal number, bare plurals, existential quantifiers, negative indefinites, negative exceptives)

Eg. There were flies in the room. (bare plural)

There remained a boy in the room.(indefinite article)
There is salt in the pantry.(mass noun)
There were two apples on the table. (cardinal number)
There are many flowers in the garden.( existential quantifier)
There are no lazy people here. (negative indefinite)
There is nothing but fear there. (negative exceptive)

Nevertheless, there may be other situations when not only indefinites are allowed as subjects of a there-insertion
construction:

 Partitives (headed by indefinite determiners)

Eg. There remained many of the same students at both seminars.
 Definite NPs - they are allowed as subjects of the there-insertion construction iff they denote a discourse
referent that is new to the hearer.
25
 
Eg. There was the mother of a student in the office.

 When the definite NPs denote indefinite entities

Eg. There was the smell of liquor on his breath.(liquor –indefinite NP)
There was the air of a soldier about him. (a soldier – indefinite NP)

 Definite NPs which denote kinds

Eg. There were those kinds of books at the library.
There was every flavour of ice for tasting.
There was that kind of book listed in the catalog. (The underlined NP does not necessarily refer to a
unique object, it refers to a kind of objects, so it cannot be replaced by the pronoun it as an anaphoric
expression - *However, it was checked out).

 Definite NPs if the noun is modified by an AP, a superlative, a PP or a clause:

Eg, There weren’t the doctors to staff the clinic. (infinitive clause)
There is her future to consider. (infinitive clause)
There has arisen the important problem of their social status. (AP, PP)
There is the most handsome man I have ever seen standing by the door. (superlative, relative
clause)
 Definite NPs in an enumeration/list
Eg. Q: What else is there in that drawer?
A: There’s the rubber, the red pencil, and the writing paper.
Q: Who can we ask?
A: There’s Ann, or Mike, or Pete.
Remark: such definite NPs are allowed only it the truth of their existential assertion is presupposed.

4. The Predicate Restriction

There-insertion is allowed only with stage-level predicates, namely predicates which refer to unique, individual
events. There-insertion is not compatible with generic interpretations.

Eg. There was a man sick. / *There was a man tall.

There are three pigs loose. / *There are three pigs stupid.

The set of sentences on the left refer to two unique, individual events – one person who was sick at some point in
time or three pigs who are loose at some point in time, whereas the set of sentences on the right have generic
interpretations, referring to the inherent qualities of the subjects (being tall or being stupid).

Conclusion
 There has no meaning of its own
 It is a semantically empty element, required for structural reasons – it fills the subject position
 Its presence in the sentence is dependent of the presence of its associate, the postverbal NP, which must be
indefinite

B. Intransitives and Locative Inversion

It is a non-canonical construction in which the surface subject stays inside the VP and the sentence initial position is
occupied by a locative PP. It is a construction in which only unaccusatives can appear, unergatives and transitives
are ungrammatical. The most frequently used verbs are underived unaccusatives, namely verbs of appearance and
verbs of existence as well as verbs denoting position in space. Derived unaccusatives denoting a definite change of
state cannot be used in this configuration

26
(locative) PP V NP

Eg. 1. On our left was the Mediterranean.

2. On the table sat a nervous cat.
3. Out of nowhere appeared a mysterious figure.

Eg. *In the dining-room drank John a glass of wine.

* In the hall talked many people.
*On the top floor opened many windows.

Nevertheless, some unergatives can also be used in this configuration, namely verbs of manner of motion and verbs
of emission.

Eg. Around them chattered and sang many girls.

Up the stairs bounded the President

C. The Resultative Construction

A Resultative phrase is a phrase that denotes the state achieved by the NP argument of the verb as a result of the
action denoted by the verb. Such a phrase can be predicated only of the immediately postverbal NP, namely the
internal argument of the verb. In other words, only those verbs that have an internal argument are compatible with
Resultative phrases, namely unaccusatives and transitives.

Eg. The river froze [solid].(unaccusative)

The door slid [open]. (unaccusative)

He popped the bottle [open]. (transitive)

*John slept sick. (unergative)

Unergatives and resultative phrases

Unergatives have no internal argument, so theoretically they should not allow resultative constructions.

Eg. *John laughed sick.

*She shouted hoarse.

 In order to allow a resultative phrase, a fake reflexive object is added.

Eg, John laughed [himself sick].

She shouted [herself hoarse].
 It is also possible to have a resultative phrase with an unergative in case the post verbal NP is not the
argument of the unergative.

Eg. The dog barked him awake.

You may sleep the baby quiet again.

Obviously, the postverbal NP is not the argument of the unergative, as the sentences below shows it. This NP
is not subcategorized for by the verb.

*The dog barked him.

*You may sleep the baby.

 In case the possessor and the subject of the verb are co-referential.
27
 
Eg. Mike cried [his eyes out].
Mary had better sleep [her wrinkles away].

Such sentences are incorrect if the resultative phrase is left out.

*Mike cries his eyes.
*Mary had better sleep her wrinkles.

Unaccusatives and resultative phrases

 Unaccusatives have only an internal argument in their argument structure, so they cannot take any surface
object. The resultative phrase can only refer to the internal argument of the unaccusative verb, which, at the
level of the surface structure, appears in the subject position.
 Only derived telic unaccusatives are the ones that allow a resultative construction
 Verbs belonging to the arrive class, which are telic, but underived (they do not have a transitive causative
counterpart) do not allow this construction (advance, arrive, ascend, come, depart, descend, enter, escape,
exit, fall, flee, go, leave, plunge, return, rise, etc)

Eg. The prisoners froze [to death]

The bottle broke [open].
The gate swung [shut].
The curtain rolled [open on the court of the queen].

Eg. *She arrived tired.

*The convict escaped exhausted.
*She fell broken to pieces.

 Unaccusatives do not occur in sentences with Resultative phrases predicated of non-argumental NPs, unlike
unergatives that appear in such constructions.

Eg. *The log rolled [its bark off]. / The log rolled off.
*The cart rolled [the rubber off its wheels].

The two NPs which appear in a postverbal position are not arguments of the unaccusative verbs, they are not
subcategorized for by the verb, so they cannot enter a Resultative phrase.

 Unaccusatives can appear with resultative phrases without the mediation of a fake reflexive

Eg. * The water froze itself solid.

D. Intransitives and Past Participles

Generally speaking, the past participle of an unaccusative can be used as a noun modifier, both pre and post-
nominally, while the past participle of unergatives cannot.

Eg. A fallen leaf; vanished civilizations

*walked man, *slept children, *a worked man

Nevertheless, not all unaccusatives appear in a pre or post-nominal modifying position.

Eg. *A man lived in Paris, *an existed solution (atelic verbs)

28
The past participle of unaccusative describing atelic situations is incompatible with this position. Telic unaccusatives
are compatible with this construction.
Atelic unaccusatives – verbs of appearance, verbs of disappearance, verbs of inherently directed motion, verbs
denoting an internally caused change of state.
Telic unaccusatives fall into two categories: firstly (a) verbs depicting a change of state which can be interpreted
as a property (eg. Fallen leaves, blistered feet) and which are freely used as noun modifiers, and secondly(b) verbs
depicting a change of location or of place (?a fallen child) which are less felicitous as noun modifiers.

SYNTAX OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE

2ND YEAR TRANSLATORS – SYNTAX 1
COURSE INSTRUCTOR: ROXANA-CRISTINA PETCU, PhD

ENGLISH SYNTAX - THE INTRANSITIVE PREDICATION (II)

Phrasal intransitives

They are lexically complex verbs, made up of a verb and an Adverbial Particle. They evince a high degree of
idiomaticity. The transition from V AdvP to V Prt is made by a subgroup of verbs that combine freely with a
number of particles, mostly directional ones.
Eg. Puff across – move across sending out smoke and/or panting noisily
Zoom across/along/away – move across, etc swiftly with engine roaring

Eg. The rain came down.

It is an unaccusative phrasal verb, as the DP [the rain] has no control over the action and it’s the internal argument
of the verb.

The Particles with the strongest meaning are the locative or directional ones. They preserve a high degree of
independence which is confirmed by their possible Preposing for emphasis purposes.

Eg. The balloon went up. / Up went the balloon.

Aspectual particles refer to the temporal dimension of the event. They may render a variety of meanings:

a) the incipient character of the event – out, in, off

eg. They set out to win support for their cause.
A hostile reaction has set in.
The cars set off in a cloud of dust.

b) the durative aspect – on, away (they indicate the continuation of the event)
Most verbs combine freely with on.
Eg. Speak / work / walk on

Away is more limited contextually.

Eg. He was working away.
She was laughing / muttering/ grumbling away.

c) the terminative aspect – out, away, through, off, up

Eg. This custom has died out.
He passed away quietly at midnight.
We must clean up after the party.
There’s planty for every one. So, eat up!
29
The particle up may be used to indicate intensification of the action.
Eg. The runners are warming up before the race.
Cheer up!

The contribution of the particle to the global meaning of the verb may be null, in other words a new meaning is
created as a result of the combination. The meaning of the phrasal verb no longer is a sum total of the meanings of
the two components, namely the verb and the particle, but a totally new meaning is now associated with the resulting
phrasal verb.
Eg. Come round (regain consciousness)
Do up (be fastened)
Give in (yield)
Get along (manage)
Get by (survive)
Turn up (appear)

The Syntactic behaviour

a)insertion of adverbial modifiers such as right and straight with contexts where the particle has a locative or
directional meaning.
Eg. The prices came right down when people started buying elsewhere.

b) optionality of the particle where the particle reinforces the basic meaning of the verb
Eg, climb (up); fly (up); go (away)

c) nominalizations – the Verb Particle complex turn into a noun

Eg. Break-in; make-up; sit-in; take-off; flypast; splashdown

These nominalizations occur in two possible sentence patterns:

1) with a general activity verb (do, stage, make, take, have) followed by the nominalized form functioning as direct
object
Eg. The actor is doing his make-up for the part of Othello.
A gang of thieves did a break-in last night.
The runners are having a quick warm-up before the race.
Building workers staged a walk-out.
2) an existential BE sentence, where the nominalized form appears in a postverbal position, while the position of the
subject is filled by the expletive THERE.
Eg. There was a break-in last night.
There was a walk-out during the morning.
d) preposing – stylistic device which applies for emphatic purposes. It applies where the particle does not form a
unit with the verb. It means that the subject remains in post verbal position, while the particle moves before the
verb.

Eg. Down came the prices.

Off came the actor’s fake beard.
Down the snow came.
In the sun went.
Down they came.

Inherent reflexives
There are a number of verbs which are inherently reflexives. The reflexive is specified as an inherent feature by the
Lexicon. Some of these verbs can subcategorize for a prepositional object.

Eg. Absent oneself; bestir oneself; perjure oneself

Avail oneself of something; pride oneself on something

30
Complex intransitives

Complex intransitives are two-argument verbs, which have an external argument and an internal argument which is
not a direct object, but it generally is a prepositional object or and adverbial modifier.

1.Prepositional intransitives

Prepositional intransitives are not a homogeneous class, due to various factors such as:
a) the meaning contribution of the preposition
b) some are not passivizable, as different from the greatest number of prepositional intransitives
c) the degree of idiomaticity

Examples:
1. A gang of thieves broke into her house last night.
He glanced through the article quickly.
In the examples above, the preposition retains part of its meaning.

2. Adverbs of time or manner (carefully, easily, frequently) can be inserted between the verb and the
prepositional phrase.
We will go very carefully into these proposals.
If the combination is idiomatic, it is no longer possible.
She gets at her husband frequently. / *She gets frequently at her husband.

3. Passivization – it is possible for some, but impossible for some others.

The main points were run through briefly.

If the prepositional object is part of an idiomatic phrase, passivization is blocked.

He has fallen into disrepute recently. / *Disrepute had been fallen into recently.
 Passivization of the prepositional object is possible for unergatives, and unacceptable for unaccusatives.

Prepositional intransitives – may subcategorize for a variety of prepositions:

WITH
1. “Swarm” verbs: abound, crawl, run, swarm, teem, throng
2. Reciprocal action verbs: agree, argue, banter, bargain, bicker, brawl, flirt, mingle, mix, negotiate, plot, quarrel,
quibble, conflict, struggle, wrestle
3. “Amalgamate” verbs: associate, compare, conjoin, consolidate, contrast, entangle, harmonize, integrate,
interrelate, intertwine
4. Verbs of communication: talk, speak, chat, converse, gab, gossip

ABOUT - bother, care, fret, mind, rage, worry

AT- cheer, cringe, exult, marvel, rage, rejoice, wonder

FOR- care, cry, fear, feel, grieve, mourn, weep

IN- bask, delight, glory, luxuriate, revel, wallow

OF - approve, beware, despair, disapprove, tire, weary

OVER- anguish, delight, gloat, gush, mope, puzzle, rave, seethe

Intransitives with Particle and Preposition

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This class includes verbs that subcategorize for a fixed particle and a fixed preposition followed by its object.

Eg. They had done away with that piece of legislation.

The family came up against fresh problems.

 Look forward to; put up with, scrape along on (a low salary)

Some collocation allow deletion of the prepositional object:

Eg. The boat went aground (on the shore)

In between the particle and the preposition an adverb of manner may be inserted:
Eg. They had done away reluctantly with that piece of legislation.

If the preposition is not deletable, passivization can apply:

Eg. Those interruptions were not put up with cheerfully.

Intransitives with a Prepositional Indirect Object

Eventive verbs, experiencer verbs and relational verbs subcategorize foe an indirect object headed by the preposition to.

Eventive – happen, befall – the Dative NP expresses the experiencer or victim of the event
Eg. What’s happened to the old man?
A great misfortune has befallen the old man (the deletion of the preposition to is obligatory)
Experiencer – seem, appear, occur, sound, taste
Eg. How does it seem to you?
It has never occurred to her to ask herself that question.
The cake tastes funny to me.

Relational
a) general relational verbs indicating possession – belong, possess
Eg. It belongs to me.
b) relations of inferiority – bow to smb, cringe to/before smb, defer to smd/smth, submit to smd,
yield to smth
Eg. The girl bowed to the audience.
I shall always defer to my taste / to his experience.

As the prepositional object is generally an experiencer, it not possible to passivize any of the verbs in these
categories.

Intransitives with two Prepositional Objects

a) V to about/upon/for
Eg. He lectures to undergraduates on the Elizabethan theatre.
You should appologize to Mary for your bahaviour.

Most of them allow passivization, and even have two passive counterparts. The prepositional object to be passivized
must be adjacent to the verb.

Eg. We will have to speak to the tutor (about the matter).

The tutor will have to be spoken to (about the matter)
We will have to speak about the matter.
The matter will have to be spoken about.

b) argue, discuss, quarrel with [+human] about smth

Eg, He was arguing with his wife about the matter. (NO passive)

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Intransitives with Adverbial modifiers

a) with locative and directional AdvP

- lie, be, remain, sit, stand – locative phrase

Eg. A book is on the table. / There is a book on the table.
Romania lies in Europe.
- directional phrase – and Adverbial phrase denoting the departure point, the destination point, the path or the
itinerary

Eg.I have been to Brasov. (destination)

Eg. Go (away, fro,, to, towards, off)

Arrive (at, in)
Come (to, from)
Travel (from, to, through)
Swim (across)
Run (along)

 NO passive

b) with adverbial phrases of time

- last The show lasted (for) two hours.

 NO passive

c) with manner adverbials

- act, behave eg. He acted well.
He has always behaved decently.
 NO passive

Intransitives with Quantifying Adverbs

- cost, weigh, owe (NO Passive)

Eg. The dress cost $100.

The apples weigh one pound.
- a dative pattern eg. I owe him $200.
The new car cost him $ 2000.

Reciprocal intransitives
Eg. The train and the bus collided.
The train collided with the bus.

 TO – add, attach, correspond, join, relate

 WITH – agree, associate, combine, collide, confer, connect, coincide, disagree, overlap
 FROM – differ, distinguish, part, separate

(NO Passive)

SYNTAX OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE

2ND YEAR TRANSLATORS
33
COURSE INSTRUCTOR: ROXANA-CRISTINA PETCU, PhD

TRANSITIVE PREDICATES

We shall focus on the properties of a different class of predicates, namely transitive predicates.

Eg.(1) Mary built a house.

* Mary built.
*Mary built last year a house.

(2)Mary offered a gift to her sister.

*Mary offered a gift.
*Mary offered to her sister.

 They have an external argument, the subject

 An internal argument, the syntactic function of which is that of direct object.
 It is not possible to omit the direct object (as a result of the application of the Projection Principle)
 The verb assigns Accusative case to its internal argument if the argument is adjacent to the verb (in other
words nothing can intervene between the verb and its argument)
 The internal argument (direct object) can be either an affected object (denoting an entity affected by the
action the predicate refers to) or an effected object (denoting an entity that is the result of the event
described by the verb).
Eg. Affected objects – cut the bread, eat a cake, chop a tree, carve the steak
Effected objects – build a house, bake a cake, compose a song, write a book
 The same verb may take either an affected object or an effected object
Eg. Cut the bread/ cut a road in the jungle; paint a house/paint a portrait; carve the steak/carve a statue;
press the juice/press the button
 The internal argument may be a Theme or a Patient
 We call such verbs monotranstive verbs
 There are transitive verbs that take two internal arguments- two NP complements (the examples under 2).
The first NP functions as a direct object, while the second NP functions as an indirect object or an adverbial
modifier of place. We call such verbs ditransitive verbs.
Eg. He offered flowers to his wife. (Agent, Theme, Goal)
Grandma made a cake for her grandsons. (Agent, Theme, Beneficiary)
John put the books on the table. (Agent, Theme, Location)
 With the first category of ditransitives it is possible to reverse the order of the two NP complements. This
reversal is accompanied by the deletion of the preposition to/for. Such a construction is called the double
object construction.
 With some ditransitive verbs it is possible to delete one of the two objects
Eg. The president assigned the task to the secretary.
The president assigned the secretary the task.
The president assigned the task.
The president assigned the secretary.

The syntactic structure of a transitive verb

 Transitive verbs are complex, causative VP structures, made up of two VP shells. The higher VP is interpreted
as an abstract causative light verb, ν, namely a null verb with a causative interpretation
similar to a verb like make. The causative light verb is affixal in nature, or it can be null. The external
argument of the transitive verb is projected in [Spec, νp] so as to express the causative/agentive role of the
external argument. The internal argument of a monotransitive verb is projected as sister to V o..

34
 Eg. We built a house. (We made the house to come to be built)

IP

DP I’

Io νp

T Spec ν’

DP
We νo VP
[+cause]
V’

V0 DP
Build a house

The structure of ditransitives that subcategorize for Location

Eg. Mary put the glasses on the shelf.

The shepherd got the horses into the stable.

 The sentences above contain two prepositional phrases headed by the prepositions on and into. Prepositions
are prototypically relational as they specify a spatial, temporal or other type of relation between two entities.
Prepositions project structure containing both a complement and a specifier. In the sentences above we can
consider that the DPs that function as surface objects of the verbs are projected in the [Spec, PP] position
while the DPs functioning as objects of the prepositions are projected as sisters of P 0.The DPs functioning as
direct objects of the verb are c-commanded and governed by the verb, they will be assigned structural
Accusative by the verb.
 From a semantic point of view such verbs (put, get, fit, pound, paint, etc) specify a change brought about by
an agent, so the verbs are causative.

IP

DP I’

I0 νp

T DP ν’
Mary
νo VP
[+cause]
V’

V0 PP

put DP P’

the books P0 DP

35
 on the shelf

The Location/Locatum alternation

a) bag, bottle, box, cage, can, corral, garage, jail, shelve

b) bandage, bar, bell, blindfold, clothe, curtain, fund, saddle

Eg. I put the glasses on the shelf. / I shelved the glasses.

He fitted the saddle on the horse. / He saddled the horse.

The second sentences in the pairs above are syntactic counterparts of the analytic sentences containing put or fit.
The difference between the sentences in these pairs is that the preposition is not overt and the upper verbal head
which is occupied by put or fit in the first alternants in the examples above is also empty.

IP

DP I’

I0 νp

T DP ν’

I ν0 VP
[+cause]
V’

V0 PP

DP P’

the glasses P0 DP

shelf

 The empty P head takes a complement (shelf) and it projects a specifier (the glasses).Because it is empty it
conflates with its complement, that is it fuses with its complement. The upper verb is also empty so it must
conflate with its complement, namely the P, so the verbal head acquires phonological substance, becoming
shelve. This is possible because there is a relation of strict complementation, as the V governs the
complement P, just like the P governs the DP. It is a strict head-head relation and condition, otherwise the
sentences would be ill-formed.

Eg. John corralled the cows. (put the cows in the corral)
*John cowed the corral.

 The ill-formedess is motivated by the fact that the element undergoing conflation is projected in the Specifier
position of the PP, not in the head of the projection. Therefore conflation of a specifier is impossible.

VP

V0 PP

36
 DP P’

The cows P0 DP

Corral

This is the reason why examples such as the ones below are ungrammatical.

Eg. *He booked on the shelf. (He shelved the books)

*We appled the box. (We boxed the apples)
*They housed with a roof. (They roofed a house. – They fitted the house with a roof)

The Ergative alternation (causative/inchoative alternation)

Eg. The enemy sank the ship. / The ship sank.

They stopped the machine. / The machine stopped.

 Derived unaccusatives
 The DO of the transitive sentence is the Su of the intransitive sentence
 One argument verbs, namely the internal one, a Theme which is projected in the object position at D-
structure and moves to [Spec,IP] at S-structure to be assigned case, as the intransitive counterpart is
unaccusative, it lacks an external argument, therefore cannot case-mark the internal argument.
 The transitive variant is causative.
 Alternating predicates involve a change of state and involve a CAUSE predicate
 They describe eventualities that are under the control of some external cause
 When used transitively, the external cause, is the subject of the sentence
 They do not allow there-insertion (*There sank a ship.)

IP

DP I’

I0 VP

T V’

-ed V0 DP
Sink the ship

One can prove that such verbs are unaccusatives, namely that they lack an agent role since we cannot insert an
instrument role which is licensed only if an agent is present overtly or implicitly.

Eg. *The ship sank with a cannonball.

*The machine stopped with a stick.

Unaccusatives cannot control PRO. Generally, PRO can be controlled if the original role exists, which is not the case
of unaccusatives.

Eg. He wants PRO to do that.

PRO is controlled by the subject of the verb in the matrix clause, in the sense that we can identify the empty category
PRO, the subject of the non-finite infinitive with the help of the overt subject of the verb want, the two being
identical. With unaccusatives it is not possible.
37
Eg. *Babies often roll/turn after PRO putting them to bed.

This sentence cannot possible be interpreted as meaning that those who put the babies in bed as also the ones that
roll/turn them, therefore control is not possible.

These two tests prove that such verbs do not have a causative structure, so they do not contain a light νp.

Not all transitives have an ergative counterpart. There are transitive verbs that only select an agent as their external
theta role, but there are other transitives that select other roles as external arguments.

Eg.(a) The baby ate the soup. /*The spoon ate the soup. /*Hunger ate the soup
The barber shaved father. / *The razor shaved father.

(b) Mike[AGENT] opened the door. / The key[INSTRUMENT] opened the door. / The wind[CAUSE] opened the door.

 Verbs that have similar selectional properties – roll, redden, break, drown, enlarge

Where do these differences come from?

Causality plays an important role in deciding thematic structures. There is an overlap between Cause and Agent in
the sense that if an argument is the agent of a change of state it is also the cause of that change. The main difference
between agency and causality may be stated as the fact that agentivity involves properties of volition and intention
where as causality does not. If the verb is specified for both causality and agency (volition, intention) (like eat, shave)
it can only select an Agent. If a verb is specified only for causality (like open, break) it can select both and agent and
an instrument (or cause) as external argument. In other words, only those transitives that are specified only for
causality, but not for volition and intention enter the ergative alternation.

De-adjectival ergative verbs

Eg. Thin, narrow, cool, thicken, harden, soften, widen, lengthen, shorten, broaden, loosen, tighten, darken, redden,
deepen, lower, enlarge

Eg. His eyes narrowed. / He narrowed his eyes and grinned.

The screen cleared when I bumped the keyboard./ I cleared the screen when I bumped the keyboard.

De-adjectival verbs also have analytical counterparts which can be either transitive or intransitive.

Eg. The leaves turned red./ The cold turned the leaves red.
The liquid froze solid. / We froze the liquid solid.
The safe blew open. / The charge blew the safe open.

The first sentence may be interpreted as a sentence containing a copula-like verb which subcategorizes for a small
clause, that is in fact a resultative phrase. Such sentences may be interpreted as describing a change resulting in a
state. (The cold does something such that the leaves come to be red.)

The leaves turned red.

IP

DP I’

I0 VP

T DP V’

38
 -ed V0 SC/AP

turn DP A’

the leaves A0
red

The cold turned the leaves red.

IP

DP I’

I0 νp

T DP ν’

-ed the ν0 VP
cold [+cause]
V’

V0 SC/AP
turn DP A’

the leaves A0
red

What about de-adjectival verbs?

The sky reddened. / The clouds reddened the sky.

IP

DP I’

I0 VP
T
-ed DP V’
The sky
V0 A

-en red

The adjective red moves and adjoins to the verbal affix –en. It is an instance of Head Movement. When moving, the
adjective leaves a trace behind, so a chain is formed. The adjective is incorporated under V0. We may support the
idea that zero-morphology de-adjectival verbs behave in the same way and incorporation also takes place with such
verbs.

The transitive counterparts of such verbs involve the appearance of the causative light verb.
39
 IP
DP I’
I0 νp

T DP ν’

-ed the ν0 VP

Clouds [+cause] DP V’
The
Sky
V0 A
-en red

Induced Action Alternation

Eg. The rider jumped the horse over the fence./ The horse jumped over the fence.
I walked the dog. / The dog walked.
 More restrictive – only intransitive agentive verbs of manner of motion (in the presence of a directional
phrase) are allowed to be used transitively
Eg. Drive, fly, gallop, leap, march, race, run, swim, walk, etc
 The causee is generally an animate entity induced to act by the causer
Eg. She hurried him to the door.
He was running the horse down the hill.

Other instances of causative alternation

 Other basically intransitive verbs which denote internally controlled actions can, in certain cases be used
transitively, when externally controlled.

Eg. Bang, buzz, ring, clang, beam, flash, bleed

Fly, dangle, hang, stand, swing, sit
Lodge, burp

Eg. The visitors rang the bell./ The bell rang.

They stood the statue on the pedestal. / The statue stood on the pedestal.
The soldiers lodge in the schoolhouse. / The army lodged the soldiers in the schoolhouse.
The nurse burped the baby. / The baby burped.

Intransitives recategorized as causative transitives

Eg. He walked the horses up and down.

They generally graze their sheep on the neighbouring meadows.
The general worked his men ruthlessly.
You may sit down ten people with ease.

 All the verbs in the sentences above are inherently intransitive verbs recategorized as transitive causative
verbs.

 Two main subcategories :

40
 A) transitives with a DO and an optional Adv of Place
B) transitives with a DO and an obligatory Adv of Place

A.1. motion verbs – amble, dance, float, gallop, hurry, jump. march, quiver, retire, roll, run, tumble, walk

Eg. He was ambling his horses along the river.

She hurried the guest to the door.
The king marched the army into the Capital city.
Don’t run him on a tight rope!
They all marched to London

A. 2. positional verbs – sit down , stand

Eg. I sat the old man down in a chair.

The mother stood the baby upon the floor.

 Most recategorized verbs in the sentences above may undergo passivization

Eg. They were all marched to London by their commanders.

B.1. [-animate], [-abstract]DO and an obligatory Adv of Place. The DO usually has an instrumental meaning.

Eg. She leant her elbows on the table (she caused her elbows to lean on the table)
She stayed her arms on her knees.
She struck her hand against a stone.
She dabbed a powder-puff across her forehead.

The Direct Object

The Direct Object is a non-prepositional NP directly governed by the verb at d-structure, The DO actualizes the
subcategorial regime of transitive verbs. It is obligatory for a transitive verb, it is its internal argument. It is
generated to the right of V0, as a sister branch under the V’ node. It has a number of formal properties:

 It is not preceded by a preposition (in English)

 Its canonical position is to the right of the verb
 DOs can generally be passivized (it is generally promoted to the Su position)
 DOs can be demoted (deleted/dropped)

The Direct Object Deletion

Generally it occurs with indefinite / generic objects which do not have a contextually available referent. Sentences
with indefinite null objects have an activity interpretation, rather than an accomplishment interpretation.

Syntactic contexts that allow direct object deletion

1. Direct objects can be deleted in a sequence of verbs, when they are selected by imperative verbs or by verbs in the
infinitive

Eg. 1. He will sing___, paint _____ and write _____ all the time.
2. Pull _ hard!
3. This is a real Stardivarius, with an ability to inspire _____ and enchant ____

2. if the verb in the sentence is used in the generic present tense

Eg. There are people who eat___ with zest. .

41
3. Direct objects can be deleted if they are used in a contrastive context

Eg. Is it better to boil ____ than to simmer _____?

4. Referential null objects used in cooking recipes have a specific interpretation, not an arbitrary one.

Eg. Take one liter of milk Pour _____ into a bowl.

5. Such objects can appear unmodified, but cannot occur in small clauses:

Eg. *Boil pasta. Consider / Judge / Assume _ when soft.

6. Null direct objects occur in sentences without an overt subject (imperatives)

Eg. Add spices; mix ____until well blended.

7. Both affected DOs and effected DOs can be deleted

Eg. 1. After hours of interrogation by the police, he finally confessed ____ (his crime – affected DO)
2.She cooks _____ (food) ever day. (effected DO)

8. The Reflexive Direct Object can be deleted with verbs such as wash, dress, shave, train, retire, spread

Eg. He shaves ______ (himself) every day.

Transitive verbs the DO of which is deleted are not recategorized as intransitives. They continue to be
transitive verbs. There are arguments to support this idea:

1. Null direct objects license Resultative Phrases

Eg. Mix _____ [until well blended]RESULTATIVE PHRASE.

2. Null direct objects can be coreferent with pronouns; they are the antecedents of the pronoun

Eg. His behaviour frightens ___ until you figure out it’s just an act..

Null direct objects can retrieve their meaning from the lexical properties of the verbs that select them.

Eg. 1.He smokes _____ . (tobacco/cigarettes/cigars)

2. What’s he doing there? He’s just exploring _________. (the area)

It is pragmatically possible that a null object ends up being connected to a specific antecedent

Eg. A. What are you going to do during the flight?

B. I’ll buy a book and I’ll read _____ .

Phrasal transitives

Eg. Bob put his coat on.

42
 Bob put on his coat.

 Phrasal verbs – verb + particle (or verb+preposition / verb+particle+preposition/ verb+adverb)

 But such a verb can be interpreted as a verb phrase containing a verb and a particle inside which a direct
object can intrevene between the verb and the particle without any change in the grammaticality or semantics
of the phrase.
 The verb and the particle form a semantic unit and can be paraphrased by a lexical verb
Eg. Give up=renounce
Put off=postpone
Build up=develop
 This analysis is supported by the idiomatic character of many phrasal verbs, in which the particle deviates
from its literal meaning
Eg. Turn down, blow up, figure out
 If the particle preserves its literal meaning, it is more likely that the predicate will allow Particle movement
Eg. He put on his hat. / He put his hat on
 If the complex phrasal verb is idiomatic Particle Movement is blocked.
Eg. The terrorists blew up the building. / *The terrorists blew the building up.
 No adverbial , not even right or straight can intervene in the V Prt NP structure
Eg. He put on his hat. / *He put right on his hat.
 If the NP is heavy (for instance a very long NP, or an NP modified by a relative clause), a modifier can
intervene between the particle and the verb
Eg. He looked up the answer I had given him. / He looked right up the answer I had given him.
 If the verb is deleted, it is deleted together with the particle
Eg. He put on his hat and [_] his coat.
 If the complement is a pronoun Particle movement is obligatory
 Eg. *He took off it. / He took it off.
 If the object is very heavy it cannot intervene between the verb and the particle
Eg. He turned off the light.
*He turned the light which I had forgotten on off.
 If the direct object is clausal it cannot intervene between the verb and the particle
Eg. He gave away all the books.
*He gave what he had been able to gather throughout his life away.
 Ditransitive phrasal verbs
Eg. He gave back the book to John.
*He have back John the book. (double object construction is ungrammatical)
He gave the book back to John. (Particle Movement possible across the direct object in
the prepositional variant of the sentence)
*He gave the book to John back. (Particle Movement is blocked across both objects)

Differences between phrasal verbs (V +Particle) and prepositional verbs (V + Preposition)

1) A preposition cannot move after the object, while the adverbial particles of phrasal verbs can precede the object or
move.

E.g. 1. He disagreed with his interlocutor.

2.*He disagreed his interlocutors with.
3. She turned off the stove.
4. She turned the stove off.

2) If the Direct object of the phrasal verb is a pronoun, particle movement is obligatory, while an intransitive
subcategorizing for a Prepositional Object disallows the movement of the preposition:

E.g. 1. She turned it off.

2.* She turned off it.
3. He disagreed with her.
43
 4.*He disagreed her with

3) In case of an intransitive subcategorizing for a Prepositional Object, an adverb can be inserted between the verb
and the preposition, while insertion is disallowed in case of a phrasal verb made up of a verb and a particle:

E.g. 1. He broke completely with his girl-friend.

2. * He broke completely up the party

4) a wh-question (a question beginning with an interrogative pronoun) can be asked of the object of the preposition
and the interrogative pronoun can be preceded by the preposition, while it is not possible for a phrasal verb:

E.g. 1. He disagreed with John.

2. With whom did he disagree?
3. He took in my best friend.
4. *In whom did he take?

5) The particle of particle verbs cannot precede a relative pronoun.

Eg. 1. That was the questionnaire which I filled in.

2. *That was the questionnaire in which I filled.

6) The particle of a phrasal verb is stressed when it is in final position. The preposition of a prepositional verb is
typically unstressed.

E.g. 1. Who (m) did he take in?

2. Who (m) did he disagree with?

6. Some verb+particle combinations can function as both phrasal and prepositional verbs, although the meanings
are different in the two cases.

E.g. 1. I came across these letters by chance. (prepositional verb - find).

2.. Her voice comes across very well. (phrasal verb – can be heard).

The Syntax of phrasal transitives

There have been a number of proposals for the syntax of such verbs. We shall adopt the small clause analysis.

Eg. Jane looked [sc the phone number up].

Small clauses have a number or properties.

 They do not appear as derived nominals.

Eg. Mary considers [John intelligent]. / *Mary’s consideration of John intelligent

The sequence above that we have considered a small clause [NP Prt] is also excluded from this type of
nominalizations.

Eg. *The looking of the phone number up

 Small clauses do not allow extraction of a part of the post-verbal NP

Eg. This makes the back of the car our last searching place. / *Here’s the car that makes the back of our last
searching place.
44
Phrasal transitives behave in a similar way.

Eg. The pressure has worn Mary’s brother out. /*Who has the pressure worn the brother of out?

 A small clause is interpreted as expressing a result

Eg. She filled [my plate up].

They threw [him out].

Therefore, we can say that the verb subcategorizes for a small clause, a particle phrase where the NP occupies the
subject position, namely the Spec position. The problem that appears is case assignment, because the maximal
projection can be considered as a barrier to government. Kayne considers the Particle projection is not a barrier, so
the verb governs the NP inside the small clause and assigns Acc case to that NP. But there are problems related to
the sentences like the ones below.

Eg. She filled up my plate.

They threw out the boy.

For such sentences Kayne suggests movement of the NP, which is in fact movement to the right, when we know that
movement always occurs to the left.

A solution to this problem would be to accept the small clause analysis; the status of this small clause is that of a
Particle Phrase with a resultative meaning and the NP is generated as the object of the Prt, not in [Spec, Prt]. As
Particles are not case assigners they can intervene between the verb and the NP without being a barrier to
government and case assignment. The verb is transitive therefore it will assign Accusative. No movement is
stipulated for the structures above. Movement will occur with structures in which the NP intervenes between the
verb and the Prt. The NP moves to [Spec, Prt]. Movement occurs when the NP has topic-like features, that is when its
reference is quite determined.

She filled my plate up.

IP
DP I’
I0 νp

-ed DP ν’
She ν0 VP

[+cause] V’

V0 PrtP

Spec Prt’

DP

My plate i Prt0 DP

Up ti
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SYNTAX OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE
2ND YEAR TRANSLATORS
COURSE INSTRUCTOR: ROXANA-CRISTINA PETCU, PhD

ENGLISH SYNTAX – THE DOUBLE OBJECT CONSTRUCTION

 Ditransitives – verbs which take an external argument and two internal arguments, the first one functioning
as a direct object and the second one as an indirect object, which has the role of Goal or Beneficiary
 The two objects are obligatory arguments. Both of them receive case. They are assigned the same theta role
both in the prepositional variant and the double object construction.
 We shall see that there is a difference of interpretation between the prepositional variant and the double
object construction.
 The Dative Alternation is allowed with verbs involving the causation of a change of possession
 The Dative Alternation involves movement of the Goal argument in front of the Theme argument and also
the deletion of the preposition TO
 (1 a) interpreted as ‘CAUSE X TO BE OF Y’ - the Theme argument (the direct object) which is adjacent to the
verb is affected by the event described by the verb
 (1b) interpreted as ‘CAUSE Y TO HAVE X’ – the Goal argument (the indirect 0bject) which becomes adjacent
to the verb after performing the Dative Alternation is directly affected by the event described by the verb

 He gave the book to Mary. (Goal-Possessor) /- interpretation CAUSE x to BE of y

 He gave Mary (Goal-Theme) the book . / - interpretation CAUSE y to HAVE x

Eg. (1) (a) The teacher gave bad marks to the students. (Goal)
(b) The teacher gave the students bad marks.

 The Benefactive Alternation involves movement of the Beneficiary argument in front of the Theme argument
and also the deletion of the preposition FOR

Eg. (2) She made a shirt for her niece. (Beneficiary)

She made her niece a skirt.

The Dative Alternation

 Classes of verbs denoting causation of change of possession which enter the Dative Alternation

A) give verbs – give, pass, sell, pay, loan, serve, feed, lease, lend, refund, rent, repay, trade

Eg. I rented the house to Tom.

I rented Tom the house.

B) verbs of future having - offer, promise, leave, forward, allocate, assign, advance, grant, award, allot,
concede, issue, leave, owe, vote.

Eg. We granted the money to him.

We granted him the money.

C) verbs of throwing - bash, bat, flick, fling, hurl, hit, kick, pass, pitch, shoot, slam, slap, sling, throw, tip,
toss

Eg. He passed the ball to John.

46
 He passed John the ball.

D) verbs of sending; verbs of instruments of communication – cable, send, mail, signal, e-mail,
Ship, fax, wire, telephone, radio, telex,

Eg, She e-mailed the news to me.

She e-mailed me the news.
E) verbs of communication – ask, tell, show, teach, write, pose, read, quote, cite, preach

Eg. He preached the Gospel to the natives.

He preached the natives the Gospel.
F) bring, take - He brought flowers to Mary. / He brought Mary flowers.

 BUT – verbs of Latinate origin cannot occur in the double object construction, even if they denote change of
possession

Eg, donate, contribute, convey, distribute, transport, transfer, address, propel, release, explain, describe, portray,
narrate, demonstrate, dictate, recite, etc.

He donated his fortune to his best friend.

*He donated his best friend his fortune.

 BUT – verbs of future having and verbs of communication occur in the double object construction even if
they are of Latin origin

Eg. refer, recommend, guarantee, permit, radio, telegraph, telephone, etc

Eg. She recommended the movie to me.

She recommended me the movie.

 Other verbs which are compatible with the change of possession concept, but do not allow the
double object construction

1) manner of speaking verbs – babble, bark, bellow, chant, call, murmur, roar, whisper, yell, stammer,
grumble, etc

Eg. She whispered the news to her mother.

*She whispered her mother the news.
2) verbs of communication subcategorizing for a complement clause – admit, allege, announce,
articulate, say, assert, communicate, question, claim, report, declare, confess, mention, state, repeat, recount

Eg. (a)She communicated the news to John.

(b) She communicated to John [that she would go there by all means]CP functioning as Direct Object clause.
*She communicated John the news.

3) miscellaneous – entrust, present, provide, supply, credit, furnish, carry, pull, push, lift, lower, raise

Eg. They presented the prize to her.

*They presented her the prize.

Constraints on Dative Movement

1. The [+animate] constraint – the Indirect Object must be [+animate]. An inanimate Indirect Object blocks
Dative movement
47
 Eg. She brought disaster to the village. / *She brought the village disaster.
She brought a book to Mary. / She brought Mary a book.

I found a nice painting for the living-room./*I found the living-room a nice painting.

The PrepNP [+animate] - needs to be recognized as a potential possessor.

 Idioms – the double object construction is allowed irrespective of the [+animate] constraint. In fact, it is the
only possible form.

Eg. give the house a coat of paint, give the door a kick, give the problem one’s full attention, give somebody
the creeps, give something his all, etc

He gave the house anew coat of paint./ *He gave a new coat of paint to the house.

2. The subject constraint – the Subject of a sentence allowing Dative Movement must be
[+animate]

Eg. The earthquake[-animate] brought disaster to the villagers. /* The earthquake brought the villagers disaster.
Grandma[+animate] baked some cakes for the grand children./Grandma baked her grand children some cakes.
The sun[-animate] baked the bread for those people. /* The sun baked those people the bread.

1. The Direct Object constraint – the DO must be affected

Eg, He offered some flowers[+affected DO] to his wife. / He offered his wife some flowers

2. the verb constraint – the verb must involve the causation of a change of possession (from
the Agent to the Goal)

Eg. He gave the book to Mary . / He gave Mary the book.

BUT, with VPs such as give somebody a cold, give somebody a punch in the nose, give somebody a
black eye, give somebody a broken arm, which do not involve the causation of a change of position, the
prepositional variant is blocked:

Eg. The thief gave Tom a black eye. / *The thief gave a black eye to Tom.

The Benefective Alternation

Eg. She carved a toy for the baby (Benefective)

She carved the baby a toy.

Verbs of creation – in a general sense enter the Benefactive alternation; the DO – an effected object

Build verbs – arrange, assemble, blow, build, carve, knit, embroider, forge(metal), hammer,roll,

sculpt, compile
Prepare verbs – mix, blend, cook, bake, boil, brew, fix, toast, toss, grind, light, clear, fry, iron, poach,
pour, prepare, roast, scamble, wash
Get verbs – book, buy, cash, catch, fetch, find, gather, hire, lease, leave, order, phone, pluck,
procure, pull, reach, rent, reserve, save, secure, slaughter, steal, vote
Create verbs – design, dig, mint
Verbs of performance – dance, play, sing, spin, whistle,

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Exceptions

Latinate verbs - collect, obtain, select

Eg. He obtained favors for himself. / *He obtained himself favors.

GET verbs - accept, accumulate, acquire, borrow, collect, obtain, purchase, select.

Eg.. He acquired a house for his sister. / *He acquired his sister a house.

Verbs of creation: coin, compose, construct, create, fabricate, form, invent, manufacture, organized, produce, style.

Eg. Henry composed a song for Mary. /*Henry composed Mary a song. i
Verbs of selection: favor, prefer, pick, select

Eg. The little girl selected a book for her mother. / The little girl selected her mother a book.

STEAL verbs: abduct, capture, confiscate, exorcise, kidnap, liberate, pirate, plagiarize, regain, repossess, smuggle,
snatch, thieve.
Eg. He smuggled the goods for the Mafia. /*He smuggled the Mafia the goods.

Almost all these verbs whicha are exceptions are Latinate verbs.

Syntax

(Larson)

(a)John gave a book to his wife.

VP

Spec V’

V VP
[e]

NP V’
Theme

V PP
give
P NP

Goal

(b) John gave his wife a book.

49
 VP

Spec V’

V VP
[e]

NP V’
Goali
V’ NP
Theme

V NP
Give ti

The VP shell analysis

Eg. They got the teacher a present.

He passed me the salt.
I showed her my letter.

 The lexical verb originates as the head of the lexical VP, while the DP the teacher occupies the [Spec, VP]
position and the DP a present the complement position, as if it were a representation of The teacher got a
present. The lexical verb then raises to adjoint to the light causative verb that heads νp. The subject they
originates in [Spec, νp] and is assigned the role Agent by the causative light verb.

IP

DP I’

I0 νp

T DP ν’

They ν0 VP

+cause DP V’
The
Teacher V0 DP

Get a present

The VP-shell Small Clause analysis of the prepositional variant

They got a present to the teacher.

IP
50
Spec I’

Io √P

DP √’
they
√o VP

[+cause] V’

V0 SC/PP

Get DP P’
A present
P0 DP
to the teacher

Pesetsky’s analysis

 He proposes that a double object construction contains a null element (a preposition) G which case-marks
the second NP.

Eg. John offered Mary G flowers.

 Pesetsky describes this preposition as null and affixal, and its role is to introduce the Theme argument in the
double object construction.This null preposition is the one which assigns case to the the Theme argument the
way the overt preposition to assigns case in the prepositional variant. Because G is an affix it needs a host,
that is it must be adjoined to a non-affixal category, so G moves and adjoins to the governing verb.

IP

DP I’

I0 νp

T DP ν’

-ed John ν0 VP

+cause V’

V’ PP

V0 NP P’

Offer Mary P0 NP
Ø flowers

Differences between To and G

51
  Nominalizations based on the double object constructions are ungrammatical whereas those rebased on the
to-variant are grammatical, because, as Pesetsky says affixation of G to the verb prevents further derivation.

Eg. *John’s offer of Mary (of) flowers

*Mark’s rental of Julie (of) a flat

John’s offer of flowers to Mary

Mark’s rental of a flat to Julie

 To selects a Goal and G selects a Theme.

SYNTAX OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE

2ND YEAR TRANSLATORS
COURSE INSTRUCTOR: ROXANA-CRISTINA PETCU, PhD

THE PASSIVE ; MIDDLE FORMATION

THE PASSIVE
 Complex linguistic phenomenon, which manifests itself at three levels of linguistic analysis:
a) the morphological level – the auxiliaries be and get and the past participle of the verb
b) the syntactic level – a change in position and status of the active Subject and Object
c)the semantic level – a change in the relation between the underlying role-structure of the sentence and its
organization. The Agent(subject) no longer appears in the subject position in the sentence, while the Patient (the
object) appears in subject position.
 Stylistically speaking, the Passive makes the discourse more objective, what is important is not the agent
anymore, but the event denoted by the verb itself.
 The Passive Morphology – be + the past participle. Passive verbs behave like unaccusative verbs. The
external theta role of the verb that undergoes passivization is absorbed by the passive morphology, namely
the past participle of the verb. The verb is generated from the Lexicon as passive, that is as an unaccusative
that only has an internal argument which has to move to [Spec,IP] in order to be assigned case and also to
satisfy the Extended Projection Principle. Being an unaccusative verb it does not theta-mark an external
argument so it cannot assign Accusative case. The internal argument moves to [Spec,IP] and leaves behind a
trace that forms a chain with the moved constituent <DP i , ti > The external argument of the original active
verb can be recovered in the passive sentence as a prepositional phrase headed by the preposition BY which
assigns it the theta role Agent as well as case or it can be implicit.

Eg. The professor was invited.

IP

DP I’

I0 VP

T V0 VP

52
 -ed BE V’

V0 DP

Invited the professor

Constraints on the Passive

1. the adjancency constraint(the double object construction; the dative verbs) (even with non-arguments of
the verb)

Eg. (1) She gave a book to me. / A book was given to me. / *I was given a book to.
She gave me a book. / I was given a book. / *A book was given me.
(1)She wore her pullover thin.
Her pullover was worn thin.
(2)He shouted us into silence.
We were shouted into silence
- no reflexives and reciprocals (He watched himself. / *Himself was watched by him)
- no idiomatic IT ( This argument eats it. / *IT is eaten by this argument.)

The Domain of the Passive

 Transitive verbs eg. The newcomer solved the puzzle. / The puzzle was solved by a new comer.

- the position of the Adverbials of manner

Eg. He wrote the letter rapidly. / The letter was rapidly written.

 Ditransitive verbs ( change of possession, the Indirect Object is a Goal; both objects may undergo
Passivization )
Eg. He gave the flowers to Mary
The flowers were given to Mary.
Mary was given the flowers.
 Ditransitive verbs (the Indirect Object is a Beneficiary; only the Direct Object can be passivized)

Eg. Grandma baked some cookies for the children./Grandma baked the children some cookies.
Some cookies were baked for the chidren. / *The children were baked some cookies.

 Unergatives with a prepositional object

Eg. He insisted upon the invitation. / The invitation was insisted upon.
 Intransitive with particle and preposition
Eg. They did away with that law.
That law was done away with.

NO Passive:
 reciprocal verbs – resemble, marry
eg. Music resembles poetry.
*Poetry is resembles by music
 state verbs (verbs of possession) – have, possess, own
eg. He owns a house.
*The house is owned by him.
 Stative verbs (verbs of feelings) – love, hate, loathe, abhor
Eg. He loves Mary.
53
 *Mary is loved by him.
 Reflexives
Eg. Mary admired herself in the mirror.
*Herself was admired by Mary in the mirror.
 Intranstitives with quantifier phrases – cost , weigh, stretch, last
Eg. The two tickets cost $100.
*$100 are cost by the tickets.
 Relational intransitives – belong to, pertain to,
Eg. The book belongs to me.
*I am belonged to by the book
 Intransitives with Locative and directional Adverbial Phrases
Eg. The house stands by the hill.
*The hill is stood by by the house
 Inherently reflexive intransitive
Eg. He availed himself of the opportunity.
*Himself was availed of the opportunity.

 Intransitives with two prepositional objects _no passive

Eg, talk to smb about smth; lecture; speak; apologize; appeal
They never spoke to her about her late husband.
* She was never spoken to about her late husband.
* Her late husband was never spoken about to her .

 Idiomatic phrases
Eg. Take strong exception to smth; make an example of smth; foist all one’s problems on smth; pin one’s faith
on smth; make too much of smth; keep close tabs on smth; take advantage of smth,; etc
Eg. They made an example of his behaviour.
His behaviour was made an example of. / An example was made of his behaviour.

 Some Prepositional Phrases showing location

They have sat on the chair.
That chair has been sat on.

NO Passives
 Content phrases (with)
Eg. Teem with, swarm with, be crawling with, buzz with, drip with, ooze with, dace with
Eg. The town was dancing with light and shadow.
*Light and shadow were being danced with.
 Fill a freezer with, load a truck with,
Eg. The filled the freezer with fish / The freezer was filled with fish..
*Fish were filled the freezer with by them,

 The Get Passive

. more dynamic, may have a detrimental meaning, may imply that the Agent has some responsibility for a
detrimental action
eg. His leg got broken.
How did the window get open?
- focuses on the event and on its effects on the Theme/Patient
- the implied agent has full control over the action denoted by the verb
(*He got killed with great care./ He got shot – he did something because he wanted to get shot)
- it involves the speaker’s attitude, his emotional involvement
Eg. He got caught, the silly fool!
- it is associated with more punctual events.
54
 Eg. He got arrested.

Middles

Eg. The poem reads easily./ Tennis balls sell best in summer./ The play reads better than it acts../ This fabric washes
easily./ Cotton shirts iron well./ These figures add easily.

Properties of the English Middles

 they are one argument verb, the agent is not overt in the sentence.It may be understood as ‘one’ or ‘people in
general’, although it may be specific at times.

Eg. The car handles smoothly when John drives it.

 Unaccusatives do not have an external argument, not even an implicit one, so they can co-occur with all by
itself, in the sense that something happens without external aid, agentlessly, unlike middles, ahich cannot co-
occur with all by itself, which indicates the fact there in the semantic structure of the Middles there is an
Agent

Eg. The boat sank all by itself.

*The play acts well all by itself.

 The meaning contribution of the subject of a middle sentence is different from the meaning contribution of
the subject in a passive sentence, as the theta roles assigned to the subjects of a middle sentence are very
different.

Eg. The book reads easily. [Theme]

Children scare easily. [Experiencer]
The truck loads easily. [Location]

Eg. The book reads easily. (It can be paraphrased as “the book has the necessary properties that allow it to read
easily. Somehow the subject is responsible for the action denoted by the verb.)

The book was easily read.

In an unaccusative sentence the subject cannot be interpreted as responsible because it refers to a one-time event.

Eg. The door opened suddenly.

So, the subject of a middle sentence is an entity, a non-Agent which is responsible for the action denoted by the verb,
in the sense that it has the necessary properties which make the situation denoted by the verb possible.

 Middles are generic sentences that do not describe particular events in time. They are seen as stative, atelic
predicates, like individual level predicates. They are compatible with always and incompatible with the
progressive. When they occur in the progressive they denote a change between successive stages. They do not
occur in the imperative.

Eg. This book always reads easily.

The manuscript is reading better and better.
*Handle smoothly, car!

 Middles generally occur with obligatory modifications. It can be a Manner Adverbial, a Locative Adverbial, a
clausal modifier (non-purpose), a negative operator or an overt modal verb. The role of the modifier is to
stativize the predicate. At the same time it indicates the presence of an Agent in the semantic structure of
Middle verbs.

55
Eg. This book translates easily. (Manner)
Make sure the address reads through window. (Place)
Officials bribe before reaching high office. (Adverbial clause of time)
This text does not translate. (Negation)
This text will not translate.(overt modal and negation)

 Agent oriented adverbs are not allowed in middle sentences.

Eg. *Officials bribe evidently.

Middles have an Agent which is syntactically inactive, but semantically active.

Middle Formation

 Only transitive verbs that have an affected argument enter Middle Formation. Effected objects cannot occur
in a middle sentence

Eg. *A dress makes easily.

 Only activities and accomplishments occur in middle sentences, stative verbs, achievements and
semelfactives do not allow middle formation.

Eg. The car drives well.(activity)

The book reads easily.(accomplishment)
*The answer knows easily.(state)
*Such mistakes notice fast.(achievement)
*The door kiks easily.(semelfactive)

 Only causatives that have an Instrument/Manner component enter middle formation

 Only transitive causative verbs that allow an Agent, an Instrument or a Cause in the subject position

1. The woman[+agent] opened the door.

2. The wind[+cause} opened the door.
3. The key[+instrument] opened the door.

Middle

The door opens easily.

56